Академический Документы
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Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Communication Systems, Simon Haykins, 5thEdition, John Willey, India Pvt. Ltd, 2009.
2. An Introduction to Analog and Digital Communication, Simon Haykins, John Wiley India
Pvt. Ltd., 2008.
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BY:
RAGHUDATHESH G P
Asst Prof
ECE Dept, GMIT
Davangere 577004
Cell: +917411459249
Mail: datheshraghubooks@gmail.com
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Quotes:
The end of education is character.
Design is not just what it looks like and feels like. Design is how it works.
Purity, patience, and perseverance are the three essentials to success, and above all, love.
Meaning is man-created. And because you constantly look for meaning, you start to feel
meaninglessness.
RA
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Page No - 1
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
ANGLE MODULATION
Definition: It is a process in which either the phase or frequency of the carrier wave is
varied in accordance to the modulating or message signal while keeping the amplitude of
the carrier constant.
It is a non-linear process.
Angle modulation has several advantages over the amplitude modulation like:
1. Noise reduction
2. Improved system fidelity and
3. Efficient usage of power
4. Can withstand nonlinear distortion and amplitude fading.
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The information bearing signal (the modulating signal) changes the instantaneous
frequency of the carrier. Since the amplitude is kept constant, FM modulation is a low
noise process and provides a high quality modulation technique which is used for music
and speech in hi-fidelity broadcasts.
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Page No - 2
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
------- (1)
Here,
-------- (2)
The instantaneous frequency fi(t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t) . Thus,
the instantaneous frequency of an FM signal can be represented as
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-------- (3)
Here,
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-------- (4)
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Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
-------- (6)
Equation (6) reveals that the envelope of an FM wave is a constant, that is, the amplitudes
of the modulated and unmodulated carriers are same, unlike the envelope of AM wave,
which is dependent on the message signal m(t).
Figure below illustrates an FM wave along with the unmodulated carrier when the
modulating signal m(t) is a sinusoidal signal.
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Phase modulation is a form of angle modulation in which the phase of the modulated
carrier
is made to vary linearly with the message signal m(t) . That is,
------ (1)
Here,
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Page No - 4
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
-------- (2)
When signal m(t) is time varying, like in frequency modulation, following common
features are found in phase modulation:
The zero crossings of a PM wave no longer have a perfect regularity in their spacing like
AM waves. This is because instantaneous frequency of PM wave is proportional to time
derivative of m(t).
Figure below illustrates an FM wave along with the unmodulated carrier when the
modulating signal m(t) is a sinusoidal signal.
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Here,
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Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
-------- (3)
It may be observed from above equations that Phase Modulation (PM) and Frequency
Modulation (FM) are closely related to each other because in both the cases there is a
variation in the total phase angle.
In phase modulation (PM), the phase angle varies linearly with baseband signal m(t)
whereas in case of Frequency Modulation (FM), the phase angle varies linearly with the
integral of baseband signal m(t).
This means that FM wave may be obtained by using PM. Conversely, PM wave may be
obtained by using FM.
To get FM by using PM, we first integrate the baseband signal and then apply to the
phase modulator. This process is illustrated with the help of a block diagram shown in
figure below
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Page No - 6
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Angle Modulation
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Page No - 7
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
3. The amplitude of the FM wave always remains constant. This is the biggest
advantage of FM.
Parameters Relating to FM:
Frequency Deviation:
The instantaneous frequency of FM wave is given as,
------ (1)
The instantaneous frequency of FM signal varies with time around the carrier frequency
fc. This means that the instantaneous frequency of FM signal varies according to the
modulating signal.
Definition: The instantaneous frequency of FM signal varies with time around the carrier
frequency fc. The maximum change in the instantaneous frequency of the average
frequency face is called frequency deviation.
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However, the amount of frequency deviation in both these cases is given by the
maximum magnitude i.e.
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Page No - 8
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Modulation Index:
Definition: The ratio of frequency deviation to the modulating frequency is called as
modulation index.
------- (1)
The modulation index (mf) is very important in FM because it decides the bandwidth of
the FM wave.
The modulation index also decides the number of sidebands having significant
amplitudes.
In AM the maximum value of the modulation index m is 1. But for FM the modulation
index can be greater than 1.
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Deviation Ration:
Definition: The modulation index corresponding to the maximum deviation and
maximum modulating frequency is called as the deviation ratio.
Deviation ratio is given as follows,
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Page No - 9
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
1. Carsons Rule:
In singletone modulation, for the smaller values of modulation index the bandwidth is
approximated as 2fm.
For the higher values of modulation index, the bandwidth is considered as slightly greater
than the total deviation 2f.
Deviation ratio, D = ( f / W ), where W is the bandwidth of the message signal and the
corresponding bandwidth of the FM signal is,
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2. Universal Curve:
An accurate method of bandwidth assessment is done by retaining the maximum number
of significant side frequencies with amplitudes greater than 1% of the unmodulated
carrier wave.
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Page No - 10
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Here,
From the universal curve, for a given message signal frequency and modulation index the
ratio (B/ f ) is obtained from the curve. Then the bandwidth is calculated as:
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Page No - 11
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
------- (1)
------- (3)
------- (6)
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-------- (5)
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--------- (4)
------- (7)
------- (8)
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Page No - 12
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
is given as
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-------- (9)
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--------- (1)
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From this expanded form, we see that the in-phase and quadrature components of the FM wave
s(t) for the case of sinusoidal modulation are as follows:
-------- (2)
------- (3)
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----- (4)
as,
------- (5)
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Page No - 13
Angle Modulation
Expanding
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
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Let
------ (7)
Let
Then
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Also,
As,
Let
Then
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------ (i)
------ (ii)
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But, nth order Bessel function of 1 st kind with argument is given by,
-------- (9)
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Page No - 14
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
------ (11)
Substituting equations (11) in (4) we get,
------ (12)
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This is the desired form for the Fourier series representation of the single tone FM wave s(t) for
an arbitrary value of . The discrete spectrum s(t) is obtained by taking the Fourier transforms of
both sides of Equation (12) thus
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---- (13)
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------- (14)
Properties of FM:
Property 1:- Narrowband FM:
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Page No - 15
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
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---------------- (1)
----------------- (2)
----- (3)
Thus from above equation we conclude that for smaller values of , the FM wave s(t)
may be closely approximated by the sum of a carrier of amplitude A c, an upper side
frequency component of amplitude Ac/2 and a lower side frequency component of
amplitude Ac/2 with a phase-shift of equal to 1800 (represented by minus sign).
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Page No - 16
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Here the amplitude of the carrier component contained in a wideband FM wave varies
with the modulation index in accordance with J0().
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As RL=1 Thus,
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-------- (2)
------- (3)
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But the Amplitude of the envelope of FM wave is constant thus, the power dissipated in 1-ohm
resister is also constant.
It is also possible to express the transmitted power in the form of series expansion as follows,
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Page No - 17
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
4. FM broadcasts operate in the upper VHF and UHF frequency ranges at which there
happens to be less noise than in the MF and HF ranges occupied by AM broadcasts.
5. The amplitude of the FM wave is constant, It is thus independent of the modulation
depth, whereas in AM, modulation depth governs the transmitted power. This permits the
use of low-level modulation in FM transmitter and use of efficient class C amplifiers in
all stages following the modulator. Further since all amplifiers handle constant power, the
average power handled equals the peak power. In AM transmitter the maximum power is
four times the average power. Finally in FM, all the transmitted power is useful where as
in AM, most of the power is carrier power which does not contain any information.
Note:
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Sl.No
FM
AM
Amplitude of FM wave is constant. It is Amplitude of AM wave will change
1
independent of the modulation index.
with the modulating voltage.
Transmitted power remains constant. It Transmitted power is dependent on the
2
is independent of mf.
modulation index.
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Page No - 18
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Asst Professor
Radio
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Angle Modulation
and
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Figure below shows a single-tone modulating signal, a carrier signal, amplitudemodulated (AM) wave and angle-modulated (i.e. FM and PM) waves.
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Page No - 19
Angle Modulation
Asst Professor
Raghudathesh G P
Note:
FM Generation:
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The FM modulator circuits used for generating FM signals may be put into two
categories as under:
1. The direct method or parameter variation method.
2. The Indirect method or the Armstrong method.
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Page No - 20
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
In this method, a narrow band FM is generated and then frequency multipliers are used to
increase the frequency deviation which results in Wide-band FM.
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A two or three terminal device is placed across the tuned circuit. The reactance of the
device is varied proportional to modulating signal voltage. This will vary the frequency
of the oscillator to produce FM. The devices used are FET, transistor or varactor diode.
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An example of direct FM is shown in Figure above which uses a Hartley oscillator along
with a varactor diode. The varactor diode is reverse biased. Its capacitance is dependent
on the reverse voltage applied across it. This capacitance is shown by the capacitor C (t)
in Figure below.
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Asst Professor
Raghudathesh G P
Angle Modulation
--------- (1)
Here,
. That means C(t) is the effective capacitance of the fixed
tuned circuit capacitance C and the varactor diode capacitance
Let the relation between the modulating voltage m (t) = 0 and the capacitance C (t) be
represented as follows:
Here C = total capacitance when x (t)=0 and kc is the sensitivity of the varactor
capacitance to change in voltage.
Substituting expression for C (t) in Equation (1) we get,
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-------- (2)
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Let
m(t)=0.
-------- (3)
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Page No - 22
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Let defining
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------- (4)
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Page No - 23
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
This mixer output is then applied to a frequency discriminator and a low pass filter.
Frequency Discriminator: This is a special type of device which produces an output
voltage; the amplitude of which is proportional directly to the frequency of its input.
The low pass filter that follows the frequency discriminator will eliminate the ripple
contents in the output of the frequency discriminator to produce a ripple free control
voltage at its output.
When fVCO = fcr then output of mixer = fcr - fVCO = 0. Hence the output voltage of
frequency discriminator is zero and hence the control voltage at the output of the low
pass filter is zero.
Thus this circuit will maintain the VCO frequency constant equal to the crystal oscillator
frequency fcr.
If the VCO frequency deviates above or below fcr then the dc control voltage at the output
of the low pass filter will be adjusted automatically to bring fvco close to fcr.
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------- (1)
Here,
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f1 = carrier frequency
A = carrier amplitude.
of
is related to m(t) by
------ (2)
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Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
------ (3)
------ (6)
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----- (5)
---- (4)
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Page No - 25
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
The scaling factor 2k1 is taken care of by the product modulator. the part of the
frequency modulator that lies inside the dashed rectangle in Figure above represents a
narrow-band phase modulator.
The modulated wave produced by the narrow-band modulator of Figure above differs
from an ideal FM wave in two respects:
1. The envelope contains a residual amplitude modulation and, therefore, varies with
time.
2. For a sinusoidal modulating wave, the phase of the FM wave contains harmonic
distortion in the form of third- and higher-order harmonics of the modulation
frequency fm.
But by restricting the modulation index to 0.3 rad, the effect of residual AM and
harmonic PM are limited to negligible levels.
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If the input to the nonlinear device is an FM wave with frequency, f c and deviation, f1
then its output v(t) will consist of dc component and n frequency modulated waves
with carrier frequencies, fc, 2fc, 3fc, nfc and frequency deviations a f1, 2f1 , 3f1
, ........ nf1 respectively.
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Thus the frequency multiplier can be used to generate a wide band FM wave from a
narrow band FM wave.
In indirect method a NBFM wave is generated first and frequency multiplication is next
used to increase the frequency deviation to the desired level. The narrow band FM wave
is generated using a narrow band phase modulator and an oscillator. The narrow band FM
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Page No - 26
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
wave is then passed through a frequency multiplier to obtain the wide band FM wave, as
shown in the figure below,
We may generate a wideband FM wave S(t) with carrier frequency f c = nf1, and
frequency deviation f = n f1, as desired.
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--------- (7)
Here,
In other words, the wideband frequency modulator of Figure above has a frequency
sensitivity n times that of the narrow-band frequency modulator, where n is the frequency
multiplication ratio. In Figure above we show a crystal-controlled oscillator as the source
of carrier; this is done for frequency stability.
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Problems:
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1. In a FM system, the modulating frequency frn = 1 kHz, the modulating voltage Am = 2 volt and
the deviation is 6 kHz. If the modulating voltage is raised to 4 volt then what is the new
deviation? If the modulating voltage is further increased to 8 volt and modulating frequency is
reduced to 500 Hz what will be deviation? Calculate the modulation index in each case.
Comment on the result.
Solution:
Given: frn = 1 kHz, Am = 2 v,
Determining the frequency sensitivity of the modulator:
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Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
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ii) Determining the frequency deviation when signal amplitude increased to 8V and modulating
frequency is reduced to 500 Hz
b)
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c)
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a)
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Comment: The modulation index is dependent on the value of deviation as well as the
modulating frequency.
2. What is the bandwidth required for a FM signal if the modulating frequency is 1 kHz and the
maximum deviation is 10 kHz? What is BW required for a DSBFC (AM) transmission?
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Page No - 28
Angle Modulation
Raghudathesh G P
Asst Professor
Solution:
Given: frn = 1 kHz and
Expression for bandwidth of a FM signal is given by Carsons rule:
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Analysis: The above result shows that for the transmission of same signal the BW required for
FM is very much higher than that of an AM system.
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Page No - 29