the cosmic engine

CHAPTER 20

The Sun affects the Earth in many ways

The Sun is a typical star, emitting electromagnetic radiation
and particles that influence the Earth
Introduction
The Sun is a source of almost every type of
electromagnetic radiation known, with the exception
of some types of gamma rays. It also emits matter
in a stream known as the solar wind. Together, this
means the Sun has enormous influence on the Earth.
Its stability over thousands of millions of years has
allowed life to evolve. However, our Sun is not as
stable as some may think. When solar storms erupt,
the Earth can be affected in a number of spectacular
ways.

Figure 20.1 A solar prominence, or flare, photographed in

ultraviolet light by the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO)

20.1

Energy release from nuclei

n

Identify that energy may be released from the nuclei of atoms

Radioactivity was discovered by accident in 1896 when Henri Becquerel (18521908)

decided to investigate whether there was any connection between naturally occurring
phosphorescence and X-rays, newly discovered in 1895.
For his experiment, Becquerel chose to use uranium salts,
which phosphoresce on exposure to light. He began to
prepare the experiment, in the darkness of his laboratory,
but he found that the salts exposed his photographic
plates, even though they didnt have sufficient light
to phosphoresce. What Becquerel had detected was
radioactivity, that is, energy being emitted spontaneously
from the atoms of unstable nuclei.
Figure 20.2 Cherenkov radiation is seen as a blue glow in the water,
a result of particles with very high speeds being emitted by nuclear
radiation

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chapter 20 the sun affects the earth in many ways

Most nuclei are stable. Consisting of protons and

neutrons, they are unaffected by chemical reactions and have
remained the same since they were formed, either in the Big
Bang or in the core of a star or supernova. However, some
nuclei are not stable and spontaneously release energy in the
form of a helium nucleus ( particle), an electron ( particle)
or a gamma ray. These nuclei are called radioactive. It is not
possible to predict when a particular radioactive nucleus will
emit this energy but a large number of radioactive nuclei are
said to have a half-life. The half-life is the time it takes for
half of the nuclei to emit their radiation.
The release of energy from the nucleus has been used
in a variety of ways. Nuclear medicineincluding the
diagnosis and treatment of canceras well as nuclear
power and nuclear weapons are examples. It was Albert
Einstein who first predicted that energy from the nucleus
could be put to use.
Figure 20.3 A 15 kiloton atomic bomb set off in 1953 in the US as part of
the extensive testing program for nuclear weapons: these weapons obtain
their energy by the fission (splitting) of large nuclei into smaller ones

Alpha (), beta () and gamma () rays

n

Describe the nature of emissions from the nuclei of atoms

as radiation of alpha and beta particles and gamma
rays in terms of:
ionising power
penetrating power
effect of magnetic field
effect of electric field

Alpha particles

20.2
Figure 20.4
The alpha
particle source
americium-241 in
an ionising smoke
detector

Alpha particles consist of two protons and two

neutrons. It is the same as a helium nucleus
and is very stable. Many large nuclei, such as
americium-241 (see Fig. 20.4) are alpha particle
emitters. When a nuclei emits an alpha particle its
mass decreases as well as its atomic number, so it
changes, or transmutates, into a different element.
Alpha particles are good ionisers due to their
mass and size. To cause ionisation, an electron
must be knocked out of its orbit in an atom. This
property makes them useful in ionising smoke
detectors. An alpha particle will only travel for
several centimetres through air before it captures
electrons and becomes a helium atom. Helium is

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the cosmic engine

a harmless inert gas. This is why smoke detectors pose no danger to the occupants of
houses; however, their disposal in landfill presents a problem for the environment.
Alpha particles possess the charge of two protons. When they move through
an electric or magnetic field a force is exerted on them. This force causes them to
accelerate and deflect from their original path.

Beta particles
Beta particles are high-speed electrons that come from the nucleus. Electrons are
not found in the nucleus. A neutron-rich nucleus may be a source of a beta particle
when a neutron spontaneously decays into a proton and an electron. The electron
is immediately ejected from the nucleus at high speed (i.e. a beta particle) and the
nucleus from which it originated has one extra protonso it changes its atomic
number and thus element. Beta particles are much smaller and have only about
1/7200th the mass of an alpha particle. They cannot cause ionisation as well as alpha
particles, but they can penetrate matter further. Where alpha particles can be stopped
by a sheet of paper, beta particles will be stopped by a sheet of metal.
Beta particles have the charge of an electron and also experience a force when
they move through electric or magnetic fields. At the same speed, a beta particle will
experience half the force that an alpha particle does. The very small mass of beta
particles compared to alpha particles means that the force they experience causes a
much greater deflection, and their paths will be observed to bend to a much greater
extent than alpha particles.

Gamma rays
paper

metal
(e.g. aluminium
sheet)

lead or concrete

Gamma rays are very high-frequency, short-wavelength

electromagnetic radiation. They are emitted from the nucleus and
are also associated with fission (the splitting of nuclei) and fusion
(the joining together of nuclei) and can accompany or decays.
Gamma rays have a very high ability to penetrate matter while
having a low ability to cause ionisation. They can be used to treat
cancerous tumours and in specialised industrial applications.
Gamma rays are not particles and do not possess any electric
charge. They are unaffected by electric and magnetic fields.
Unlike alpha and beta particles, they will move through these
fields undeflected.
This information is summarised in Table 20.1. See also
Figure 20.5.
Figure 20.5 The different penetrating powers of radiation: alpha particles are
blocked by a sheet of paper; beta particles can be blocked by a metal sheet;
gamma rays can penetrate lead and concrete to significant depths

Table 20.1 Radiation types and their properties

290

Radiation

What it is

Ionising ability

Penetrating
power

Effect of electric
or magnetic field

(alpha) particle

He nucleus
i.e. two protons
and two neutrons

High

Low

Small deflection

(beta) particle

An electron

Moderate

Moderate

Great deflection

(gamma) ray

Electromagnetic
radiation

Low

High

No deflection

beta particle paths ()

chapter 20 the sun affects the earth in many ways

Comparing the penetrating power of alpha, beta

and gamma radiation
n

Perform a first-hand investigation to gather information to

compare the penetrating power of alpha, beta and gamma
radiation in a range of materials

Warning: This investigation involves the use of radioactive materials. These should be stored
carefully in lead-lined containers whenever they are not being used. They should be handled
with care and accounted for at the conclusion of the lesson.

Apparatus

paper

Alpha, beta and gamma sources, as available commercially in sealed containers

(Po-210 as an alpha source, Sr-90 as a beta source, Co-60 as a gamma source);
GeigerMller tube and counter; various materials including paper, metal sheets (aluminium
and lead), glass, etc.
metal
(e.g. aluminium
sheet)

Method

first-hand
investigation
PFA
P4
physics skills
11.2 AE
11.3 AD
12.1 AD
12.2 A, B
12.4 A, C, D, E
14.1 A, E

TR

n Hold each source at the end of the GeigerMller tube and take a count over a 20-second

period.
n For each source, place the paper, then metal sheets and glass between the source and
concrete
the GeigerMller tube and take a reading of the countlead
overor 20-second
periods.
n Record the results in a table and compare the different sources penetrating power
through the materials used.

Risk assessment
matrix

Alternative method using a Wilson cloud chamber

n A Wilson cloud chamber (see Fig. 20.6) needs to be prepared beforehand, if one is

available.
n Use different radioactive sources in the cloud chamber (see Fig. 20.7) and compare the

length and strength of the observed paths.

n A magnet held above the cloud chamber will cause alpha particles to deflect in one

direction and beta particles to deflect more in the opposite direction. Any gamma ray
paths will be undeflected.
Figure 20.7
Radioactive
sources used in
this investigation

Figure 20.6 The

paths of alpha and
beta particles seen
in a Wilson cloud
chamber

beta particle paths ()

radioactive
source

cloud
chamber
alpha particle paths

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the cosmic engine

20.3

The solar wind

n

Identify the nature of emissions reaching the Earth from

the Sun
Describe the particulate nature of the solar wind

The solar wind is a stream of particles ejected from the Sun. It consists mostly of
protons travelling on average 400 km s1. This speed can vary from between
300800 km s1. Electrons and ions make up a small percentage of the solar wind.
The Suns extremely hot corona (see Fig. 20.8), a region surrounding the Sun that
extends as far as several million kilometres above the photosphere (the surface of
the Sun), causes particles to move so fast that gravity cannot keep them around the
Sun. At about one million degrees Celsius, the corona is the source of the solar wind.
It is also the source of coronal mass ejectionslarge amounts of solar wind material
flung out into space in times of magnetic storms on the Sun.
The density of the solar wind is measured in the number of protons per cubic
centimetre (p cm3). Although usually between 110 p cm3, the density can be many
times this when a solar flare, or coronal mass ejection, is directed towards and strikes
the Earth.

WWW<

USEFUL WEBSITE:
Monitor the Suns activity:
http://www.spaceweather.com/

magnetotail
solar cusp

deflected solar wind particles

incoming solar wind particles

plasma sheet

neutral sheet

Figure 20.8 The

Suns corona
taken in the X-ray
waveband

Earths
atmosphere
(0-100 km)

bow shock
magnetosheath
The solar
wind is being
constantly
Figure 20.9 The solar wind travels through space and is deflected by the Earths
measured and
magnetosphere
recorded by a
space observatory
known as SOHOSolar and Heliospheric Observatory, which orbits the Sun in a
position where the Earths gravitational field is exactly balanced by the Suns. SOHO
is about 1.5 million kilometres away from the Earth in a line directly between the
Earth and the Sun.

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chapter 20 the sun affects the earth in many ways

Sunspots
n

Describe sunspots as representing regions of strong

magnetic activity and lower temperature
Outline the cyclic nature of sunspot activity and its impact
on Earth through solar winds

20.4

Figure 20.10 An aurora photographed over Finland in October 2008:

this aurora was not predicted and occurred when a change in the
interplanetary magnetic field allowed the solar wind to pour into the Earths
polar regions, interacting with the upper atmosphere and causing light to
be emitted

The Suns surface, or photosphere, is the region around

the Sun above which the hot gases do not emit significant
amounts of light. It is not a real surface, as on rocky planets
and moons. The Suns size is measured to this point.
This apparent surface of the Sun has a temperature
of 5500oC. It is in violent motion, subject to the strong
convection currents welling up from beneath. The
motion of charged particles produces intense, dynamic magnetic fields. When these
fields warp and twist around each other, magnetic storms can distort and disrupt
the motion of the convection currents near the surface and sunspots are formed
(see Fig. 20.11). These regions, often larger than several Earths, are cooler than the
surrounding photosphere by several hundred degrees, making them appear dark next
to the very bright normal areas.

Figure 20.11 (a)

Sunspots, when
they occur, are
clearly visible on
the surface of
the Sun

Figure 20.11 (b) A closeup showing the features of

sunspots: note the granular
appearance of the Suns surface

Sunspots were first observed by Galileo in 1610. An image of the Sun can be
produced on a screen when sunlight is passed through a very small hole made in a
piece of cardboard. (This is easily done as a class exercise.) The number of sunspots
present goes through a cycle that is, on average, 11 years long (see Fig. 20.12). The
time between peak sunspot activity has varied in the past from 9 to 13 years. In

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No. of sunspots

No. of sunspots

the cosmic engine

Figure 20.12 Sunspot numbers recorded over

the past 250 years: these records show the
sunspot cycle, along with the irregular nature of
the cycle

300
200
100
0

1760

300
200
100
0
1880

between these peak times, sunspot

activity declines. In October 2008,
there were no sunspots at all. A
period of peak sunspot activity is
next expected around 2012 or 2013,
but its arrival cannot be predicted
accurately.
In periods of peak sunspot
activity, the total energy radiated by
the Sun increases slightly and the
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
solar wind is most intense. During
Year
these times, solar flares and coronal
mass ejections are more likely to
occur as the Suns surface becomes more turbulent and violent. If the Earth happens
to lie in the path of a coronal mass ejection or a particularly intense solar wind,
our magnetic field can be disturbed and the flow of charged particles in the upper
atmosphere can disrupt power supplies and satellite communications.

1780

1900

1800

1820
Year

1840

1660

1880

Explaining sunspots using scientific principles

PFA

P5
Describes the
scientific principles
employed in
particular areas of
research in physics

TR

Mapping the PFAs

PFA scaffold P5

Remote sensing to make observations and gather data; hypothesising to make

predictions of future events; constructing models to explain observations and
modifying models when observations do not fitthese are some of the scientific
principles used in the study of sunspots and associated solar phenomena. These
applied scientific principles are outlined here.

Remote sensing
It is not possible to make direct measurements of conditions on the Suns surface.
Temperatures, magnetic fields and other conditions must be monitored and
observed from a distance by remote sensing using instruments on Earth, in orbit
around the Earth and the Sun, and on board space probes sent flying past the Sun.
In the past few decades the improvements in technology and the investments made
in space probes have resulted in a vast leap in observations by remote sensing
techniques.

Hypothesising
The conditions on the Suns surface are not found anywhere on Earth. We cannot
replicate them accurately, and therefore they cant be investigated closely. To explain
the observations made, theories and hypothesise need to be made based on known

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chapter 20 the sun affects the earth in many ways

physics. If these hypothesise do not fit subsequent observations they need to be

modified or replaced. The scientific method is based on this procedureobserve,
hypothesise, test and modify if needed.

Models
Models used to explain the development of sunspots are developed that fit in with
theories, hypotheses and nuclear physics knowledge applied to the whole of the
Sun, not just its surface. The entanglement of magnetic field lines originating from
beneath the Suns surface and extending well into space go a long way in explaining
sunspots. There are still gaps in the model but as research in this fascinating field
progresses, the models we have may be modified and refined to incorporate the
missing pieces.
USEFUL WEBSITES:
Sun science:
http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/hessi_epo/html/sun.html

>WWW

Sunspot history:
http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/SEGwayed/lessons/sunspots/
CSIRO Sunspot resources:
http://www.csiro.au/resources/ps2ac.html
Todays space weather:
http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/today.html

Assessing the effects of sunspot activity

n

Identify data sources, gather and process information

and use available evidence to assess the effects of
sunspot activity on the Earths power grid and satellite
communications

When the charged particles that make up the solar wind enter the region of space influenced
by the Earths magnetic field, they are deflected towards the polar regions. Figure 20.9
shows their spiral paths towards the north and south magnetic poles. This flow changes
the magnetic field of the Earth on the surface, which in turn can induce voltages in long
wires such as those used to transmit electricity over large distances. Automatic safeguards
that protect electricity transmission grids from being overloaded may be triggered, cutting
off power supplies to whole regions. Such an event occurred with little or no warning in the
north-east of the United States and south-eastern region of Canada in 1989 during a solar
flare event. The Hydro-Quebec power transmission system was shut down, causing over six
million people to have their electricity supply cut.
Satellite communications may also be affected directly and indirectly by solar flare events.
The stream of charged particles may induce voltages in satellite electronics that can overload
and even destroy the delicate components that are used. Additionally, the interaction of the
particles in the solar wind with the ionosphere produces radio wave energy that may swamp
the weak signals being sent by satellites. The GPS operations are particularly vulnerable, as
the satellite signals are very weak once they reach Earths surface.

secondary
source
investigation
PFA
P3, 4, 5
physics skills
11.1 A, B, D, E
12.3 AE
12.4 A, C, D, E, F
14.1 A, B, F, G, H
14.2 A, C, D

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the cosmic engine

Solar flare activity is now closely monitored by a number of satellites, including SOHO
and RHESSI (see Fig. 20.13). Even a few hours notice of a solar storm will give the
operators of satellites and power grids time to take protective action.
Figure 20.13 The RHESSI solar flare observatory,
launched in 2002 to photograph and monitor solar
flare activity

WWW<

USEFUL WEBSITES:
A solar flare event in October 2003:
http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solar_flare_031028.html
How GSP navigation satellites might be affected by solar flares:
http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Sept06/solar.flares.gps.TO.html
The RHESSI satellite observatory:
http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n0203/29rhessi/
How solar flares may disrupt GPS in 2011:
http://technology.newscientist.com/article/dn10189-solar-flares-will-disrupt-gps-in-2011.html
Reports of the solar flare event in October 2003:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3223739.stm
NOAA magazine article:
http://www.magazine.noaa.gov/stories/mag131.htm
Resources useful for this activity:
http://www.solarstorms.org/

chapter revision questions

1. Explain the differences in alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays in terms of their:

(a) ionising ability

(b) penetrating power
(c) paths when moving through electric and magnetic fields
2. From where does the energy come when alpha particles or beta particles are emitted?
3. Describe what happens to the nucleus when it emits (a) an alpha particle and (b) a beta

particle in terms of the number of protons and neutrons left behind.

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the cosmic engine: review questions

4. If electrons do not exist in the nucleus, how do beta particles come from here?
5. (a) What constitutes the solar wind?

(b) How fast does the solar wind travel through space?
(c) From where does the solar wind originate?
6. Why do sunspots appear dark?
7. Identify two phenomena that vary with the solar cycle.
8. A coronal mass ejection has just struck the Earths magnetic field. Describe the events

that might be observed from the Earths surface over the next few hours.

the cosmic engine: review questions

1. For any one model of the Universe between the time of Aristotle and Newton:

(a) Sketch the arrangement of the Universe that was proposed by this model.
(b) State how the model proposed that the heavenly bodies were being held in place.
(c) Outline any limitations of the model.
(d) Compare the model to the accepted present-day model of the Universe.
2. Describe how the models of the Universe changed over time with advances in available

technology.
3. (a) Describe the observations made by Hubble that led to the confirmation of the

expanding nature of the Universe.

(b) Outline the role Friedmann played in the discovery of the expanding Universe.
4. Outline the processes immediately after the Big Bang that are believed to have led to the

formation of the first stars.

5. Describe the colour changes that may be observed as a very hot body becomes hotter.
6. Relate the colour of stars to how astronomers can determine their surface temperature.
7. Sketch the axes for a HertzsprungRussell diagram. Label both axes and the sketch the

approximate positions of:

(a) white dwarf stars
(b) very cool but very large stars
(c) a Main Sequence star like our Sun
(d) a blue super giant star.
8. Explain why the term Main Sequence as applied to stars is not really a sequence.
9. Outline the key differences between white dwarf stars and a typical Main Sequence star.
10. Outline the mechanism that is believed to occur in the core of stars that provides them

with their source of energy.

11. A star is observed to have a brightness of 16 units. How much larger would it need to

become (with every other factor held constant) if its brightness were to increase to
64 units?
12. Describe the changes to the brightness of star when your spaceship moves from

1000 light years away to 10 light years distant.

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