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Background
Increasing Material Demands
Crack Tip Opening Displacement CTOD
The CTOD Test Process
Sample Machining for the CTOD Test
Commonly Used Test Specimens
Testing Nomenclature for the CTOD Test
The Importance of the Pre-Fatigue Crack
Pre-Cracking
Fatiguing the Sample
Initiation and Propagation of a Fatigue Crack
Initiation and Growth of a Crack
Tracking Crack Length
Stress Distributions
Crack Front Examination
Fracture
Maintaining Constant Temperature
Stress Intensity Factor
Data Analysis
CTOD Failure Types
Pop-in Failures
Calculating CTOD Values
The Final Result
Background
Even the strongest and hardest-working materials on earth - pipes, drills, munitions, girders crack. A crack is the beginning of failure, but when and how dramatically will the failure occur?
We know more and demand more of materials than ever before. Rather than reacting to
problems as they occur, more and more industries are choosing to be proactive in failure
prevention by testing materials properties beyond the normal testing requirements. One such
test that goes beyond traditional material property analysis is the CTOD test, which is gaining
popularity in the oil and gas industry.
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Crack Tip Opening Displacement CTOD - A Fracture Mechanics Test Offered by Element Materials Technology
3/7/14 11:05 PM
KEE, and J1C) can determine fracture resistance of a material, but CTODis particularly suited
to pipeline and drilling equipment. The CTOD test is used to determine the fracture mechanics
properties of ductile materials and can be thought of as the simulated opening of a preexisting fatigue crack prior to fracture. The data that result from this opening can be used for
critical defect assessment, in which the critical defect size can be determined.
2.
3.
4.
Post analysis of the specimen and resultant data to obtain the CTOD value (Data Analysis).
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Figure 1. Machining test samples for CTOD testing.
Pre-Cracking
On completion of machining of the specimen, an actual fatigue crack is induced at the base of
the starter notch. This crack must be of sufficient length to bypass any area of plastic
deformation that may have been occurred during the machining process. The crack length is
typically based on the size of the sample, the method of notch manufacture, the width of the
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Crack Tip Opening Displacement CTOD - A Fracture Mechanics Test Offered by Element Materials Technology
3/7/14 11:05 PM
typically based on the size of the sample, the method of notch manufacture, the width of the
notch, the shape of the notch, and practical time restraints. The overall length from the
surface of the sample to the crack tip must fall within given parameters. Other factors that
also must be considered include the angle of the crack in respect to the specimen and the
difference in length of the crack as seen on the exposed surfaces. The operation is typically
performed in air at room temperature.
[Where K is the stress intensity factor, F is the load, S the span, B the specimen thickness, W
the specimen width and a the crack length].
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Crack Tip Opening Displacement CTOD - A Fracture Mechanics Test Offered by Element Materials Technology
3/7/14 11:06 PM
During the fatigue operation, W, B and S remain constant. The equation demonstrates a
definitive relationship between the crack length, load and stress intensity.
Constant Load - A constant load amplitude (load) is the most common situation.
However, for the purposes of growing a fatigue crack for a CTOD it is not the most
practical. In order to meet the validity requirements imposed by the specifications, the load
ratio selected would have to be determined based on the final crack length. As a result, the
crack growth rate would increase as the length increased; however, it would be slow in the
initial stages of crack length. This method can result in an extended time to grow the crack
of the required length.
b.
Decreasing Load - By calculating the load restrictions for a given crack length, it is
possible to start the fatigue operation with a high load and decrease it to the limits
required as the crack grows. Done carefully, this can save time in obtaining valid fatigue
crack front, but it should be noted that reducing the load by too great an amount can
result in the crack propagation slowing or even stopping. In this case, a given number of
fatigue cycles would be needed to initiate the crack again.
c.
Constant K - During the fatiguing of a CTOD sample, S, W and B will remain constant. As
such, the relationship between the crack length, load and stress intensity can be utilized in
the growth of a fatigue crack. From the equation it can be seen that by keeping the change
in stress intensity constant, the load will drop proportionally as the crack length increases.
This method will result in an even load drop as the crack grows and will prevent the crack
arrest that can occur when method b is used.
It is possible to combine aspects of the three methods to further increase to efficiencies of the
crack propagation. By starting with a high K and reducing it as the crack extends, one can
reduce the time necessary to grow a crack while keeping within the specification requirements.
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a.
Visual measurement can be made on the sample. Using this method, only the crack length
at the outer surface can be determined. To enhance the crack, non-destructive testing
techniques such as dye penetrant or magnetic permeability work well.
b.
The compliance technique depends on a 5th order polynomial in which the coefficients are
based on the specimen geometry and material properties. Typically, a clip gage is attached
to the sample at the machined opening and electronically records the opening that is then
related to the crack length. The recorded length can then be used to automatically adjust
the load, based on the method decided for the crack growth, resulting in a smooth load
drop.
c.
The potential drop across the crack depends on ohms law: as a crack grows the potential
will increase. As with the compliance technique, this method can be directly associated with
the load control and hence give a smooth load transition.
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Crack Tip Opening Displacement CTOD - A Fracture Mechanics Test Offered by Element Materials Technology
3/7/14 11:06 PM
Stress Distributions
Variance in length across the fatigue crack front increases in materials in which an even stress
distribution is not present, i.e. in a weldment. In these cases, various operations may be
necessary to produce a linear crack front. Precompression of the sides of the sample and
reverse bending are two of the most common techniques employed.
Figure 5. Examination of fracture surfaces can provide information about the type of failure
that has taken place.
Fracture
The actual breaking of the specimen is performed under monotonic conditions, which means
that the sample is under increasing load until fracture, and at a static temperature.
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Crack Tip Opening Displacement CTOD - A Fracture Mechanics Test Offered by Element Materials Technology
3/7/14 11:06 PM
Data Analysis
After the sample has been fractured, scientists perform various operations to determine the
CTOD type and value.
The fracture face must be examined in conjunction with the plot of the load vs. the crack
mouth opening. From this, the type of fracture can be determined.
m in which the fracture face exhibits tearing and the final fracture occurs under
decreasing load
b.
u in which the fracture face exhibits tearing and the final fracture occurs under
increasing load
c.
c in which the fracture face does not exhibit tearing and the final fracture occurs under
increasing load
Pop-in Failures
A 4th type of failure can occur which is known as a pop-in. In this situation, either a load drop,
a displacement increase, or both is observed, and the load then recovers to exceed the initial
condition. When a pop-in occurs, the material has partially fractured; however, the remaining
ligand is sufficient to withstand the increase in load. It is often possible to see the cause of the
pop-in on the fracture face. The validity of the pop-in is evaluated based on the changes in
load and/or displacement. If deemed valid, the final calculation of the CTOD value is based on
the load and displacement at the pop-in occurrence.
The length of the fatigue fracture and any tearing (in the case of a u type fracture only) should
be measured. The fatigue crack length is used in the CTOD calculation.
where is the CTOD, F is the load, S the span, B the specimen thickness, W the specimen
width, a the crack length, v the poisons ratio, Vp the plastic component corresponding to the
load at the critical event, z is the clip gage height and YS is the yield at test temperature.
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Crack Tip Opening Displacement CTOD - A Fracture Mechanics Test Offered by Element Materials Technology
3/7/14 11:06 PM
When the graphical data has been analyzed, the sample measured and examined, and the
CTOD value calculated, the validity of the result must also be evaluated.
As discussed above, some of the validity requirements of the CTOD test cannot be determined
until the test is completed. A value may be obtained, there may be a minimum value of CTOD
and/or type of fracture restrained, but, the test must also be valid. It is possible to have a
result with a sufficient value to meet the specification requirement, but still have an invalid
test. Similarly, your result may be lower than required with an invalid test. In these cases, the
result obtained should not be used and the test should be repeated.
For more information on this source please visit Element Materials Technology.
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