1 - INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

1.1.

GENERAL

Surveying is the science and techniques used to determine the relative and absolute spatial
location of points on the Earth's surface. Or it used to be defined as such. With the advance
of technology, the branches of surveying became more specialized, sophisticated and with
applications to more areas of science. Nowadays, surveying concerns the position of points in
the open space as well, as Surveying is sometimes called Geomatics and/or GeoSpatial
Engineering. These two concepts mean "measurement of the Earth" and not only to survey
the Earth and the features therein found as expressed by the word Surveying.
To locate points in space, mathematical calculations have to be applied to measurements
conducted on the field. Such measurements consist of determination of directions, distances
between points, and angles between directions.
A three-dimensional world must be
considered.
The equipment used and the methods applicable to some general cases will be studied in this
discipline. The student must keep in mind that technology is always improving, new methods
are always being developed, and two problems are never 100% similar. The goal of this
course is to instruct the student in the elementary concepts of plane surveying, introducing
him/her to the basic knowledge necessary to use their own creativity and solve new problems
when they arise. If the material is well understood, the student should be able to apply his/her
knowledge to new situations.
The first step in this course will be learning the different branches of Surveying, and how
important it is to Civil Engineering. Then, taping and measurement of directions will be
introduced, followed by instruments and techniques used in distance measurement. Different
methods to measure angles will be studied, as well as ways of determining differences of
elevation between points. Later in the course, more complex instrumentation and more
advanced approaches of distance, angle and leveling measurement will be assessed, and
related to mapping. Finally, control surveys and State Plane coordinates will be introduced.

1.2.

DIFFERENT WAYS OF LOOKING AT THE EARTH

1.2.1.

THE EARTH LOOKS LIKE A POTATO!

The Earth is flattened at the poles. At first sight, its cross-section through the poles resembles
an ellipse. Surveyors need a mathematical simplification of the Earth for three-dimensional
measurements and calculations. The best fit is thus a rotated ellipse through one of its axis,
which is known as spheroid or ellipsoid of revolution. It is relatively simple for surveyors to
calculate coordinates on the spheroid, once its dimensions and position relative to the physical
Earth are known. However, the Earth looks more like a potato in its very irregular shape.
Gravity plays an important role in surveying. By stationing an instrument so that its axis is
J. Sumabrata

1 Introduction to Surveying

perfectly vertical thus allowing the measurement of angles in the horizontal plane, the vertical
at the point of stationing is defined by the plumb line, hence by gravity. Gravity varies from
point to point, almost as irregularly as the physical shape of the Earth itself. Just like layers in
an onion, gravity can be sensed in layers of values of gravity all around the globe. One of
such layers is of most importance in the surveying world, and its called geoid. In simple
words, the geoid is the equipotential layer of gravity that passes through the mean sea level.
Elevations can also be measured from this model of the Earth.

1.2.2.

GEODETIC SURVEYING

When distances between points or areas to measure on the Earths surface are very large,
measurements must take into consideration its curvature. Measurements, calculations and
positioning are carried out on the geoid or spheroid, or involve transferring data from one
reference to the other. Sometimes, observation of stars and the Sun to determine angles,
directions are necessary as well. This branch of surveying is called geodetic surveying and
J. Sumabrata

1 Introduction to Surveying

part of it is known by geodetic astronomy. This area of geospatial positioning can be quite
complex and is the matter of more advanced surveying classes.

1.2.3.

PLANE SURVEYING

In Surveying course, we will only deal with short distances and areas.
In such cases, the effect of Earths curvature in the measurements is negligible and we can use
plane geometry for measurements, calculations and data manipulation in general.

1.2.4.

OTHER BRANCHES OF SURVEYING AND GEOSPATIAL ENGINEERING

Surveying is one of the oldest sciences, necessary in the determination of boundaries between
adjoining neighbors, states, countries, etc., for taxes, political and other purposes. This often
involves the court in disputes of boundaries, with the surveyor playing a key role in the
process. Surveyors designate this area as boundary surveying.
Surveyors also have an important role in construction surveying of structures such as
highways, buildings, dams, etc.. They analyze the area before the construction process starts;
they are responsible for the calculations related to the necessary earthwork before
construction starts; they continuously survey the construction zone in several steps to identify
possible errors or just to confirm work progresses according to plan; and finally they survey
the area after construction is finished and all other engineering teams left the local to check all
measurements and dimensions of the structure and surroundings.
Surveyors are also responsible for topographic mapping. Only about 60% of the world is
mapped at scales 1:25,000 and smaller, showing features accurate to their location in the last
10 years. Maps exist at these scales for the rest of the world, featuring information older than
10 years! With the constant development and continuous changes on the Earths surface, such
maps are considered old and in many cases erroneous. Surveyors collect the data to update
and revise maps.
They also developed a technique of producing maps form aerial
photography.
This area of geospatial engineering called photogrammetry consists in
producing three-dimensional models of the Earth using aerial photography or satellite
imagery. These three-dimensional models are used in map production and revision, speeding
up the map production process and making it cheaper.
In any area of surveying or geospatial engineering, theres always the need to know the
position of a few points very accurately to determine the coordinates of close by points.
Besides geodetic techniques, surveyors use GPS (Global Positioning Systems). With special
receivers and antennas, they can communicate to a constellation of 24 satellites and locate
positions on Earth with an accuracy of less than half an inch, using some inventive
techniques.
Surveyors also work in mining, archaeology, underwater surveying work and even in
planetary mapping. In such cases, they use complex techniques or sophisticated instruments
specially developed for the special conditions required for the successful work completion.

J. Sumabrata

1 Introduction to Surveying

Surveyors and geospatial engineers are involved in many other areas, and the applications are
innumerable. But in all areas, one important factor is the degree of automation of the work
performed.
More and more, geospatial engineering uses high tech, very sophisticated
instrumentation helping in the automation of most tasks. Most operations are performed
digitally and software and hardware is constantly being developed to ease and quicken
processes involved in surveying engineering.

1.3.

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

With time, surveyors all over the world, having different experiences, history and
backgrounds, developed different measuring tools and systems. Nowadays, with the world
being a global village and the need for exchange of information, it is necessary to know,
recognize and learn the different measurement systems, and how to transform from one to
another. Surveyor must be acquainted with new and old units of measurement that they will
come across during their professional life. The following are a few of the unit systems that
the surveying student should be familiar with.
Length:
1 ft = 0.3048 m exactly (U.S. Standard foot, redefined in 1959)
1 in = 2.54 cm = 25.4 mm
1 yd = 3 ft = 0.9144 m
1 m = 10 dm = 100 cm = 1000 mm
1 m = 39.37 in = 3.2808 ft
1 mi = 80 chains = 5280 ft = 1609 m = 1.609 km
1 km = 1000 m = 0.62137 mi
1 nautical mile = 6076.1 ft = 1852 m = 1.852 km
1 vara ~ 33 in in Mexico and California
1 rod = 1 pole = 1 perch = 16.5 ft
1 chain = 100 links = 66 ft = 4 rods
1 fathom = 6 ft
Earths radius 20,906,000 ft
Area:
1 acre = 43,560 sq. ft = 4047 sq. m = 10 sq. chains
1 ha (hectare) = (100x100=) 10,000 sq. m = 2.47 acres
1 sq. km = 247.1 acres
1 sq. ft = 0.09290 sq. m
1 sq. in = 6.452 sq. m
Volume:
1 cu. m = 35.31 cu. ft
1 cu yd = 27 cu. ft = 0.7646 cu. m
1 gal (U.S.) = 3.785 l
1 gal (imperial) = 4.546 l
J. Sumabrata

1 Introduction to Surveying

1 cu. ft = 7.481 gal (U.S.) = 28.32 l

1 l = 0.001 cu. m
Angles:
1 revolution = 360 = 400 grad = 400 gon = 2? rads
1 = 60 = 3600
1 = 60
90 = 100 grad = 100 gon = ? /2 rad
1 rad = 206265
1 angle subtends 0.29 ft at 1000 ft

1.4.

SURVEY MEASUREMENTS AND ADJUSTMENTS

1.4.1.

OBSERVATION AND ERRORS

Although any practitioner tries not to introduce any errors to their measurements and during
data manipulation, it is inevitable for them to occur. Errors can be residuals or random errors.
Residuals occur very often and result from truncating numbers during data manipulation, and
the propagation of those errors during calculations. Small random errors have an equal
change of being plus or minus, and they are impossible to correct for. Large errors or
blunders are due to mistakes made by the practitioner during the action of work. These are
identifiable and the surveyor should be very careful to avoid them.

1.4.2.

MEASURES
OF QUALITY

When a large number of

measurements are taken in
order to establish the
value
of
a
specific
dimension, the results are
grouped around a true
value.
For
easier
comprehension,
let
us
assume a range target and
the hit by darts.
The
frequency of the hits
around the bulls eye can
be plotted in a chart called
histogram, as shown in the
figure on the right. The
curve in the figure is
known as the probability
curve.
J. Sumabrata

1 Introduction to Surveying

The mean value is represented in the center of the curve, and the standard deviation ? affects
the shape of the curve. The larger the value of ? , the wider the curve is, and the less precise
the measurements are.

The formula to calculate the mean and the standard deviation are:
Mean ? ?

?
n

Standard Deviation ? ? ?

v2
n

Where n is the number of observations, x are the observations, and v is the deviation of the
observations from the mean, or in other words, the observation residuals from the mean.
The formulae for the standard deviation varies when the number of observations is not very
large (less than 30), and we use SE (standard error) to represent ? , calculating:
SE ? ?

v2

n -1

The probability of measurements to occur within a certain distance from the mean is
expressed in the figure below. When measurements have values higher (or lower) than
? ? 3SE, they are considered mistakes and are discarded.

J. Sumabrata

1 Introduction to Surveying

1.5.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

1.5.1.

GENERAL

The expression significant figures is used to designate those digits in a number that have
meaning. All digits have a meaning and 0 (zero) included. An observation is never exact,
and one must be very careful when writing measurements, to include the right number of
digits that represent a meaningful value.
The general rules are simple. All numbers 1 to 9 are meaningful, thus significant digits. Zero
is a significant number if located in between 1 through 9 digits, or if it appears to the right of
any of these digits. Zero is not a significant number when it is the first digit on the left of a
long number. Several examples are given below:
123
0145
123.02
123.00
0.067523
0.000010
1.2 x 103
1.20 x 1012

3 significant figures
3 significant figures
5 significant figures
5 significant figures
5 significant figures
2 significant figures
2 significant figures
3 significant figures

When counting significant figures, we are assuming that the next possible digit in the number
is unknown, thus introducing error if we use any in calculations. It is almost like propagating
an error through our calculations, and we must be careful about this. For example, when
summing 1.23 with 0.502, we have:
+

1.23
0.502
1.732

3 significant figures
3 significant figures
but only 3 are significant figures!!!

Assuming that there is an error in the third decimal place in the first number (1.23), there is an
uncertainty in what the sum for that last digit is in the total. So, the sum of those two numbers
is 1.23+0.502=1.73, only 3 digits are significant!
Multiplication is different. The result is given with the minimum number of significant
figures of the two members of the multiplication. For example, when multiplying
181.21
X 0.207
37.51047

5 significant figures
3 significant figures
but only 3 are significant figures!!!

Thus, 181.21 x 0.207 = 37.5, represented with only 3 significant figures.

1.5.2.

NUMERICAL ROUNDING OFF

Sometimes numbers play tricks on us. The cases presented above meant truncating numbers.
J. Sumabrata

1 Introduction to Surveying

Truncating numbers may result in introducing errors and special care must be taken. There
are very specific rules to follow when a number is truncated, in order to reduce the error. In
the previous cases, truncating 1.732 to its 3 first significant figures did not put any problem.
1.73 was the correct answer because there was no doubt that 1.73 is closer to 1.732 than 1.74
would be. Its a good assumption, but we must remember that if we are getting rid of that
digit 2, its because there is already an error there. What if the number to truncate was 1.738?
In also seems reasonable that, in that case, it should be truncated to 1.74. What if the number
to truncate was 1.735? The specific rule is to leave the previous digit unaltered if it is even,
and increase it if it is odd. This procedure is independent from the numbers that follow digit
5, when the number is to be truncated. Study carefully the following examples of numbers
truncated to have only 4 significant figures.
12.7453
0.01233423
123.00
0.067526
37.54578
34.23501

1.6.

?
?
?
?
?
?

12.74
0.01233
123.0
0.06753
37.54
34.24

EXERCISES

1. Convert 0.0205 rad to degrees, minutes and seconds.

2. Convert 12234 to grad and to radians.
3. Subtract 1322'16" from 7810'50.
4. A wall measures 1.40ft high, but it needs to be expressed in feet and inches. What is the
corresponding value?
a. 1 ft 4 3/8 in
b. 1 ft 3 5/8 in
c. 1 ft 4 3/4 in
d. 1 ft 3 1/8 in
5. Which relationship correctly expresses a grad?
a.
b.
c.
d.

1 grad = 054'
1.5 grads = 01
1 = 0.9 grads
10 = 100 grads

6. Subtract 12315'56" from 20110'50 and then subtract again 15344.

7. Round off 12.345523 to
a.
b.
c.
d.
J. Sumabrata

Four decimals
Four significant digits
Five significant digits
Three decimals
8