1.

2 methods of fabrication
Process equipment is fabricated by a number of well established methods such as
welding, casting, forging, machining, brazing and soldering and sheet-metal
forming. Each method has certain advantages for particular type of equipment.
However, fusion welding is the most important method. The size, shape, service,
and material
Gray-iron castings have been widely used the mass production of small pipe fittings
and are used to a considerable extent for large items such as cast-ironpipe. lieatexchanger shells, and evaporator bodies because of the superior corrosinnresistanse or cast
iron compared with steel. Large-diameter vessels cannot be easily cast. And the strength of
iron is reliable for pressure-rcssel gray not service. Cast steel may be used for small-diameter
thick-walled vessels. Furthermore, i-cause of its higher atrength and greater reliability as
compared with cast iron, it is more ouitable for high pretsure service where metal porosity
not a problem. The din meter is still vessal of problems in casting limiting because Alloy cast
steel vestelaan be used for high-temperature and high pressure installati Forging in a
method of shaping metal that is mmmonly used for certain vessel parts such naelosures,
flanges, and fittings. Vessels with wall thicknesses greater than 4 are n freed. Other cal
methods or haping metal.euch ns pressing. spinning, and rolling of plates. are u wed for
forming closures for vessel shells and are discussed later in the test. Sheet metal for ming is
sinilar to pressing in that metal is shaped by means of and dies. but this presses method is
Limited to relatively thin atock. The of rrocea sheet-metal forming ns n method of vessel
fabrication finds its greatest application in the field of oonrerrousmeual. Ruch is r, Manel,
and stainless steel. Where c
Con idern! ions often jueclude the use of heavier stock.
Bivetingwis widely used. Prior to the improvement of toes, for many diferent kinds Of :nk..
boiles, and a variety of presLiliusel for iabr! ation of non re- welding techniques have
become so advanced th even these materials are often welded today. Because of the trends
away from riveted contrnelion, the designs based upun riveting a method or fabrication will
not be discussen in this text.
Machining is the only method other than cold forming can used to secure exact tolerances.
Close tolerances are required for the mating parts or equipment. Flange faces, bushings,
and bearing surfaces are usually machined inorder to provide satisfactory alignment.
Laboratory and pilot plant equipment for very-high pressure service is sometimes machine
from solid stock pierced ingots, and forgings. multilayer vessels for high pressure

services may be fabricated by machining a series of concentric shells and shrink fitting for
producing desirable prestress conditions. This method of vessel fabrication is discussed in a
later section of the text.In general,machining is an expensive operation and is limited to
small vessel and purs in which thia cost can le justified

1.2afusion welding. Fusion welding is the mostwidely used method of fabrication for the
construction of steel vessels (12). This method of construction is virtually unlimited with

regard to size and is extensively used for the fabrication and erection of large-size process
equipment in the field. Often such equipment is fabrieated by the method of subassembly.
In this process, sections of the unit are shop welded and then assembled in the field.
Equipment having a size sufliciently small to permit transportation by trucks.ruil, or barge is
usunlly completely shop weldedbecause of the lower cost and greater control of the
welding procedure in the shop.

There are two types of fusion welding that are extensively used for the fabrication of
vessels. These are: (1) the gas Melding process, in which a combustible mixture of acetylene
and oxygen supply the necessary heat for fusion, and (2) the electric-arc welding process, in
which the heat of fusion is supplied by an electric current (13. 14. 15. 16). Arc welding is
the preferred process because of the reduction of heat in the material being welded, the
reduction of oxidation. and better control of the deposited weld metal. A wide range of
arc-welding equipment is available. from the small portable welding units to the large
automatic welding machines. Small arc-welding machine are widely used in welding shops
that fabricate small equipment whereas then. machines are better suited for the welding
deposition of large quantity heavy sections involving the n of weld metal Figure 16
illustrates the use of an automatic welding machine in fabricating a large-diametervessel.

Gas welding is the preferred type of welding for lightof metal (20 gage or less), which are
difficult to weldare welding process, Gas welding equipmentisextremely useful in flame
cutting either in the field or inthe shop.
One of the most recent and successful developments in thefield of are welding of vessels is
the submerged-are weldingprocess (17) This process was virtually unknown at thebeginning
of World War II. The necessity of expeditingproduction of welded equipment during the war
yearsresulted in tie renlization of the advantages of this technique. The process involves
submerging of the arc beneatha blanket of granulated mineral flux. The arc beneath
thehlanket generates heat to melt the electrode and depositsweld metal A portion of the
granulated flux melts. Formingprotective layer on the weld meta!.and solidifies with
theweld metal. In addition to completely protecting the weldmetal from the atmosphere,
this process makes the weldmetal virtually free of hydrogen. As the arc is covered,there is
no arc flash, and also a lesser quantity of smoke andobnoxious fumes is produced as
compared with the earlierwelding processes. As the weld can not be observed by
theoperator, merhanical attachments are used to control thedimensions of the weld.
Severalinches of weld metal canbe deposited in one pass, a fact which greatly decreases
thewelding time involved. However, the greatest advantage

1.2 metodefabrikasi
Peralatan proses yang dibuatolehsejumlahmetodewellestablishedsepertipengelasan,
pengecoran, penempaan, mesin, mematridanlembaran-mental yang membentuk.
Setiapmetodememilikikelebihantertentuuntukjenistertentuperalatan.Namun,
pengelasanfusiadalahmetode yang paling penting.
Tuangabuabubesitelahbanyakdigunakandalamproduksimassalalatkelengkapanpipakecildandig
unakanuntuksebagianbesaruntukbarangbarangbesarsepertipirbesi.kerangpenukarlieat-, danbadan-badan evaporator
karenaresistarsecorrosinn superior ataubesicordibandingkandenganbaja.
Pembuluhberdiameterbesartidakdapatdenganmudah cor. Dan
kekuatanbesihandaluntuktekanan-rcsselabu-abutidaklayanan.Baja
cordapatdigunakanuntukberdiameterkecilpembuluhberdindingtebal.Selainitu, ipenyebabatrength yang lebihtinggidankeandalan yang
lebihbesardibandingkandenganbesicor,
lebihouitableuntuklayananpretsuretinggidimanaporositaslogamtidakmasalah. Din
meteranmasihvessalmasalahdalam casting membatasikarena Alloy
corbajavestelasebuahdigunakanuntuksuhutinggidantekanantinggiinstallatiTempadal
ammetodemembentuklogam yang
mmmonlydigunakanuntukbagiankapaltertentusepertinaelosures, flensa,
danalatkelengkapan .Kapaldenganketebalandindinglebihbesardari 4 yang n
dibebaskan.MetodekalatauHapinglogam.nseuchmenekan. berputar,
danbergulirdaripiring.
umenikahuntukmembentukpenutupanuntukkerangkapaldandibahaskemudiandalam
ujian. Lembaranlogamuntukmingadalahsinilaruntukmenekandalamlogam yang
dibentukdengancaradanmati.
tapiinimenekanmetodeadalahterbatasuntukatockrelatif tipis. The
rroceadarilembaran-logammembentuk ns n
metodefabrikasikapalmenemukanaplikasi yang terbesar di
bidangmeualoonrerrous.Ruchadalah r, Manel, dan stainless steel.dimana c
Con idern! ionseringjuecludepenggunaanberatsaham.% ve ting wisluas sed.
Sebelumperbaikanjari kaki, tor berbagaijenisberbeda Of: nk .. boiles,
danberbagaipresLiliuseluntukiabr! asiteknikpengelasan non
ulangtelahmenjadithbegitumajubahkanbahaniniseringdilashari.
Karenatrenjauhdaricontrnelionterpaku,
desainberbasisupunmemukaumetodeataufabrikasitidakakan dis-cusdalam
Machining teksiniadalahsatusatunyametodeselaindinginmembentukdapatdigunakanuntukmengamankantolerans
i yang tepatTutupances Toler diperlukanuntukkawinbagianataurasperalatanFlinre,

ring, danpermukaanbantalanbiasanyamesiniliorileruntukmemberikan 1atis!

Laboratoriumalipnmentactorydanperalatanpabrikpercontohanuntukcervicetekanan
yang sangattinggikadang-kadangesinnidarisahammenusuk ingot padat. danuntuk
Kings.
kapallapisanuntuklayanantekanantinggidapatdibuatdenganseriTuaeliinikerangsentri
sdanmenyusut pas untukmemproduksikondisiprestressdiinginkan.
MetodefabrikasikapaldibahaspadabagianselanjutnyadariteksSecaraumum.Inachining
adalahoperasi yang mahaldanterbataspadakapalkecildanPurs di
manabiayathiadapatdibenarkan le

1.2a
pengelasanfusi. Pengelasanfusiadalah yang paling
banyakmetodefabrikasi yang digunakanuntukpembangunankapalbaja (12).
Metodekonstruksihampirtakterbatasdalamhalukurandansecaraluasdigunakanuntukf
abrikasidancreclienperalatan proses ukuranbesar di lapangan.
Seringkaliperalatantersebutmbrieateddenganmetode subassembly.Dalam proses ini,
bagiandari unit yang tokodilasdankemudiandirakit di lapangan.
Peralatanmemilikiukuransuflicientlykeciluntukmengizinkantransportasidengantruk.r
uil, atautongkang yang usunllysepenuhnya shop dilas
karenabiaya yang lebihrendahdankontrol yang lebihbesardariprosedurpengelasan di
toko. Ada duajenispengelasanfusi yang
banyakdigunakanuntukpembuatankapal.Iniadalah: (1) proses perpaduan gas, di
manacampuran yang mudahterbakarasetilena und oksigenmemasokpanas yang
diperlukanuntuk fusion. dan (2) listrik-proses lasbusur, di
manapanasfusidisuplaioleharuslistrik (13. 14. 15. 16). Pengelasanbusuradalah
proses disukaikarenapenguranganpanasdalammateri yang dilas,
penguranganoksidasi. dankontrol yang lebihbaikdarilogamlasdisimpan.
Berbagaimacamperalatanbusur-lastersedia.dari unit
lasportabelkecildenganmesinlasotomatisbesar. Kecil mesinbusur-lassecaraluasusod
di toko-toko yang
membuatperalatankecilsedangkankemudianpengelasan.mesinlebihcocokuntukpeng
endapanpengelasanjumlahbesarbagianberat yang melibatkan n laslogamGambar
16 menggambarkanpenggunaanmesinlasotomatis di fahricatingberdiameterbesar

kapal

Las gas adalahjenis yang disukaipengelasanuntukcahayalogam (20

pengukurataukurang), yang sulituntukpengelasan proses pengelasan, peralatanlas
gas sangatbergunadalamllamepemotonganbaik di lapanganatau di toko Salah satu
yang paling baru-baruinidanperkembangan yang sukses di bidangpengelasankapal
yang terendamadalah proses pengelasan (17) proses
inihampirtidakdikenalpadaawalperangDunia I.
perlunyamempercepatproduksiperalatanlasselamatahun-

tahunperangmengakibatkandasirenlizationdarikeuntungandariteknikini. Proses
inimelibatkanperendamanbusurkeneath a pasirfiux mineral.
BusurbawahEeneratehlanket.panasuntukmelelehkanelektrodadan deposit
lasnietalSebagiandariflukspasirmencair. Membentuklapisanpelindungpada meta
las !.danmembekudenganlogamlas. Selainbenarbenarmelindungilogamlasdariatmosfer, proses
inimembuatlogamlashampirbebasdarihidrogen.Sepertibusurtertutup.tidakada flash
busur, danjugajumlah yang lebihrendahdariasapdanmenjengkelkanasap yang
dihasilkandibandingkandengan proses pengelasansebelumnya.
Sebagailastidakdapatdiamatioleh operator,
lampiranmerhanicaldigunakanuntukmengontroldimensilas.Beberapaincidarilogamla
sdapatdisimpandalamsatu lulus, sebuahfakta yang
sangatmengurangiwaktupengelasan yang terlibat.Namun, keuntunganterbesar...