Source: DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURABILITY HANDBOOK

CHAPTER4.21

PARTS PRODUCED BY OTHER

ADVANCED MACHINING
PROCESSES

ABRASIVE-JET MACHINING

The Process

Abrasivejetmachining(AJM)achievesitscuttingeffectfromtheactionoffinepow
deredabrasiveimpingedontheworkpiecebyahighvelocitystreamcontainingthe
abrasiveinagascarrier.Thestreamisfocusedthroughanozzleopeningof0.13to0.81
mm(0.005to0.032in)andtravelsat150to300m/s(500to1000ft/s).Thecarriergasis
normallyairbutmaybecarbondioxideornitrogenandisatapressureof200to830kPa

(30to120lbf/in2).Theabrasiveisaluminumoxide,siliconcarbide,orglass,andthe
nozzleistungstencarbideorsapphire.

Forprecisioncutting,thenozzleismountedonapparatusthatprovidesaccurate
positioning;forroughcutting,deburring,orstripping,thenozzleisusuallyhandheld.In
somecases,rubber,glass,orcoppermasksareusedtoconfinetheabrasiveactiontoa
certainportionoftheworkpiecesurface.

Applications and Characteristics

Cutting,drilling,slotting,trimming,etching,cleaning,deburring,carving,andstripping
canbeperformedbyabrasivejetmachining.Somecurrentapplicationsaretrimming
resistorstoprecisevalues;strippingvarnishfromwires;cuttingpatternsandshapesin
siliconsemiconductors;abradingandfrostingglass;drilling,cutting,andtrimmingthin
sheetsoftungstenorhardenedsteel;etchingtradenamesandnumbersonparts;removing
platingorothersurfacecoatings,particularlyinaportiononlyoftheworkpiecesurface;
removingbrokentoolsfromholes;andmakingfinaladjustmentsorminormodifications
inhardenedsteelmolds.OtherproductsmachinedbyAJMaredentaldevices,jewelry,
hardalloysteelthrustbearings,andlaminatedopticalfilters.(SeeFig.4.21.1.)

Verylittleheatisgeneratedduringabrasivejetmachining;thereisnoheatdamagetothe
workpiece.Therefore,theprocessenjoysamajoradvantage,applicabilitytothemachining
ofheatsensitivecomponents.TheminimumslotwidthmachinablewithAJMis0.13mm
(0.005in).TaperinthewallsofAJMcutsisinherent;itincreasesasnozzletowork
spacingincreases.

4.237

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PARTS PRODUCED BY OTHER ADVANCED MACHINING PROCESSES

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MACHINEDCOMPONENTS

FIGURE4.21.1Abrasivejetlinkedtoapantographcutsintricatepatternsinsiliconsemiconductors.
(CourtesyS.S.WhiteIndustrialProducts.)

Costs and Economic Production Quantities

Manualabrasivemachiningequipmentisinexpensive.Toolingcostsalsoarelow,
makingtheprocesseconomicalforsmallquantities.Inanycase,thechoiceoftheAJM
processdoesnotdependonproductionquantity.Theprocessisslow0.016cm3(0.001
in3)ofmaterialisnormallyremovedperminuteandisusedonlywhenmore
conventionalandmorerapidmetalremovalprocessescannotbeemployedbecauseofthe
natureoftheworkpiecematerial.Theprocessisalsousedprimarilyforfinishingand
lightcuttingoperationswhentheslowcuttingrateisnottooseriousanadversefactor.

Suitable Materials

Abrasivejetmachiningisusedmostadvantageouslyforhard,fragile,heatsensitive
materials.Porcelain,glass,ceramic,sapphire,quartz,tungsten,chromiumnickelalloys,
hardenedmetals,andsemiconductorssuchasgermanium,silicon,andgalliumare
suitablefortheprocess.

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PARTS PRODUCED BY OTHER ADVANCED MACHINING PROCESSES

OTHERADVANCEDMACHININGPROCESSES
4.239

Design Recommendations

Designersspecifyingabrasivejetmachinedpartsshouldmakeallowanceintheirdesigns
forthefollowing:

Thetaperofthesidewallsofholes,slots,andothercutsshouldbeatleast0.05mm/cm
(0.005in/in)ofdepth.

Thepartconfigurationshouldallowaccessroomfortheabrasivejetnozzle;i.e.,cuts
shouldnotbespecifiedimmediatelyalongsidestepsorbosses.

Severingcutsshouldallowforkerf,atleast0.13mm(0.005in)butpreferably0.45mm
(0.018in).

Cornerscannotbesharp.Asaminimum,allowaradiusof0.1mm(0.004in).

ThesedesignrecommendationsareillustratedinFig.4.21.2.

FIGURE4.21.2Abrasivejetmachiningdesignrecommendations.

Recommended Tolerances

Thenormaltoleranceforthedimensionsofmachinedareasis0.13mm(0.005in),
although0.05mm(0.002in)ispossibleifextracareistaken.Adesirablesurfacefinish
toleranceis1.3m(50in),whichwouldallowtheuseoflarger,fastercuttingabrasives.If
necessary,surfacefinishcanbeheldto0.25m(10in)throughtheuseoffine,slower
cuttingabrasives.

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MACHINEDCOMPONENTS

ABRASIVE-FLOW MACHINING

Abrasiveflowmachining(AFM)involvestheuseofaviscoussemisolidmediumrather
thanthegasabrasivemixofAJM.InAFM,theworkpieceisclampedbetweentwo
cylinders.Theputtylikemediumispumpedhydraulicallyfromonecylindertotheother
andextrudedthroughorovertheworkpiece.Abrasivegrainsinthemediumrubagainst
thesurfacesoftheworkpiece,particularlywheretherearerestrictions,sharpcorners,or
burrs,andgentlyremovematerial.Onetohundredsofreversalsofdirectionofthe
mediumcompoundmaytakeplace.Pressureofthemediumis690to20,000kPa(100to
3000lbf/in2).Mediumcompoundsareproprietaryandcontainthickeningagentsand
lubricantsaswellastheabrasiveparticles.ParticlesizerangesfromNo.8toNo.500.
Abrasivematerialsmaybealuminumoxide,siliconcarbide,boroncarbide,ordiamond.
Fixturesusedtoholdtheworkpieceshouldbeabrasiveresistantinareascontactedbythe
medium;theyaremadeofhardenedsteel,ceramic,orurethane.

Applications and Characteristics

AFMisprimarilyadeburringmethodforburrsinlocationsnoteasilyaccessiblewith
conventionalmethods.(Ifburrscanberemovedbyvibratoryorbarreltumbling,that
methodisusuallymoreeconomicalthanAFM.)OtherusesofAFMaretheradiusingof
sharpcorners,particularlyattheintersectionofinternalmachinedsurfaces,polishing,
andminorsurfaceremoval.Oneexampleofsurfaceremovalistheremovaloftherecast
layerfromholesproducedbyEDMorlaserbeammachining.Holesassmallas0.4mm
(0.016in)indiametercanbeprocessedonAFMequipment.Althoughitmaynotbe
practicaltoremovelargeburrsbyAFMbecauseofitslowrateofmaterialremoval,
resultsarenormallymoreuniformwithAFMthanwithmanualmethods.Figure4.21.3
illustratesexamplesofabrasiveflowmachinedparts.

Costs and Economic Production Quantities

Equipmentofmoderatelyhighcostandtheneedforfixturingandfordevelopmentof
properoperatingparametersdictatetheneedformiddlesizedorhigherproduction
quantitiesofmostpartstojustifytheAFMprocesseconomically.Givenamoderate
productionquantity,onetimecostscanberecoveredfromthesignificantreductionin
eachpieceproductiontimeswiththeprocess.However,forparticularlyinaccessible
surfaces,AFMmaybetheonlypracticalfinishingmethod,andsmallproductionlotsor
evenprototypequantitiesmaybeprocessedadvantageously.

Suitable Materials

Allmaterialsthatcanbemachinedbyabrasivemethodsaresuitableforabrasiveflow
machining.Softermaterials,ofcourse,areprocessedmostquickly,butAFMisbest
appliedtoaerospaceandsimilarcomponentswithcomplexmachinedsurfacesandhard,
toughmaterialsofpoormachinability.

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PARTS PRODUCED BY OTHER ADVANCED MACHINING PROCESSES

FIGURE4.21.3Examplesofpartsprocessedwithabrasiveflowmachining.(a)Deburringand
polishingratchetteeth.(b)Polishingturbineblades.(CourtesyExtrudeHoneCorp.)

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PARTS PRODUCED BY OTHER ADVANCED MACHINING PROCESSES

4.242

MACHINEDCOMPONENTS

Design Recommendations

Designersshouldfollowtheserecommendations:

AvoidblindholesifAFMistobeused.Theprocessrequiresathroughflowofabrasive
compound.

AllowthesamedegreeofoutofroundnessinholesafterAFMasexistedbeforethe
operation;AFMwillnotimprovetheroundnessofholes.

Wideholesandslots(overabout12mm,or0.5in)sufferfromsomelossofAFM
efficiencybecauseofboundaryeffects.Formaximumprocesseffectiveness,keepholes
andslotsnarrow,downtoabout0.6mm(0.024in).(Theminimumpracticalhole
diameter,asnoted,is0.4mm,or0.016in.)

IfAFMefficiencyisimportant,makesurethatpartsarenottoofragile.Cuttingismost
efficientwhenhighpressuresandmoreviscousmediaareused.

Cornersthataretoberoundedshouldhavearadiusof0.013to2.0mm(0.0005to0.080
in).

Tolerance Recommendations

Whenproductfunctionpermits,maximumproductioneconomyresultswhen25percent
isallowedontheradiiofroundedcornersandontheamountofstocktoberemovedby
AJM.Ifnecessary,however,radiiandsurfacestockremovalcanbecontrolledwithin10

percent.Thelatterlimitrequiresextracareandproductiontimeandmoreextensive
testingontheestablishmentofprocessparameters.

Surfacefinishimprovementnormallyresultsinroughnessreadings50percentfinerthan
thosewhichexistedbeforetheAJMoperation.Inextremecases,roughnesscanbe
reducedby90percent.

ULTRASONIC MACHINING

The Process

Ultrasonicmachining(USM)actuallyinvolvestwodifferentprocesses:ultrasonic
impactgrindingandrotaryultrasonicmachining.Ultrasonicimpactgrinding(USIG)
involvestherapidoscillationofashapedtoolimmersedinaslurryofabrasivethatisalso
incontactwiththeworkpiece.Thisoscillationdrivesabrasiveparticlesagainstthe
workpieceandcutsinitacavitythathasthesameshapeasthetool.Theoscillating
frequencyofthetoolisfrom19,000to25,000Hz,anditsamplitudeisonly0.013to
0.063mm(0.0005to0.0025in).Thegapbetweenthetoolandtheworkpieceissmall
(0.025to0.1mm,or0.001to0.004in),andtheabrasiveslurryispumpedthroughthis
gap.Thetoolisnormallyoflowcarbonorstainlesssteelandisfastenedtoanultrasonic
generatorthroughahornofMonelmetal.Theabrasiveparticlesmaybealuminum
oxide,siliconcarbide,orboroncarbide.

Rotaryultrasonicmachiningissimilartoconventionaldrillingormillingofglassorother
nonmetallicsexceptthattherotatingdiamondcoatedtoolisalsovibratedatanultrasonic
frequency(20kHz).Thereisnoabrasiveslurryasinultrasonicimpactgrinding,butthere
isacoolant(usuallywater)thatflushesawaytheremovedmaterial.

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PARTS PRODUCED BY OTHER ADVANCED MACHINING PROCESSES

OTHERADVANCEDMACHININGPROCESSES
4.243

Theultrasonicvibrationreducesthepressureonthecuttingtoolandthefrictionatthe
pointofcutting.Itprovidesbettercoolantflowandbetterflushingofremovedmaterial.
Thesefactorsresultinfastercuttingaction.

Typical Applications and Characteristics

Ultrasonicimpactgrindingismostadvantageouswhenappliedtothemachiningof
irregularholesinthinsectionsorshallow,irregularcavities.Materialsnotsuitablefor
otherprocessescanbemachinedbyUSM(seesubsectionSuitableMaterials).Fragile
partsandmaterialslikehoneycombareprocessiblewithoutunduedifficulty.Drilling,
cutting,deburring,etching,polishing,cleaning,andmachiningtoproduceacoinedlike
orembossedlikesurfacearenormalapplications.Holesassmallas0.08mm(0.003in)
across,roundornonround,canbedrilled.Themaximumholesizewithcurrently
available2.4kWmachinesisabout90mm(3.5in)indiameter,althoughlargerholescan
bemadebytrepanningorbyfeedingthecutterinatransversedirection.Thenormal
maximumholedepthis25to50mm(1to2in).Multipleholesmachinedinonepass,
cavitieswithcurvedaxes,andscrewthreadscanbeproducedbytheprocess.

Rotaryultrasonicmachiningisusedprimarilytodrillglassandotherhardnonmetallic
materials.Millingandgrindingofthesematerialsarealsoaccomplished.Therotary
ultrasonicmethodprovidesfastermaterialremovalandlessdangerofcrackingor
chippingthesebrittlematerialsthancanbeachievedwithregulardiamondtool
machining.Theultrasonicassistenablesholestobedrilledstraighter,deeper,andcloser
toedgesthanotherwisewouldbefeasible.Holesuptoabout50mm(2in)indiameter
canbecoredrilled.

Surfacescutbybothprocesseshavelowsurfacestressesandnoheateffectsandarefree
fromburrs.Withultrasonicimpactgrinding,thereisanovercutonthediameterorwidth
ofthemachinedcavityoftwicetheaverageparticlesize.Mostholes,especiallydeep
ones,haveasidewalltaperduetocuttingonthesidesofthetool.Figure4.21.4illustrates
typicalpartsmachinedultrasonically.

Costs and Economic Production Quantities

USIGisarelativelyslowcuttingmethod.Costsoftoolingandequipmentaremoderate.
However,choiceoftheprocessisnotbasedparticularlyonproductionquantity.USIGis
chosenwhenitisthemostsuitablemethodfortheworkpieceandmaterialinvolved.
Whenotherconventionalprocessesareusable,theyaregenerallymoreeconomical.
CuttingrateswithUSIGvarygreatlywithdifferentmaterials,rangingfrom0.03to4
cm3/min(0.002to0.25in3/min).Toolwear,whichrangesinratiofrom1:1to1:200with
workpiecematerialremoval,isanotheradversecostfactor.Rotaryultrasonicmachining
ofhardnonmetallicmaterials,however,isfasterthanconventionalmachiningofthese
materials.

Suitable Materials

USIGismostadvantageousforhard,brittle,nonconductivematerials.Actually,all
materialscanbecutbyUSIG,butprocessingmaterialssofterthanRc45isnotrecom
mended;materialsharderthanRc64arebestsuitedtotheprocess.EDMisacompet

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MACHINEDCOMPONENTS

FIGURE4.21.4Alumina,glass,andferritepartsmachinedultrasonically.(CourtesyBransonSonicPower
Co.)

ingprocessandprovidesmorerapidcuttingofmetalsandotherconductivematerials;
USIGisusedprimarilyfornonmetallicmaterialsnotsuitabletoEDM.Materialscom
monlymachinedultrasonically,listedinorderofdecreasingultrasonicmachinability,are
glass,motherofpearl,ferrite,glassbondedmica,germanium,carbonandgraphite,quartz,
ceramic,syntheticruby,boroncarbide,tungstencarbide,andtoolsteel.Table4.21.1lists
metalremovalratesforsomeofthesematerials.Materialsforrotaryultrasonicmachining
aresimilar:glass,quartz,ferrite,ruby,sapphire,andvariousceramics.Softer,ductile
materialsarenotsosuitable;theytendtoclogthediamondtool.

TABLE 4.21.1 TypicalMaterialRemovalRatesforMaterialsMachinedby

UltrasonicImpactGrinding

Volumeofmaterialremoved
Toolfeedratesper

perminute,cm3(in3)
minute,mm(in)
Glass
3.87(0.236)
3.8(0.150)
Ferrite
3.21(0.196)
3.2(0.125)
Mica,glassbonded
3.21(0.196)

3.2(0.125)
Germanium
2.18(0.133)
2.2(0.085)
Graphite
2.05(0.125)
2.0(0.080)
Quartz
1.67(0.102)
1.7(0.065)
Ceramic
1.54(0.094)
1.5(0.060)
Boroncarbide
0.39(0.024)
0.38(0.015)
Tungstencarbide
0.36(0.022)
0.36(0.014)
Toolsteel
0.26(0.016)
0.25(0.010)

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OTHERADVANCEDMACHININGPROCESSES
4.245

Design Recommendations

Designersshouldfollowtheserecommendations:

ShallowholesandcavitiesaremoresuitableforUSIGthandeepones.Holesshouldnot
bedeeperthan212timesdiameter.

Throughholesorholeswiththroughpassagesforabrasiveslurryarepreferredtoblind
holes.(SeeFig.4.21.5.)

Iftheworkpiecematerialisbrittleandathroughholeismachined,thepartshouldbe
designedsothatabackupplatecanbecementedorclampedtotheexitsurface.Thiswill
preventchippingoftheworkpieceattheexitsurface.(SeeFig.4.21.6.)

AllowfortaperinholesmachinedbyUSIG,especiallydeepholes.Taperaverages0.05
mm/cm(0.005in/in),asillustratedinFig.4.21.7.Ifnecessary,tapercanbereducedby
usingtwosuccessivemachiningoperations.

Allowlargeradiiatthebottomofblindholes,especiallywithUSIG,becausetoolwearis
concentratedatthecornersoftools.Forthesamereason,donotspecifysharpdetailat
thebottomofblindholes.(SeeFig.4.21.8.)

FIGURE4.21.5Throughholesorholeswiththroughpassagesforthe
USIGabrasiveslurryarepreferable.

FIGURE4.21.6Partsthatareultrasonicallymachinedfrombrittlematerialsshouldhaveabackupplate
attachedtotheexitsurfacetopreventchippingattheedge.

Dimensional Factors and Recommended Tolerances

Overcutandtoolweararethetwoprimaryfactorsaffectingtheaccuracyofultrasoni
callyimpactgroundsurfaces.Otherfactorsaretherigidityofthesetup,thesizeofthe

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MACHINEDCOMPONENTS

FIGURE4.21.7Normaltaperofsidewallsof
cavitiesmadebyUSIG.

abrasive,thetemperatureoftheslurry,
andthedesignofthecuttingtool.
Nevertheless,verygoodaccuraciesare
attainable.Therecommended
dimensionaltoleranceforUSIG
surfacesis0.025mm(0.001in).
However,0.013mm(0.0005in)can
beheldifnecessary.Asurfacefinish
toleranceof1mm(40in)shouldbe
allowed,butslowercutting,finer
abrasivecanproducesurfacesasfine
as0.25m(10in).

FIGURE4.21.8Donotspecifysharpcornersatthebottomofcavitiesmachinedultrasonically.

HYDRODYNAMIC MACHINING

Hydrodynamicmachining,sometimescalledwaterjetmachining,usesahigh
velocitynarrowjetofliquidasacuttingagent.Thejetofwater,sometimeswith
polyethyleneoxideoranotherlongchainpolymeradditive,travelsatabout600
m/s(2000ft/s),ortwicethespeedofsound.Materialisremovedfromthe
workpiecebytheimpingementofthisjet.Pressuresof69to415MPa(10,000to
60,000lbf/in2)drivetheliquidthroughafinesapphirenozzleorifice.The
resultingjetis0.05to1.0mm(0.002to0.040in)wide.

Theprocessispresentlyapplicablecommerciallytosoftnonmetallicmaterials,
thoughverythin,softmetalsalsocanbecut.Gypsumboard,urethane,andpoly
styrenefoam,18inplywood,rubber,variousthermoplastics,andfiberglass
reinforcedplasticsaresuitedtohydrodynamiccutting.Shoesoles,asbestos
brakeshoelinings,andfurniturepartsmadefromlaminatedpaperboardare
examplesofproductionpartscutfromothermaterials.

Theprocessisusedmostoftenforcutoutoperationsonmaterialinsheetform.It
hasanumberofadvantagesforsuchwork:Thekerfisnarrow,only0.025mm
(0.001in)widerthanthenozzleorifice;thedwellofthejetdoesnotwidenthe
kerf;thereisnoheateffecttothecutedge;andlittleornodustiscreated.One
drawbackisthehighnoiselevelthatcanaccompanytheprocess.

Cuttingratescanberapidwithsomematerialsbutvaryconsiderablyfromone
materialtoanother.Forcutoutoperations,toolingisminimal.Equipmentis
normallydesignedandfabricatedforaspecificapplication.
Tolerancesforcutoutpiecesdependprimarilyontheaccuracyofthemechanism

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OTHERADVANCEDMACHININGPROCESSES
4.247

thatprovidesmovementofthenozzlewithrespecttothematerialtobecut.Tolerancesof
0.25mm(0.010in)arenormallyachievable.

Whenabrasiveparticlesareaddedtothewaterjet,theprocessisreferredtoasabrasive
waterjetmachining,andmetalsandotherhardmaterialscanbecutwiththeprocess.
Abrasiveparticlesarefedintothehighspeedsteamofwater,travelwiththewater
throughanorifice,andimpingeontheworkpiece.Theabrasiveparticlescutthe
workpiecematerialastheystrikeit.Thejetdiameteristypically0.5to2.5mm(0.020to
0.100in).Theabrasiveslurryiscapturedafteritleavestheworkpiece.

Theprocessisusedtomachinemetals,ceramics,concrete,glass,andcomposites.Almost
allmaterialscanbemachinedbythismethod.Reinforcedplastics,honeycombed
materials,andothersdifficulttomachinebyothermethodsareparticularlysuitable.It
hastheadvantageoverlaserandelectronbeammachininginnotproducingany
significantheataffectedzone.Itisalsosuperiortolaserbeammachiningformetal
sheetsthickerthan13mm(0.5in).Blindholeandsmallholedrillinggenerallyarenot
feasible.Kerfsarewiderthanwithlaserbeammachiningorelectronbeammachining,
typically0.75to2.3mm(0.030to0.090in).Exceptinsoft,ductilematerials,burrsare
notproduced.Metalplatesuptoabout200mm(8in)canbecutbytheprocess.

Equipmentforabrasivewaterjetmachiningislowerincostthanthatrequiredforlaser
beamorelectronbeammachining,butcapitalcostsarestillamajoritem.Anotheristhe
costoftheabrasiveused,mostcommonlygarnet.Cuttingspeedsformaterialsthin
enoughforlaserbeammachiningaresomewhatslowerthanwithlaserbeammachining.
Theprocessisalsoconsiderablyslowerthanflamecuttingbutproducesacleaneredge.
Ingeneral,itismosteconomicalforthosematerialsforwhichaheataffectedzoneisa
problem.Aswithlaserbeam,electronbeam,andflamecutting,nocuttingtoolsare
required.

Thesurfacefinishofthecutedgetypicallyrangesfrom1.6to6.3m(63to250in).
Dimensionsforcutpartsshouldhaveatoleranceof0.25mm(0.010in),thoughcloser
valuesarepossible,ifnecessary,withprecisionequipment.

ELECTRON-BEAM MACHINING

The Process

Electronbeammachining(EBM)is,withminordifferences,thesameprocessasusedfor
electronbeamweldinganddescribedinChap.7.1.Ahighvelocitybeamofelectrons,
focusedonasmallpointoftheworkpiece,intenselyheatstheworkpiecematerialatthat
pointsothatitmeltsandvaporizes.Whereasinelectronbeamweldingtheobjectiveisto
melttheworkpiecematerialsothatitflowstogetherandfuses,inEBMtheobjectiveisto
cutcompletelythroughtheworkpiece.Higherpowerlevelsandhigherbeamvelocities
areutilizedinEBMcomparedwithelectronbeamwelding.Anotherdifferenceisthe
greaterneedforafullvacuumwithEBM.InEBM,thebeamimpingesonanareaof0.32
to0.64mm2(0.0005to0.001in2)andhasapowerdensityof15millionW/mm2(10
billionW/in2).

Applications and Characteristics

EBMismostsuitableforfinecutsinrelativelythinworkpieces.Drillingfineholesin
metalsisthemajorapplication,butanymaterialcanbemachinedbytheprocess.

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MACHINEDCOMPONENTS

Holesandslotsonlyafewthousandthsofaninchwideandveryprecisecontouredcuts
arequitefeasible.TheprocessisparticularlysuitableforcutsthataretoofineforEDM
orECM.

EBMisusedfordrillingmeteringholessuchasareusedfordieselfuelinjection,gas
orificesforpressuredifferentialdevices,wiredrawingdies,spinnerets,sleevevalve
holes,scribingthinfilms,andremovingbrokentapsofsmalldiameter.Holesassmallas
0.013mm(0.0005in)indiameterarepracticablein0.025mm(0.001in)thick
material,asareslotsasnarrowas0.025mm(0.001in).Lengthtodiameterratiosof
holesupto10oreven15ininsomecasescanbeachieved.However,6.4mm(0.25in)is
apracticalmaximumdepthofcut.Iftheworkpiecematerialisover0.13mm(0.005in)
thick,a1to2taperinthesidewallsofthethroughcutshouldbeexpected.

Crateringusuallyoccursontheworkpiecesurfaceadjacenttotheholeentrance.There
alsomaybesomespatteronthesamesurface,butthisiseasilyremoved.Theedgesof
holesandslotstendtoshownonuniformsurfaces.Thereisaheataffectedzoneabout
0.25mm(0.010in)deepadjacenttothecut.Otherwise,theworkpieceisdistortionfree,
sincethereisnopressureorcontactbetweentheworkpieceandanycutter.Figure4.21.9
illustratescharacteristicsofaholemachinedbyanelectronbeam.

FIGURE4.21.9Typicalcharacteristicofanelectronbeammachinedhole.

Costs and Economic Production Quantities

Cuttingratesarerapidforthinmaterials.Forexample,producing0.1mm(0.004in)
diameterholesin0.5mm(0.020in)stockrequireslessthan110s.Slots0.05mm(0.002
in)widein0.25mm(0.010in)thickmaterialcanbemachinedat65to150mm/min
(2.5to6in/min).Nevertheless,thevolumeofmetalremovalwithEBMisactuallylow
comparedwithconventionalmethods,averagingabout0.8to2mm3/min(0.00005to
0.00012in3/min).Thetimerequiredtoevacuatethevacuumchamberforeachmachine
loadisafactorthatincreasesproductiontime.Thehighcostofequipmentandtheneed
forskilledoperatorsarefurtheradversecostfactors.

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PARTS PRODUCED BY OTHER ADVANCED MACHINING PROCESSES

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4.249

Suitable Materials

Asindicatedabove,anymaterialcanbemachinedbyEBM.Metals,ceramics,plastics,
andcompositesallareeasilymachined,althoughthecuttingrateisslowerformaterials
withhighmeltingandvaporizationtemperatures.Hardenedsteel,stainlesssteel,
molybdenum,nickel,cobalt,titanium,tungsten,andtheiralloys;quartz,ceramics,and
syntheticsapphirehaveallbeensuccessfullymachinedbyEBM.

Design Recommendations

Designersshouldfollowtheserecommendations:

Workpiecestobemachinedbytheelectronbeamprocessshouldbekeptassmallas
possiblesothatalargernumberofpieceswillfitintothevacuumchamber.Itmayeven
beadvisabletocreateanassemblyofseveralpartsratherthanhavingonebulkierpartif
onlyaportionoftheworkpiecerequiresEBM.

Thenormalminimumradiusforinternalcornersis0.25mm(0.010in).Sharpercorners
shouldnotbespecified.

Forbestresultswiththroughcuts,theworkpieceshouldbeasthinaspossible.A
practicalmaximumis6.3mm(0.25in),butworkpiecesconsiderablythinnerthanthis
machinemorerapidlywithlesssidewalltaper.

DesignersshouldallowforthemachinedsurfaceeffectsofEBM,whichforsome
applicationsmaybeundesirable.Inthesecases,stockshouldbeallowedforsecondary
operations.Figure4.21.9illustratesthesesurfaceeffects.

Recommended Tolerances

Atoleranceof10percentshouldbeallowedonholediametersandslotwidths.The
normalsurfacefinishspecificationshouldbe2.5m(100in),althoughsurfacesasfineas
0.5m(20in)canbeproducedunderoptimalconditions.

LASER-BEAM MACHINING

LikeEBM,laserbeammachining(LBM)utilizesaprocessthatisapplicabletowelding
aswellastomachining.ThebasicprocessisdescribedinChap.7.1andillustratedinFig.
7.1.4.Whenusedformachining,theprocessoperatesatsomewhathigherenergylevels
thanforwelding.Thenarrow,highlyfocusedbeamofcoherentlightofextremelyhigh
intensitymeltsandvaporizesmaterialatthepointwhereitstrikestheworkpiece.The
beammayconsistofintermittentpulsesorofacontinuousbeam.Atypicalfocusedspot
ontheworkpieceis25to50m(0.001to0.002in)wide.Thedensityofenergyatthis
spotisextremelyhigh,amountingtomillionsofwattspersquarecentimeter.Whenthis
levelofenergystrikestheworkpiece,materialatthe

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pointofimpingementisvaporizedormeltsandissweptawayfromthebeam.Insome
cases,ajetofgascoaxialwiththelaserbeamisdirectedagainsttheworkpiece.Oxygenis
themostcommongasforrapidcutting,whileinertgasesarebesttoimprovetheedge
surfacefinish.

Applications and Typical Characteristics

Laserbeammachiningismostcommonlyusedforhighprecisionmachiningor
micromachiningofthinpartsthataredifficulttomachinebyconventionalmethods.Holes
smallerthan1.3mm(0.050in)andstockthinnerthan5mm(0.200in)givethebest
results.Largerholescanbetrepanned.Thedrillingofverysmallholeswithalargedepth
todiameterratioisaparticularlyadvantageousapplication.Increasingly,theprocessis
beingusedtocutoutblankpartsfromsheetmetalsandothermaterialsuptoabout13mm
(0.5in)inthickness.Slitting,trimming,andperforatingareotherapplications.

FIGURE4.21.10ExamplesofLBM:(a)Coolingholesinturbineengineblades.(b)Slotsinhighstrength
steelforspragtypeclutch.(CourtesyApolloLasers,Inc.)

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OTHERADVANCEDMACHININGPROCESSES
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Additionally,byusingtwointersectinglasers,machiningoperationsequivalenttomilling
andturningcanbeperformed.However,thesearenormallylimitedtomaterialsnot
feasibletomachinebyconventionalmethods.

CommonexamplesofLBMaredrilling0.1mm(0.004in)holesinglasscontactlenses,
drilling0.13mm(0.005in)diameterholesinplasticaerosolspraynozzles,trimming
thickandthinfilmresistorstoprecisevalues,scribingsiliconandceramicsubstratesfor
electronicmicrocircuits,andmakingcontouredcutsinclothforgarmentcomponents.
Figure4.21.10illustratesadditionaltypicalexamples.

TheLBMprocesshastheadvantageofbeingusableformachininginaccessibleplaces.It
canoperatethroughtransparentmaterialsandvariousatmospheres.Thereisnotool
contactwiththework.Thisandthefactthattheheatingeffectisverymuchlocalized
permitthemachiningofbrittle,heatshocksensitive,andfragileworkpieces.

Theminimumholediameterisabout0.005mm(0.0002in),but0.13mm(0.005in)is
morecommon.Lengthtodiameterratiosofupto50:1arefeasiblewith0.13mm
(0.005in)diameterholes.Holeswithanangletothesurfaceasshallowas15are
possible.Kerfwidthsforslitsandprofilecutsasnarrowas0.1mm(0.004in)areused,
but0.4mm(0.015in)isabetternormalvalueformostapplications.

LBMholesdeeperthan0.5mm(0.020in)exhibitnoticeabletaper.Thereisalso
considerablenonuniformityofholediameter.Bothtaperandotherirregularitiesbecome
morepronouncedasthedepthofthecutincreases.Holesnormallyalsoarenotperfectly
round.Thereisatendencytowardcrateringattheentrancesurfaceofthecut,anda
narrowheataffectedzoneofabout0.13mm(0.005in)bordersthemachinedsurface.

Costs and Economic Production Quantities

Actualdrillingtimeforsmallholesinthinstockisonlyhundredthsofasecond.Linear
cuttingofsheetmaterialsalsomayberapidformostmaterials,particularlywithoxygen
assist.Forexample:

Titaniumalloysfrom0.5to10mm(0.020to0.400in)thick:cutat2.5to12m/min(100
to500in/min)

Mildsteel5mm(0.200in)thick:cutat2.5m/min(100in/min)

Plastics0.8mmto3mm(0.030to0.125in)thick:cutat2.5to7.5m/min(100to300
in/min)

However,equipmentcostsarehighforLBM(thoughlowerthanthoseforEBM,which
requiresavacuumchamber).Operationalcostsmaybehighduetothecomplexityofthe
operation.Higherproductionquantitiesandtheuseofhardordifficulttomachine
materialsfavortheprocess.Laserequippedturretmachineshavefoundanicheinthe
jobshopproductionofsheetmetalparts.

Suitable Materials

Allmaterialsarelaserbeammachinable,butnotnecessarilywiththesametechniqueor
process.ThemostpracticalmaterialsforLBMarethosewhicharedifficultorimpossible
tocutbyconventionalmethods.Ceramics,glass,carbides,andsomeaerospacealloys
fallintothiscategory.Copper,aluminum,gold,andsilverarenotsosuit

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ablebecauseoftheirhighthermalconductivity.Aluminumalsotendstoformadrossat
thecutedgethatrequiresasecondaryoperationforremoval.Mildsteelandtitaniumare
commonlyprocessedbylaserbeam.Othermaterialsthathavebeenmachined
successfullyareplastics,rubber,beryllium,zirconium,stainlesssteel,tungsten,castiron,
brass,molybdenum,cloth,cardboard,wood,boronandgraphitereinforcedepoxy
composites,andvariouslaminatedmaterials.Laminatesandcompositesmayrequire
specialstepsbecausetheconstituentmaterialsbehavedifferentlywhenexposedtothe
laserenergy.

Design Recommendations

SinceLBMisaprocessthatusesenergyintheformoflight,bestresultsareachieved
whentheworkpiecesurfaceabsorbsratherthanreflectsthebeamenergy.Surfaces
shouldbedullandunpolisheduntilafterLBMhasbeencompleted.

OtherdesignrecommendationscloselyparallelthoseforEBM.Workpiecesshouldbe
thininareasthroughcutbyLBMbecausemachiningtimeisfasterandtaperand
irregularitiesareminimizedwiththinnermaterials.Cornerradiiallowancesshouldbe
0.25mm(0.010in)orgreater.Allowancesshouldbemadefortaperaveraging3per
sideandforaheataffectedzoneofabout0.13mm(0.005in)deep,forcrateringonthe
entrancesurfaceandforspatterandotherresidueonmachinedsurfaces.

Recommended Tolerances

Holediameterandslotwidthtolerancesshouldbe0.025mm(0.001in).Whenareactive
gasassistisused,allowancesshouldbeincreasedto0.1mm(0.004in).Dimensionsof
partscutbylaserfromsheetstockshouldhaveatoleranceof0.13mm(0.005in).

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