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185

The Impact of Manager Influence Tactics on


Innovation Implementation of a Knowledge
Management System
*Chiu,

Holly H., PhD and Fogel, Joshua, PhD


Department of Finance and Business Management
Brooklyn College of the City University of New York, Brooklyn, NY, USA
*Corresponding author: hollychiu@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Innovations can bring desired benefits to organizations if implemented successfully.
Managers are a critical factor for influencing employee attitudes and behavior for
adoption of innovations. We study employee (n=237) attitudes and behaviors for 13
different manager influence tactics in the innovation implementation phase of an elearning system, which is regarded as the knowledge management system, in a
manufacturing company in Taiwan. With regard to attitudes toward using the e-learning
system, the influence tactics of apprising and collaboration were significantly associated
with increased attitudes, while exchange and pressure were significantly associated with
decreased attitudes. With regard to two separate behavior outcomes of the number of elearning courses taken and the number of times online, the influence tactics of coalition,
collaboration, and pressure all had significant increased associations; while ingratiation,
inspirational appeals, legitimating, and rational persuasion all had significant decreased
associations. Also, the influence tactics of apprising and persistence had significant
increased associations only for the number of e-learning courses taken. Managers
attempting to adopt innovative practices should consider the importance of influence
tactics when adopting innovative practices in the corporate workplace.

1. INTRODUCTION
Innovations can contribute many benefits to organizations. Successful innovation implementation is
crucial toward obtaining these benefits. When implementing innovations, individual adoption decisions
are crucial to the innovation outcome [1, 2]. However, most innovation literature focuses on the factors at
the organizational level. Only a few studies focus on the individual employee level. For example, one
study showed that individual employees positive attitude mediated the relationship between an
organizations supportive norm and the employees innovation-use behavior, and employees technical
abilities mediated the relationship between an organizations technical support and the employees
innovation-use behavior. In addition, an organizations supportive norm also positively moderated the
relationship between employees positive attitude and the employees innovation-use behavior [3].
Another study found that the individual employees perceived value fit and ability fit were positively
related to both their commitment to implementation as well as their implementation behaviors. In
addition, employees perceived value fit was more strongly related to their commitment to implementation
while employees perceived ability fit more strongly related to implementation behavior [4].
In a corporate setting, factors such as organizational structure [5, 6], available resources [7, 8],
organizational culture and/or climate [3, 5, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13], support systems [3, 5], and
implementation strategies [7, 14, 15, 16] are believed to influence the effectiveness of innovation
implementation. Although not often mentioned, managers have a critical role in the innovation
implementation process since they are the ones who set up organizational structure, allocate resources,
create organizational culture and/or climate, and decide how to implement innovations [5, 6, 10, 14, 17,
18, 19]. Nonetheless, only limited literature examines the role of middle managers on innovation
implementation. One study found that management support of computerized technology
implementation had a significant positive impact on the implementation climate [7]. This suggests that
managers behaviors have an impact on employees perception of the innovation. Another study found
that not every employee perceived managerial influence in the same way. Only those employees who
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were less innovative, who felt the innovation was less needed for their task, who felt their task was less
important, who had lower skills, and who were low performers perceived that their managers
encouraged them to use the innovation [14]. In addition, middle managers are depicted as the grass
roots change agents in innovative firms [19]. These studies provide an overview of the role of middle
managers but do not provide the specific pathways for how middle managers influence their employees.
The study of the influence tactics used by managers provides a plausible perspective from which to
examine how managers influence their employees in innovation implementation. Types of managerial
behaviors used to exert influence on employees are called influence tactics. A popular taxonomy of
eleven influence tactics includes: rational persuasion, consultation, inspirational appeal, collaboration,
apprising, ingratiation, exchange, personal appeal, legitimating, pressure, and coalition [20, 21, 22, 23,
24, 25, 26]. Chinese culture can have additional influence tactics than those studied in western countries
and the United States, and include socializing, gift giving, informal engagement, use of written
documentation, and persistence [27, 28, 29].
In addition to identifying the influence tactics that middle managers use, it is important to evaluate
the potential outcome of these influence tactics. Previous research studies the relationship of certain
influence tactics to human resource practices, such as work outcomes [30], recruiters perception of
applicants fit and further hiring recommendation [31], and users safety participation [32]. Also, there
are studies that take a more comprehensive approach and use numerous influence tactics rather than a
specific few to examine the relative effectiveness of influence tactics by asking respondents to provide
the reactions of those on whom the influence tactics were used [22, 25] or for both task commitment
and organizational commitment [33]. As there are many influence tactics, a more comprehensive
approach for understanding how innovation is implemented in the corporate setting would be useful.
Also, the studies that take a more comprehensive approach use scenarios measuring attitudes [22, 25,
33] rather than actual behavioral experiences in the corporate setting. We are not aware of any study
that uses a comprehensive approach of studying numerous influence tactics in a specific corporate
setting with regard to incorporating particular behavioral outcomes.
An idea, practice, and product is regarded as an innovation as long as it is new to the adopters,
regardless how long it has existed [34]. This study examines the impact of influence tactics used by
middle managers at a corporation in the context of implementation of knowledge management systems,
which is the focal innovation in this study. The corporate setting that we study uses an e-learning system
as a way to manage internal knowledge. All courses were designed internally and prepared by either
senior employees or experts within the functional department. We examine 13 influence tactics used by
middle managers as it relates to employee attitudes of use of an e-learning system as well as two
different employee behaviors of number of e-learning courses taken and number of times online taking
e-learning courses.
2. THEORY AND HYPOTHESES
2.1. Influence tactics
The apprising tactic is used when an agent explains to the target how the target will benefit personally
by carrying out the request [22, 25]. As apprising is individual-specific for success, the agent needs to
know exactly what the target wants. If the agent does not know exactly what the target wants, the best
response expected from the target would be compliance. In the context of innovation implementation,
a manager might claim that employees who use an innovation will have a better chance of advancement
in the company. If the employee greatly values advancement in the company, a managers use of
apprising will lead to an employees commitment.
Hypothesis 1A: The apprising tactic is positively related to employee attitude regarding use
of an e-learning system in a corporate setting.
Hypothesis 1B: The apprising tactic is positively related to employee use of an e-learning
system in a corporate setting.
The coalition tactic is used when an agent tries to persuade the target to do what the target wants by
using endorsement from others [20, 21, 23, 26]. The agent might enlist other people to convince the
target to support the request. However, this tactic should be used cautiously because it can make the
target feel manipulated [26]. The coalition tactic often results in the targets resistance or compliance
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rather than the targets commitment [20]. In the context of innovation implementation, the use of a
coalition tactic by a manager might involve trying to change an employees attitude or behavior
concerning the innovation by telling the employee about others using the innovation, or asking other
employees to persuade the employee.
Hypothesis 2A: The coalition tactic is negatively related to employee attitude regarding use
of an e-learning system in a corporate setting.
Hypothesis 2B: The coalition tactic is negatively related to employee use of an e-learning
system in a corporate setting.
The collaboration tactic is used when an agent promises to provide the necessary resources and
assistance to the target if the target agrees to complete the request [22, 25]. If the agent uses
collaboration, the target may be more willing to complete the proposed request because the target thinks
there will be fewer obstacles ahead; thus, the target is more likely to commit to the request [22]. In the
context of innovation implementation, a manager might be able to provide either technological or
emotional support [35], such as training sessions, which are known factors for success of technology
implementation [36, 37]. It stands to reason that the use of collaboration is likely to create commitment
among employees.
Hypothesis 3A: The collaboration tactic is positively related to employee attitude regarding
use of an e-learning system in a corporate setting.
Hypothesis 3B: The collaboration tactic is positively related to employee use of an e-learning
system in a corporate setting.
The consultation tactic is used when an agent seeks a targets participation in planning or implementing
a strategy, activity, or change for which the targets support is desired. The target is encouraged to
express opinions, concerns, or suggestions regarding the request [20, 21, 23, 26]. Consultation is
expected to increase the targets commitment to the request because it creates a sense of ownership on
the part of the target. It is widely believed that people will be less likely to reject a project if they feel
themselves to be part of it [15, 16, 20]. In the context of innovation implementation, consultation is
expected to be an effective tactic for managers to convince employees to commit to use the innovation.
Hypothesis 4A: The consultation tactic is positively related to employee attitude regarding
use of an e-learning system in a corporate setting.
Hypothesis 4B: The consultation tactic is positively related to employee use of an e-learning
system in a corporate setting.
The exchange tactic is used when an agent offers explicit or implicit rewards as incentives for the target
to fulfill the request [20, 21, 23, 26]. This tactic is similar to the concept of contingent reward
transactional leadership. A transactional leader will recognize both what followers need and what
followers must do to attain designated outcomes. The leader then explains how the followers needs
will be fulfilled if the desired outcome is obtained [38]. In the context of innovation implementation,
offering employees rewards for using new technology can impact successful implementation because
rewards provide an incentive for employees to use the new technology [8]. However, use of rewards
can result in employees compliance but not necessarily their commitment to the task [39]. It is
reasonable to assume that the exchange tactic is likely to at minimum obtain employees compliance
and at maximum to obtain commitment to use of the innovation.
Hypothesis 5A: The exchange tactic is positively related to employee attitude regarding use
of an e-learning system in a corporate setting.
Hypothesis 5B: The exchange tactic is positively related to employee use of an e-learning
system in a corporate setting.
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The ingratiation tactic is used when an agent tries to place the target into a good mood or to make the
target think favorably of the agent before the agent makes a request. The agent may do this by
persuading the target that the target is the most qualified person to complete the request [20, 21, 23,
26]. In the context of innovation implementation, a manager might praise an employee for the
employees expertise or experience, or that the employee should have no difficulty using the innovation
because of the employees ability. Employees are expected to be pleased about the managers praise and
to at least comply with or even commit to a managers request that they use the innovation.
Hypothesis 6A: The ingratiation tactic is positively related to employee attitude regarding use
of an e-learning system in a corporate setting.
Hypothesis 6B: The ingratiation tactic is positively related to employee use of an e-learning
system in a corporate setting.
The inspirational appeals tactic arouses the enthusiasm of the target by appealing to the targets values,
ideals, and aspirations when an agent makes a request [20, 21, 23, 26]. Targets are more likely to
commit to a request when the agent uses inspirational appeals [20] and it is one of the most effective
tactics [26]. In the context of innovation implementation, employees will be more likely to commit to
the use of an innovation if their manager can inspire them and help them to believe that the use of the
innovation is aligned with their values and visions.
Hypothesis 7A: The inspirational appeals tactic is positively related to employee attitude
regarding use of an e-learning system in a corporate setting.
Hypothesis 7B: The inspirational appeals tactic is positively related to employee use of an elearning system in a corporate setting.
The legitimating tactic is used when an agent seeks to legitimize a request by referring it to an authority
or by verifying that the request is consistent with existing organizational policies or rules [20, 21, 23,
26]. Resistance can occur. It is more likely that a target will comply with rather than commit to such a
request [20] and this tactic may even have a negative impact on the targets commitment to the request
[26]. In the context of innovation implementation, a managers use of legitimating tactics might involve
efforts to claim that the adoption and use of the innovation is consistent with the organizations policy.
The employee will more often comply rather than commit.
Hypothesis 8A: The legitimating tactic is negatively related to employee attitude regarding
use of an e-learning system in a corporate setting.
Hypothesis 8B: The legitimating tactic is negatively related to employee use of an e-learning
system in a corporate setting.
The persistence tactic is used when an agent repeatedly pleads with the target to complete the request
[27, 28]. It is one of the least effective tactics rated by managers [27,28]. In the innovation
implementation context, a manager who uses the persistence tactic is repeatedly expected to ask
employees to use the innovation. This approach is more likely to be ineffective and may result in
employees resistance.
Hypothesis 9A: The persistence tactic is negatively related to employee attitude regarding use
of an e-learning system in a corporate setting.
Hypothesis 9B: The persistence tactic is negatively related to employee use of an e-learning
system in a corporate setting.
The personal appeals tactic is used when an agent tries to persuade a target by appealing to the targets
feelings of loyalty or friendship [20, 21, 23, 26]. As the agent tries to influence the target based on their
personal relationship, the request is less likely to be part of the targets regular job responsibilities. In
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personal appeals, reciprocity is expected: The target will know what the agent wants and the agent will
owe the target a favor [23]. In the context of innovation implementation, it is less likely that a manager
will use personal appeals to persuade employees to use an innovation since using the innovation is part
of the employees job that the manager has the authority to inform the employee to perform. However,
if a manager does use personal appeals to attempt to influence an employee, employee commitment is
more likely.
Hypothesis 10A: The personal appeals tactic is positively related to employee attitude
regarding use of an e-learning system in a corporate setting.
Hypothesis 10B: The personal appeals tactic is positively related to employee use of an elearning system in a corporate setting.
The pressure tactic is used when an agent tries to coerce a target into completing a request. The agent
makes demands, threatens, and/or continuously checks up on the target to persuade the target to comply
with the request [20, 21, 23, 26]. Pressure tactics are one of the least effective tactics for obtaining
targets commitment to a request [20]. It is also an approach frequently adopted by managers, despite
the fact that the result of their effort is generally unsuccessful [15, 16, 35]. In the context of innovation
implementation, if a manager relies on the pressure tactic to implement an innovation, employees are
less likely to commit to its use and even resist the request of using the innovation.
Hypothesis 11A: The pressure tactic is negatively related to employee attitude regarding use
of an e-learning system in a corporate setting.
Hypothesis 11B: The pressure tactic is negatively related to employee use of an e-learning
system in a corporate setting.
The rational persuasion tactic occurs when an agent uses facts and logical arguments to convince the
target to agree to do what the agent requests [20, 21, 23, 26]. It is one of the most effective tactics [26]
because it can at minimum secure a targets compliance [20]. In the context of innovation
implementation, when rational persuasion is used by a manager, the manager will explain why use of
the innovation is necessary by providing various facts, reasons, and information. This can lead
employees to accept and use the innovation.
Hypothesis 12A: The rational persuasion tactic is positively related to employee attitude
regarding use of an e-learning system in a corporate setting.
Hypothesis 12B: The rational persuasion tactic is positively related to employee use of an elearning system in a corporate setting.
The socializing tactic is used when an agent begins the conversation with irrelevant topics that the
target might be interested in before making a request [27, 28]. It is an indirect way for an agent to
persuade a target. The socializing tactic is one of the least effective tactics rated by managers across
different countries and cultures [27, 28] In the context of innovation implementation, if a manager does
not initially ask employees to use the innovation, but begins the conversation with irrelevant topics
before asking about using the innovation, the manager is using the socializing tactic. It is likely that the
use of socializing would not be successful for innovation implementation.
Hypothesis 13A: The socializing tactic is negatively related to employee attitude regarding
use of an e-learning system in a corporate setting.
Hypothesis 13B: The socializing tactic is negatively related to employee use of an e-learning
system in a corporate setting.

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2.2. Control variables


Previous studies have shown a significant association of a number of demographic variables and
innovation adoption. The impact of age on innovation adoption is mixed. Some studies report no
relationship between employee age and adoption behavior [34, 40, 41]. Another study reports that
younger employees have greater intentions to explore new technology than older employees, while
there is no difference in terms of the actual use of the technology between younger and older employees
[42]. However, another study reports that younger employees have greater behavioral intention than
older workers toward using new technology [43]. Education level can impact innovation adoption.
Previous research reports that those with higher education are early adopters of innovations [34] and
demonstrate greater innovation implementation behavior [40]. However, other studies report that there
is no relationship of employee education level with attitude toward using the innovation or innovation
use [41, 42, 44]. Gender can impact innovation adoption. Previous research reports mixed findings for
gender differences in terms of technology adoption. One study reports that men have a greater intention
to use an e-learning system than women [45]. Another study reports that men have both greater
intentions to use and actual use of technology than women in both the short term and long term [46].
Another study reports mixed findings where men have greater intention to explore technology than
women while there was no difference between men and women with regard to technology use [42].
Other studies report no gender difference whether for intention to use technology [44] or innovation
implementation behavior [40]. Therefore, we control for employee age, education level, and gender.
Besides demographic variables, organizational level variables of tenure and team size can impact
innovation adoption. With regard to tenure, one study reports that decreased organizational tenure of
team members is associated with stronger team goal commitment for innovative projects [47].
However, another study reports that employees with greater tenure are associated with greater intention
to explore new technology but not with use of the new technology [42]. Team size is an important factor
influencing team process and team performance. A meta-analysis reports that larger team size is
positively related to team performance for project teams and management teams but not for production
teams [48]. Another study reports that smaller team size is related to stronger team goal commitment
for innovative projects [47]. However, another study reports that team size has no impact on either
employee intention to explore new technology or their actual use of the new technology [42]. Similarly,
team size has no impact on respondents workplace commitment [49]. Therefore, we control for
employees tenure and the team size.
3. METHOD
In this study, the term manager will be used to represent middle managers who are below top
management and one level above line workers and professionals [50, 51]. The term participant will be
used to represent employees who are the target of mangers influence tactics. The innovation studied is
the e-learning system.
3.1. Participants and setting
Online surveys were administered from 2010 to 2011 to all 416 employees from one business unit of
an international electronics manufacturing company in Taiwan that had implemented an e-learning
system. Each business unit manufactures distinct products with its own profit-and-loss responsibility.
As the influence tactics questions obtained from the literature were originally written in English, all
survey questions were translated into Chinese and then back-translated into English to minimize
translation error. Surveys were administered in Chinese. There were 248 valid completed surveys, for
a response rate of 59.6 percent. In our analysis, we analyze 237 surveys as some of the key variables
for our current analysis were omitted by respondents.
3.2. E-learning system
The e-learning system was a knowledge management initiative at the company. Each functional
department decided that knowledge is important for employees to perform well in that department and
made a list of what courses to offer. After that planning, either senior employees or experts were invited
to create these courses within the functional department. At the end of each course, employees needed
to pass a quiz in order to certify that they successfully completed the course. All employees were
recommended to take courses based on their job functions and job ranks. For example, all employees
in the procurement department were supposed to obtain knowledge regarding components as well as
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price negotiation skills. An additional purpose of the e-learning system was to cut training expenses,
reduce repetitive design errors, and help employees learn from various projects. The e-learning system
was initially online at the end of 2007. This study uses data from one business unit for the complete
years of 2008 through 2010. In 2008 there were 269 courses. There were 9 courses added in 2010 for
a total of 278 courses available.
3.3. Measures
3.3.1. Demographic and organizational variables
Age was originally measured with 5-year intervals starting from under 25 to over 66. After examining
the age distribution, age was measured with four categories that included sufficient numbers of
participants for each category: under 31, 31 to 35, 36 to 40, and over 40. Education was originally
measured with five categories, ranging from high school diploma to doctorate. After examining the
education distribution, education was measured with three categories that included sufficient numbers
of participants for each category: high school and associate degree, undergraduate degree, and graduate
degree. Gender was measured by men and women. Tenure was determined by participants employee
ID, which indicated the year they started employment in the company. Team size was determined by
counting the actual number of participants in the team.
3.3.2. Influence tactics
In general the 13 influence tactics were measured by items adopted from both the Influence Behavior
Questionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25, 26] and cross-cultural studies [27, 28]. Participants were asked to indicate
the extent to which their managers used each tactic during implementation on a 5-point Likert scale
(1=definitely would not, 2=probably would not, 3=neutral, 4=probably would, 5=definitely would).
These influence tactic scales are reliable and valid. In the original studies, Cronbach alpha ranged from
0.65 to 0.94 [25]. However, IBQ only examines 11 tactics identified in western cultures. The remaining
2 tactics identified in the cross-cultural studies were measured by fewer items than were originally
determined from using scenarios. Thus, for consistency we decided to only include a number of relevant
items most focused on the tactic definition from each scale to allow for two items for each scale.
The apprising tactic scale contained 2 items. It used questions from the Influence Behavior
Questionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25, 26]. The questions were, Explains how the e-learning system could help
your career, and Explains how you can benefit from using the e-learning system (e.g. being more
efficient, have better performance). Higher scores indicate greater interest in managers for using the
tactic. Cronbach alpha reliability in our sample was 0.82.
The coalition tactic scale contained 2 items. It used questions from the Influence Behavior
Questionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25, 26]. The questions were, Gets others to explain to you why you need to
use the e-learning system, and Asks someone you respect to help influence you to use the e-learning
system. Higher scores indicate greater interest in managers for using the tactic. Cronbach alpha
reliability in our sample was 0.82.
The collaboration tactic scale contained 2 items. It used questions from the Influence Behavior
Questionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25, 26]. The questions were, Offers to provide resources you would need to
use the e-learning system (e.g., training sessions), and Tells you that he will assist you in using the
e-learning system. Higher scores indicate greater interest in managers for using the tactic. Cronbach
alpha reliability in our sample was 0.76.
The consultation tactic scale contained 2 items. It used questions from the Influence Behavior
Questionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25, 26]. The questions were, Consults with you to get your ideas about using
the e-learning system, and Encourages you to express any concerns and difficulties using the eleaning system and promise he will try his best to help. Higher scores indicate greater interest in
managers for using the tactic. Cronbach alpha reliability in our sample was 0.84.
The exchange tactic scale contained 2 items. It used questions from the Influence Behavior
Questionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25, 26]. The questions were, Offers to provide bonus or other rewards if you
use the e-learning system, and Tells you that the time you spend learning using the e-learning system
can be compensated in the future. Higher scores indicate greater interest in managers for using the
tactic. Cronbach alpha reliability in our sample was 0.88.
The ingratiation tactic scale contained 2 items. It used questions from the Influence Behavior
Questionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25, 26]. The questions were, Says your ability and experience will make it
easy for you to use the e-learning system, and Praises your past performance or achievements when
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asking you to use the e-learning system. Higher scores indicate greater interest in managers for using
the tactic. Cronbach alpha reliability in our sample was 0.92.
The inspirational appeals tactic scale contained 2 items. It used questions from the Influence Behavior
Questionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25, 26]. The questions were, Describes how using the e-learning system
would match your personal values and work values, and Makes an inspiring speech or presentation to
arouse enthusiasm to encourage you to use the e-learning system. Higher scores indicate greater interest
in managers for using the tactic. Cronbach alpha reliability in our sample was 0.79.
The legitimating tactic scale contained 2 items. It used questions from the Influence Behavior
Questionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25, 26]. The questions were, Says that he is your boss and he has the right
to ask you to use the e-learning system, and Says that using the e-learning system is consistent with
company rules and policies. As we obtained poor Cronbach alpha reliability for the scale, we analyzed
each item separately.
The persistence tactic scale contained 2 items. It used questions from cross-cultural studies [27, 28].
The questions were, Keep telling you how important and urgent it is to use the e-learning system, and
Repeats the request of using the e-learning system over and over again. Higher scores indicate greater
interest in managers for using the tactic. Cronbach alpha reliability in our sample was 0.69.
The personal appeals tactic scale contained 2 items. It used questions from the Influence Behavior
Questionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25, 26]. The questions were, Asks you to use the e-learning system as a
personal favor, and Appeals to your friendship when asking you to use the e-learning system. Higher
scores indicate greater interest in managers for using the tactic. Cronbach alpha reliability in our sample
was 0.95.
The pressure tactic scale contained 2 items. It used questions from the Influence Behavior Questionnaire
(IBQ) [22, 25, 26]. The questions were, Uses threats or warnings when trying to get you to use the elearning system, and Tries to pressure you to use the e-learning system. Higher scores indicate greater
interest in managers for using the tactic. Cronbach alpha reliability in our sample was 0.92.
The rational persuasion tactic scale contained 2 items. It used questions from the Influence Behavior
Questionnaire (IBQ) [22, 25, 26]. The questions were, Uses facts and logic to make a persuasive case
for you to use the e-learning system, and Explains clearly the benefits the e-learning system will
bring to the company. Higher scores indicate greater interest in managers for using the tactic.
Cronbach alpha reliability in our sample was 0.80.
The socializing tactic scale contained 2 items. It used questions from cross-cultural studies [27, 28].
The questions were, Talks about something you are interested in before asking you to use the elearning system (e.g. family, news), and Discusses non-work related topics before he asks you to use
the e-learning system. Higher scores indicate greater interest in managers for using the tactic.
Cronbach alpha reliability in our sample was 0.85.
3.3.3. Outcome variables
Participants attitude was measured by the 4-item attitude scale [52]. Items were slightly modified by
changing the name of the system from DMS to e-learning. Each item was measured on a 5-point Likert
scale (1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neutral, 4=agree, 5=strongly agree). Higher scores indicate
more positive attitude toward using the e-learning system. Cronbach alpha in the original study was
0.96. Cronbach alpha in our sample was 0.89.
Participants use of the e-learning system was obtained from the system log from 2008 to 2010. The
totals from this time period were used for our two different behavior outcomes. One outcome was the
number of e-learning courses participants took. The other outcome was the number of times
participants went online to take e-learning courses.
3.3.4. Statistical analysis
Descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation were used for the continuous variables, and
percentage and frequency for the categorical variables. Linear regression was used for the outcome of
participants attitude toward using the e-learning system. Poisson regression was used for the two
separate behavior outcomes of the number of e-learning courses taken and the number of times online
taking e-learning courses. For all the regression analyses, univariate analyses were conducted with the
independent variables. Only those independent variables that were statistically significant in the
univariate analyses were included in the multivariate analyses. All p-values were two tailed. Stata
Version 11 was used for all analyses.
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4. RESULTS
Table 1 describes the sample characteristics. With regard to age, those ages 31 to 35 were the largest
percentage with more than 40 percent of the sample. With regard to education, those with an
undergraduate degree were the largest percentage with more than half of the sample. With regard to
gender, almost one-third were women. With regard to tenure, the mean number of years employed at
this company was more than 4 years. With regard to team size, mean team size was more than 15
members. With regard to the influence tactics, the tactics of apprising and rational persuasion had mean
scores indicating the boss probably would use these tactics. The tactics of coalition, collaboration,
consultation, inspirational appeals, the legitimating item of using technology is consistent with
company rules and policies, and persistence had mean scores indicating that the boss was between
neutral and probably would use these tactics. The tactics of exchange, ingratiation, the legitimating
item of saying he or she is your boss and has the right to ask you to use the technology, personal
appeals, pressure, and socializing had mean scores indicating their boss probably would not use these
tactics.
Table 1. Characteristics of Participants from an International Electronics Manufacturing Company in Taiwan
Variable
Demographics
Age
Under 31
31-35
36-40
Over 40
Education
High school and associate degree
Undergraduate degree
Graduate degree
Gender (women)
Organizational
Tenure
Team size
Influence Tactics
Apprising
Coalition
Collaboration
Consultation
Exchange
Ingratiation
Inspirational appeals
Legitimating item (boss has the right to ask you to use the
technology)
Legitimating item (using technology is consistent with
company rules and policies)
Persistence
Personal appeals
Pressure
Rational persuasion
Socializing
Outcome Variables
Attitude
Number of e-learning courses took
Number of times online

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M (SD)

Percentage (Frequency)
27.0% (64)
41.4% (98)
16.9% (40)
14.8% (35)
17.3% (41)
57% (135)
25.7% (61)
31.2% (74)

4.6 (5.32)
15.2 (6.32)
4.1 (0.82)
3.3 (0.95)
3.9 (0.85)
3.7 (0.92)
2.2 (1.16)
2.7 (1.07)
3.7 (0.90)
2.8 (1.20)
3.9 (0.91)
3.3 (0.96)
2.3 (1.08)
2.4 (1.15)
4.0 (0.84)
2.2 (0.96)
3.7 (0.64)
22.3 (24.07)
35.0 (45.28)

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Table 2 shows linear regression analyses for attitude toward using the e-learning system. With regard to
both demographic and organizational variables, none were statistically significant. With regard to the
influence tactics, in the univariate analyses, increasing scores on apprising, coalition, collaboration,
consultation, inspirational appeals, persistence, and rational persuasion had statistically significant
associations with increasing attitudes toward using the e-learning system. However, increasing scores on
exchange, the legitimating item of the boss has the right to ask you to use technology, personal appeals,
and pressure had statistically significant associations with decreasing attitudes toward using the elearning system. In the multivariate analyses, only increasing scores on apprising and collaboration had
statistically significant increasing associations while increasing scores on exchange and pressure had
statistically significant decreasing associations with attitudes toward using the e-learning system.
Table 2. Analysis of Variables Associated with Participants Attitude Toward Using The E-Learning System
Variable
Demographics
Age
Under 31
31-35
36-40
Over 40
Education
High school and associate degree
Undergraduate degree
Graduate degree
Gender
Organizational
Tenure
Team size
Influence tactics
Apprising
Coalition
Collaboration
Consultation
Exchange
Ingratiation
Inspirational appeals
Legitimating item (boss has the right
to ask you to use the technology)
Legitimating item (using technology
is consistent with company rules and
policies)
Persistence
Personal appeals
Pressure
Rational persuasion
Socializing

Univariate
B (SE)
Reference
0.02 (0.10)
-0.05 (0.13)
-0.02 (0.13)

p-value

Multivariate
B (SE)

p-value

----

----

----

----

0.84
0.68
0.90

0.03 (0.13)
-0.05 (0.09)
Reference
-0.06 (0.09)

0.50

----

----

-0.003 (0.03)
-0.002 (0.01)

0.92
0.79

-------

-------

0.34 (0.05)
0.09 (0.04)
0.34 (0.04)
0.26 (0.04)
-0.15 (0.03)
-0.01 (0.04)
0.27 (0.04)
-0.14 (0.03)

<0.001
0.03
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.83
<0.001
<0.01

0.17 (0.07)
0.08 (0.04)
0.17 (0.07)
-0.06 (0.07)
-0.11 (0.04)
----0.04 (0.07)
-0.04 (0.04)

0.02
0.06
0.02
0.38
0.01
---0.57
0.24

0.05 (0.05)

0.28

----

----

0.13 (0.04)
-0.11 (0.04)
-0.16 (0.03)
0.30 (0.05)
-0.08 (0.04)

0.002
0.01
<0.001
<0.001
0.07

0.08 (0.05)
-0.04 (0.04)
-0.10 (0.04)
0.06 (0.07)
----

0.08
0.40
0.01
0.34
----

0.81
0.59

Table 3 shows Poisson regression analyses for the number of e-learning courses participants took. In
the univariate analyses, with regard to the demographic variables, all age categories were statistically
significant with a pattern of increasing older age categories associated with decreasing number of
courses taken. With regard to education, those who had an undergraduate degree had taken significantly
more courses than those who had a graduate degree. Women were statistically significant for increasing
number of courses taken. With regard to organizational variables, both decreasing tenure and increasing
team size were statistically significantly associated with increasing number of courses taken. With

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regard to the influence tactics, in the univariate analyses, increasing scores on coalition, collaboration,
persistence and pressure had statistically significant associations with increasing number of courses
taken. Increasing scores on apprising, ingratiation, the legitimating item of using technology is
consistent with company rules and policies, and rational persuasion had statistically significant
associations with decreasing number of courses taken. In the multivariate analyses, with regard to both
demographic and organizational variables, similar significance patterns as in the univariate analyses
occurred for the age categories, education, and team size. However, women and tenure were no longer
statistically significant. With regard to the influence tactics, all the variables statistically significant in
the univariate analyses were also statistically significant in the multivariate analyses with the same
direction, with one exception. Increasing scores on apprising was now significantly associated with
increasing number of courses taken.

Table 3. Analysis of Variables Associated with Number of E-Learning Courses Participants Took
Variable
Demographics
Age
Under 31
31-35
36-40
Over 40
Education
High school and associate degree
Undergraduate degree
Graduate degree
Gender
Organizational
Tenure
Team size
Influence tactics
Apprising
Coalition
Collaboration
Consultation
Exchange
Ingratiation
Inspirational appeals
Legitimating item (boss has the right to
ask you to use the technology)
Legitimating item (using technology is
consistent with company rules and
policies)
Persistence
Personal appeals
Pressure
Rational persuasion
Socializing

Univariate
B (SE)
Reference
-0.20 (0.03)
-0.29 (0.04)
-0.42 (0.05)
-0.06 (0.05)
0.23 (0.03)
Reference
0.09 (0.03)

p-value

<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.22
<0.001

Multivariate
B (SE)
Reference
-0.20 (0.04)
-0.22 (0.06)
-0.38 (0.08)

p-value

<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.29
<0.001

0.001

0.06 (0.05)
0.20 (0.04)
Reference
-0.05 (0.03)

-0.08 (0.01)
0.02 (<0.001)

<0.001
<0.001

-0.01 (0.02)
0.01 (0.002)

0.72
<0.001

-0.05 (0.02)
0.13 (0.01)
0.09 (0.02)
-0.03 (0.02)
-0.001 (0.01)
-0.04 (0.01)
-0.07 (0.02)
-0.01 (0.01)

0.003
<0.001
<0.001
0.054
0.63
0.001
<0.001
0.59

0.06 (0.03)
0.18 (0.02)
0.39 (0.02)
-------0.11 (0.02)
-0.26 (0.03)
----

0.04
<0.001
<0.001
------<0.001
<0.001
----

-0.04 (0.01)

0.004

-0.06 (0.02)

<0.001

0.03 (0.01)
-0.01 (0.01)
0.10 (0.01)
-0.09 (0.01)
-0.02 (0.01)

0.02
0.71
<0.001
<0.001
0.14

0.04 (0.02)
---0.11 (0.01)
-0.20 (0.03)
----

0.046
---<0.001
<0.001
----

0.17

Table 4 shows Poisson regression analyses for number of times participants were online taking elearning courses. In the univariate analyses, with regard to the demographic variables, all age categories
were statistically significant with a pattern of increasing older age categories associated with decreasing
number of times participants went online for e-learning. With regard to education, those who had an
undergraduate degree were statistically and significantly online more and those with a high
school/associate degree were statistically and significantly online less than those who had a graduate
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degree. Women were statistically significant for increasing number of times online. With regard to
organizational variables, both decreasing tenure and increasing team size were statistically significant
with increasing number of times online. The demographic and organizational variables had the same
significance pattern as for number of e-learning courses participants took, shown in Table 3, with the
exception of high school/associate degree. With regard to the influence tactics, in the univariate
analyses, increasing scores on coalition, collaboration, persistence, and pressure had statistically
significant associations with increasing number of times participants went online. This was the same
significance pattern as for the number of e-learning courses participants took shown in Table 3.
Increasing scores on ingratiation, the legitimating item of saying boss has the right to ask you to use
the technology, the legitimating item of using technology is consistent with company rules and policies,
and rational persuasion had statistically significant associations with decreasing number of times
participants were online. This differed from the pattern for number of e-learning courses participants
took shown in Table 3, where now apprising and inspirational appeals were not statistically significant
while the legitimating item of your boss has the right to ask you to use the technology was now
statistically significant. In the multivariate analyses, with regard to both demographic and
organizational variables, similar significance patterns as in the univariate analyses occurred for the age
categories, education, and team size. However, women and tenure were no longer statistically
significant. This was the same significance pattern as for number of e-learning courses participants took
shown in Table 3. With regard to the influence tactics, all the variables statistically significant in the
univariate analyses were also statistically significant in the multivariate analyses with the same
direction, with one exception where persistence was no longer statistically significant.
Table 4. Analysis of Variables Associated with Number of Times Participants went Online to take E-Learning Courses
Variable
Demographics
Age
Under 31
31-35
36-40
Over 40
Education
High school and associate degree
Undergraduate degree
Graduate degree
Gender
Organizational
Tenure
Team size
Influence tactics
Apprising
Coalition
Collaboration
Consultation
Exchange
Ingratiation
Inspirational appeals
Legitimating item (boss has the right to ask
you to use the technology)
Legitimating item (using technology is
consistent with company rules and policies)
Persistence
Personal appeals
Pressure
Rational persuasion
Socializing

Univariate
B (SE)
Reference
-0.26 (0.03)
-0.42 (0.03)
-0.71 (0.04)
-0.29 (0.04)
0.09 (0.03)
Reference
0.06 (0.02)

p-value

<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.001

Multivariate
B (SE)
Reference
-0.22 (0.03)
-0.26 (0.05)
-0.50 (0.07)

p-value

<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.30
<0.001

0.01

-0.05 (0.04)
0.13 (0.03)
Reference
-0.03 (0.03)

-0.16 (0.01)
0.03 (<0.001)

<0.001
<0.001

-0.01 (0.02)
0.03 (0.002)

0.38
<0.001

0.01 (0.01)
0.21 (0.01)
0.16 (0.01)
<0.001 (0.01)
<0.001 (0.01)
-0.08 (0.01)
-0.02 (0.01)
-0.04 (0.01)

0.49
<0.001
<0.001
0.96
0.90
<0.001
0.13
<0.001

---0.31 (0.01)
0.32 (0.02)
-------0.19 (0.01)
----0.14 (0.01)

---<0.001
<0.001
------<0.001
---<0.001

-0.10 (0.01)

< 0.01

-0.08 (0.01)

<0.001

0.04 (0.01)
-0.02 (0.01)
0.08 (0.01)
-0.05 (0.01)
-0.01 (0.01)

<0.001
0.054
<0.001
<0.001
0.54

-0.002 (0.02)
---0.20 (0.01)
-0.26 (0.02)
----

0.89
---<0.001
<0.001
----

0.33

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5. DISCUSSION
We found that increased scores for the apprising tactic and the collaboration tactic had significant
associations with increased attitude toward using the e-learning system, while increased scores for the
exchange tactic and the pressure tactic had significant associations with decreased attitude toward using
the e-learning system. None of the demographic or organizational variables were associated with
attitude toward using the e-learning system. We found that increased scores for the apprising tactic, the
coalition tactic, the collaboration tactic, the persistence tactic, and the pressure tactic had significant
associations with increased number of e-learning courses took, while increased scores for the
ingratiation tactic, the inspirational appeals tactic, the legitimating item of using technology is
consistent with company rules and policies, and the rational persuasion tactic had significant
associations with decreased number of e-learning courses taken. The demographic variable of increased
age category was significantly associated with decreased number of e-learning courses taken and the
educational category of undergraduate was significantly associated with increased number of e-learning
courses taken. The organizational variable of increased team size had significant associations with
increased number of e-learning courses taken. We found that increased scores for the coalition tactic,
the collaboration tactic, and the pressure tactic had significant associations with increased number of
times participants went online, while increased scores for the ingratiation tactic, both legitimating
items, and the rational persuasion tactic had significant associations with decreased number of times
participants were online. In terms of demographic and organizational variables, the same significance
pattern for increased number of times participants went online occurred as with number of e-learning
courses taken.
We found that increased scores for the apprising tactic were significantly associated with increased
attitude toward using the e-learning system as well as number of e-learning courses taken but were not
significantly associated with number of times online. These results are consistent with hypotheses 1A
and partially consistent with 1B. There is mixed literature with regard to use of the apprising tactic and
employees with one study reporting the tactic useful for increasing commitment [22] while another
study did not find any association with commitment [25]. Also, a number of studies of perceived
manager attitudes with Taiwanese participants report that the apprising tactic is the most effective tactic
[28, 53]. Our study was with Taiwanese participants and we found similar cultural attitudes for the
apprising tactic. Our behavior findings do not have a consistent pattern, as the apprising tactic was only
significantly associated with number of e-learning courses taken but not with number of times
participants went online. We suggest that the apprising tactic is influential for increasing behavior for
taking a greater number of e-learning courses. However, the approach used to take these courses varies
with some participants logging on once while other participants logging on multiple times. Log on
behavior may be influenced by personality approaches.
We found that increased scores for the coalition tactic were significantly associated with increased
number of e-learning courses taken and the number of times online taking e-learning courses, but not
significantly associated with attitude toward using the e-learning system. The results were contrary to
our hypotheses and therefore hypotheses 2A and 2B were not supported. Most studies for coalition and
attitudes report significant associations of moderate to low effectiveness [28, 54] or even resistance
[20], while we are aware of only one study for coalition and behavior that reports no significant
associations [55]. Our study differs from these previous studies. We suggest that our study findings are
related to the collectivistic cultural approach of Taiwanese culture [56]. In a collectivistic culture,
people value the majority approach. We suggest that participants saw others engaging in the courses
and they too believed that they had to take courses and log on to take courses. However, although they
participated like others, it is possible that their personal attitudes were not in favor of managers
engaging in coalition approaches and this is why we did not find any significant association for
attitudes.
We found that increased scores for the collaboration tactic were significantly associated with
increased attitude toward using the e-learning system, increased number of e-learning courses taken,
and number of times online taking e-learning courses. These results were consistent with our
hypotheses and therefore hypotheses 3A and 3B were supported. Previous studies report that
collaboration is one of the most effective tactics, both in western cultures [22, 25, 54] and in Taiwanese
culture [28, 53]. Our study findings are consistent with these previous studies and emphasize the
importance of collaboration for implementation innovation for e-learning in the corporate setting.
We found that increased scores for the consultation tactic were not significantly associated with
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attitude toward using the e-learning system, number of e-learning courses taken, and number of times
online taking e-learning courses. These results were not consistent with our hypotheses and therefore
hypotheses 4A and 4B were not supported. Previous studies asking managers about different tactics
report that consultation is one of the most effective tactics in western cultures [25, 54], and has
moderate effectiveness in Taiwanese culture [28, 53]. With regard to behavior, the consultation tactic
is negatively associated with employee resistance to change [57] and positively associated with
employees safety participation [32], but is not significantly associated with managers influencing
employees toward helping coworkers [58]. We suggest that our study findings are related to both high
power distance national culture [56] and authoritarian leadership style [59, 60, 61]. In a high power
distance culture, employees expect to be told what to do instead of being asked for their opinions.
Authoritarian leadership is common in Chinese societies, in which leaders centralize decision making
[61] and demand unquestionable obedience from subordinates [59, 60]. In our study, the corporate
culture was consistent with both a high power distance national culture and authoritarian leadership
style. Even though employees were asked for feedback for development of the e-learning program and
the consultation mean score was relatively high, employees apparently did not believe that their
feedback would be genuinely respected and regarded. Thus, they did not have strong interest in the elearning program as they perceived it as being driven from a top-down perspective and their attitudes
and behavior were not associated with e-learning.
We found that increased scores for the exchange tactic were significantly associated with decreased
attitude toward using the e-learning system, but not significantly associated with either number of elearning courses taken or number of times online taking e-learning courses. These results were not
consistent with our hypotheses and therefore hypotheses 5A and 5B were not supported. Previous
research for the exchange tactic and attitudes report either no significant association with an employees
commitment [25] or moderate effectiveness both in western cultures [54], and in Taiwanese culture
[28]. With regard to behavior, there are two studies reporting no significant association of the exchange
tactic with either employees job performance [55] or employees helping coworkers [58]. Our study
results are not consistent with the previous attitude studies. We suggest that in an e-learning
environment participants may not believe managers will be able to offer something in return if they take
more courses. However, our behavior results are consistent with previous studies. We suggest that the
exchange tactic is also not useful in an e-learning environment.
We found that increased scores for the ingratiation tactic were significantly associated with
decreased number of e-learning courses taken and number of times online taking e-learning courses,
but not significantly associated with attitude toward using the e-learning system. These results were
contrary to our hypotheses and therefore hypotheses 6A and 6B were not supported. Previous studies
for the ingratiation tactic and attitudes show mixed results including no relationship in western cultures
[57], low to moderate usefulness in western cultures [25, 54], and strong usefulness in Taiwanese
cultures [28, 53]. With regard to behavior, previous research reports that the ingratiation tactic was not
significantly associated with employees job performance [55]. Our study results in Taiwanese culture
for attitudes differ from the previous Taiwanese studies. We suggest based upon our anecdotal
experience that leadership style in the company may be related to employee attitudes. The company in
our study had an authoritarian leadership style. An ingratiation approach would have been very
different from the typical company approach and therefore employees did not trust or feel comfortable
with such an approach. Also, with regard to behavior, our negative findings can again be interpreted in
light of the authoritarian culture and a possible lack of trust or discomfort with an ingratiation tactic
approach.
We found that increased scores for the inspirational appeals tactic were significantly associated with
decreased number of e-learning courses taken but not significantly associated with either attitude
toward using the e-learning system or number of times online taking e-learning courses. These results
were contrary to our hypotheses and therefore hypotheses 7A and 7B were not supported. Previous
studies for the inspirational appeals tactic and attitudes is that it is one of the most effectives tactics [28,
54] and is associated with employee commitment [25]. With regard to behavior, one study reports that
the inspirational appeals tactic is not significantly associated with employees helping coworkers [58],
and another study reports a positive association with employees safety participation [32]. Our results
for attitudes are not consistent with previous studies. Our results for number of e-learning courses taken
are also not similar to the previous study. We suggest for attitudes that employees in our study varied
in attitudes with regard to perceived benefit for taking the online classes due to the changed format in
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training. An inspirational appeals tactic may have appealed to some employees but not to others and
this resulted in lack of significance. Our significant negative relationship for number of e-learning
courses taken could be that mixed perceived benefits for online learning translates into lack of behavior
and thus a negative relationship. It is challenging to understand the lack of statistical significance for
number of times participants went online. Future research is necessary to understand the mechanism of
inspirational appeals to behavior.
We found that increased scores for both legitimating items were not significantly associated with
attitudes toward using the e-learning system. However, both legitimating items were significantly
associated with decreased number of times online taking e-learning courses and the legitimating item
of using technology is consistent with company rules and policies was significantly associated with
decreased number of e-learning courses taken. Thus, hypothesis 8A was not supported while hypothesis
8B was partially supported. Previous studies report that the legitimating tactic is the least effective
tactic [54]. With regard to behavior, the legitimating tactic is positively associated with employees
resistance to change [57]. Our results are consistent with previous research where increased
legitimating tactic scores are indicative of increased resistance to change and thus associated with both
decreased number of e-learning courses taken and times online taking e-learning courses.
We found that increased scores for the persistence tactic were significantly associated with increased
number of e-learning courses taken but not significantly associated with either attitude toward using the
e-learning system or number of times online taking e-learning courses. These results were contrary to
our hypotheses and therefore hypotheses 9A and 9B were not supported. We are only aware of one
previous study for the persistence tactic. It was rated as the least effective tactic by Taiwanese managers
[28]. It is not surprising that there was no significant relationship of the persistence tactic with attitudes
and the behavior of online taking of e-learning courses, as this is a very weak tactic. However, it is
surprising that increased scores on the persistence tactic were significantly associated with increased
number of e-learning courses taken. It is possible that due to the brief quiz at course completion,
employees could document to their manager that they completed the course and avoid the manager
asking them repeatedly to take a course.
We found that increased scores for the personal appeals tactic were not significantly associated with
attitude toward using the e-learning system, number of e-learning courses taken, and number of times
online taking e-learning courses. These results were not consistent with our hypotheses and therefore
hypotheses 10A and 10B were not supported. One study reports that the personal appeals tactic is not
significantly associated with employee attitude toward commitment to carry out a request [25]. We are
not aware of any study of the personal appeals tactic with regard to behavior. It is possible that our
study findings are consistent with previous research and suggest that the personal appeals tactic is not
significantly associated with innovation implementation in an e-learning environment. Alternatively, it
is possible that for personal appeals to be effective, both parties have to be good friends. In the
corporate environment that we studied, the employees may not have perceived their managers as good
friends.
We found that increased scores for the pressure tactic were significantly associated with decreased
participants attitude toward using the e-learning system, but were significantly associated with
increased number of e-learning courses taken and number of times online taking e-learning courses.
These results were consistent with hypothesis 11A but contrary to hypotheses 11B. Previous studies of
the pressure tactic and attitudes report that it is the least effective tactic both in western cultures [29,
54] and in either Chinese cultures [29] or Taiwanese culture [28]. Our results for participant attitude are
consistent with previous studies. With regard to behavior, one study reports no significant association
for use of the pressure tactic and managers influencing employees toward helping coworkers [58]. Our
results for behaviors are quite surprising and not consistent with previous research. We suggest that the
pressure tactic works well with the corporate authoritarian organizational culture in the Taiwanese
corporate setting that we studied. Employees did not like managers use of aggressive words and this
had a significant negative association with attitudes. However, as employees are used to an
authoritarian organizational culture where they do tasks based upon such directives from management,
use of the pressure tactic was associated with their increased behaviors of number of e-learning courses
taken and number of times online taking e-learning courses.
We found that increased scores for the rational persuasion tactic were significantly associated with
decreased number of e-learning courses taken and number of times online taking e-learning courses,
but not significantly associated with attitude toward using the e-learning system. These results were
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contrary to our hypotheses and therefore hypotheses 12A and 12B were not supported. Previous studies
of the rational persuasion tactic and attitudes is that the rational persuasion tactic is one of the most
effective tactics in western societies [25, 29, 54], Chinese cultures [29], and Taiwanese culture [28, 53].
With regard to behavior, one study reports that the rational persuasion tactic is positively associated
with employee safety participation [32]. Our results were not consistent with results of previous studies
either in terms of attitude or behaviors. This is quite surprising and we do not have any reason why our
results are contradictory to the established literature.
We found that increased scores for the socializing tactic were not significantly associated with
attitude toward using the e-learning system, number of e-learning courses taken, and number of times
online taking e-learning courses. These results were not consistent with our hypotheses and therefore
hypotheses 13A and 13B were not supported. One study reports that the socializing tactic is one of the
least effective tactics in Taiwanese culture [28]. We are not aware of any study that examines the
association between the socializing tactic and behavior. We suggest that our study findings might be
related to the corporate authoritarian organizational culture. Managers usually give orders to employees
directly instead of indirectly. Thus, if a manager uses the socializing tactic, employees might feel
awkward with this approach and not be responsive to such a tactic.
We found that none of the demographics variables and organizational variables were significantly
associated with participant attitude. With regard to behavior, our results show that all age categories
were significantly associated with decreased number of e-learning courses taken and decreased number
of times online taking e-learning courses. There was a pattern where increasing age category was
associated with greater decreases in both behaviors. Those of younger age are more comfortable than
those of older age with e-learning because younger generations have early and greater exposure to elearning practices than older generations [62]. Our results for e-learning implementation are consistent
with this approach.
We found that participants with an undergraduate degree were significantly associated with taking
more e-learning courses and went online more times than participants with graduate degrees. There is
mixed literature about whether greater education is associated with greater innovation implementation
behavior [40, 41, 42, 44]. We suggest that knowledge level is the key driver for understanding this
finding. Those with undergraduate degrees perceived that they did not have sufficient background as
compared to those with graduate degrees on the topics taught in the e-learning courses and therefore
those with undergraduate degrees took and logged on more often than those with graduate degrees.
We did not find any association of either gender or tenure with number of e-learning courses taken
and number of times online taking e-learning courses. There is mixed literature with regard to gender
and use of e-learning systems where some studies report increased use for a particular gender category
[42, 45, 46]. However, other studies report no gender difference [40, 44]. Our Taiwanese corporate
setting is consistent with the literature that reports no gender difference. Also, our results for tenure are
consistent with the study that reports employees with greater tenure have no association with use of
new technology [42].
We found that increased team size was significantly associated with both increased number of elearning courses taken and number of times online taking e-learning courses. A meta-analysis reports
that larger team size is positively related to team performance for project teams [48]. In this Taiwanese
corporate setting, the e-learning course taking behavior was reviewed at team meetings and the larger
team size was associated with increased performance for e-learning behavior.
5.1 Limitations and future research
There are several study limitations. First, participants were asked to recall manager influence behavior
from at least one year prior to the study. They might not have been able to remember exactly what
happened when the implementation took place. Second, the ultimate goal of implementation is
routinization, so that participants regard the innovation as something routine. In this study,
implementation began three years prior to the study, so for some participants this may no longer have
been considered innovative. Future research should consider asking participants to record the
implementation process in a diary to more precisely reflect manager practices and behavior. Third, this
research took place only in one Taiwanese corporation and may not generalize to other Taiwanese
corporations that may have different organizational cultures.

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5.2 Managerial implications


As is commonly known, organizations can only benefit from adopting an innovation if employees use
the innovation. In implementing an e-learning system, we found that managerial influence tactics of
coalition, collaboration, and pressure were significantly associated with increased number of e-learning
courses participants took and the number of times participants went online to take e-learning courses.
In the Taiwanese setting, managers attempting to adopt innovative practices should consider not only
the traditionally accepted influence tactic of collaboration, which involves providing assistance to
employees, but also consider use of coalition, which involves persuading employees by referring to
other employees. In addition, even though employees react negatively, the influence tactic of pressure
by requiring employees to complete tasks can also influence employees to adopt innovative practices
in the corporate workplace.
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