Lecture 10

-Taylor Series (Contd)

- Covergence of a series

Newton Binomial
How to compute (1+x)^n ?

Newton Binomial

The remainder term

Taylor polynomial will be most accurate when
x is small
For this reason we define: error term or
remainder term defined as
Rn f(x)= f(x)-Tn f(x)
Example,
What is the remainder term of any polynomial
function?

Remainder term: important example

Try to do this!: find the n-order remainder ter
of the following function!

Lagrange formula
Theorem: For some n+1 differentiable f on I,
for any x in this interval, there is \zeta such
that for 0 \leq \zeta \leq x or x \leq \zeta \leq
0, this expression is fulfilled

Without further explanation, I am sure youll

be confused!

Estimate of remainder term

If we can find a constant M such that
Then the remainder term can be
approximated as

Example,
estimate e using n=8!
Estimate the error in estimating sin x = x

Limit when x-> 0

For any x near 0, according to Lagrange
Theorem: for any n+1 diff f, k= 0,1,2, .., n

Do u agree that the remainder is the smallest

when x -> 0?

Small oh

Strange rule:

Illustration

Confuse?
The following is wrong

But this one is correct!

A bit strange but useful

Theorem, for any n+1 differentiable function
f(x) and g(x),
Why?
Example
Compute T12 of f(x)=1/(1+x^2)!
Try to compute using g(t)=1/(1-t)
Once more,

Taylor Formula for f

The Taylor Formula for f is

Example,
Find the Taylor Formula for
Find the Taylor Formula for arc tan x!

Sequence and their limit

Consider the examples below

Convergences of sequence

Example,
show that 1/n converge to 0!
Show that

Limit of a function
Sandwich Theorem: of any a_n \leq b_n \leq
c_n, if lim n \to \infty a_n and c_n = 0, so is for
b_n
Theorem: using sandwich theorem, the
following is true

Example, find lim t-> 0 cos (1/n) !

Show that
converges to zero.

A little Exercise
Show that

Convergence of Taylor series

Taylor series is said to be convergent if
How to check?
Perform the above limit problem
Check if the remainder term is zero for n \to \infty

Example,
prove that the geometric series is convergent!
Prove that Tn(e^x) is convergent!

Infinite series

Geometric series

If a = 1 and r= 1/2,
If a = 1 and r = 1
1+1+1+1+1+
diverges
If a = 1 and r = 1
11+11+11+
If a = 1 and r = 2
1+2+4+8+16+

=1

diverges

diverges
kshum

18

Formal definition for convergence

Consider an infinite series
The numbers ai may be real or complex.

Let Sn be the nth partial sum

The infinite series is said to be convergent if there is a

number L such that, for every arbitrarily small > 0, there
exists an integer N such that
The number L is called the limit of the infinite series.
kshum

19

Geometric pictures
Complex infinite series

Real infinite series

Im
Complex plane

S2 S1

S0

L-
Re

kshum

L+

20

Convergence of geometric series

If |r|<1, then
is equal to

converges, and the limit

.

kshum

21

Easy fact
If the magnitudes of the terms in an infinite
series does not approach zero, then the
infinite series diverges.

But the converse is not true.

kshum

22

Harmonic series

is divergent

kshum

23

But

is convergent

kshum

24

Terminologies
An infinite series z1+z2+z3+ is called
absolutely convergent if |z1|+|z2|+|z3|+ is
convergent.
An infinite series z1+z2+z3+ is called
conditionally convergent if z1+z2+z3+ is
convergent, but |z1|+|z2|+|z3|+ is divergent.

kshum

25

Examples

is conditionally convergent.

is absolutely convergent.
kshum

26

Convergence tests
Some sufficient conditions for convergence.
Let z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 + be a given infinite series.
(z1, z2, z3, are real or complex numbers)
1. If it is absolutely convergent, then it converges.
2. (Comparison test) If we can find a convergent
series b1 + b2 + b3 + with non-negative real
terms such that
|zi| bi for all i,
then z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 + converges.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_test
kshum

27

Convergence tests
3. (Ratio test) If there is a real number q < 1,
such that
for all i > N (N is some integer),
then z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 + converges.
If for all i > N ,

, then it diverges
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratio_test
kshum

28

Convergence tests
4. (Root test) If there is a real number q < 1,
such that
for all i > N (N is some integer),
then z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 + converges.
If for all i > N ,

, then it diverges.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_test
kshum

29

Derivation of the root test from

comparison test
for all i N. Then

Suppose that

for all i N. But

is a convergent series (because q<1). Therefore
z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 + converges by the
comparison test.
kshum

30

Application
Given a complex number x, apply the ratio test to
The ratio of the (i+1)-st term and the i-th term is

Let q be a real number strictly less than 1, say q=0.99.

Then,
Therefore exp(x) is convergent for all complex number x.
kshum

31

Application
Given a complex number x, apply the root test to
The ratio of the (i+1)-st term and the i-th term is

Let q be a real number strictly less than 1, say q=0.99.

Then,
Therefore exp(x) is convergent for all complex number x.
kshum

32

Variations: The limit ratio test

If an infinite series z1 + z2 + z3 + , with all
terms nonzero, is such that

Then
1.The series converges if < 1.
2.The series diverges if > 1.
3.No conclusion if = 1.
kshum

33

Variations: The limit root test

If an infinite series z1 + z2 + z3 + , with all
terms nonzero, is such that

Then
1.The series converges if < 1.
2.The series diverges if > 1.
3.No conclusion if = 1.
kshum

34

Application
Let x be a given complex number. Apply the
limit root test to

The nth term is

The nth root of the magnitude of the nth term
is
kshum

35

Useful facts
Stirling approximation: for all positive integer
n, we have

J0(x) converges for every x

kshum

36