Elements of Scientific Research

1) Characterization
Observation
Measurement
Research problem
2) Hypothesis and Theory
Previous research and Prediction
3) Testing hypotheses and Drawing conclusions
Problem Formulation
i) Statement of the problem in a General way
Broad general way
ii) Understanding the Nature of the problem
Understand its origin and nature clearly
iii) Surveying the available Literature
Relevant theories/literature
iv) Developing the ideas through Discussions
Experience survey
v) Rephrasing the research problem
Development of working proposition
Hypothesis
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A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for certain behaviors, phenomena or events

that have occurred or will occur.
Characteristics of the Hypothesis
Consistent with previous research
Reasonable explanation
Clear and concise
Testable
EXAMPLE 1
Phenomenon
It has been noticed that some people claim that they gain weight even when they
eat moderately, whereas others claim that they can eat as much as they want
without gaining weight.
Problem Statement
The purpose of this study is to predict/investigate the relationship between food
intake and body weight gain.
Research question
Is there a connection between the amount of food that is eaten and weight gain?
Hypothesis
HA: When people eat more, they gain weight.
OR
HA: There will be a difference between the mean weight gain of the two groups
when fed different amounts of food.
EXAMPLE 2
Problem statement
The purpose of this study is to describe and compare the attitudes and
performance of male and female students towards research courses at Iqra
University.
Research questions
Descriptive Study:
Q1.What are the attitudes of male/female students towards research courses?
Q2. What is the performance of..?
Comparative Study:
Q3: What is the difference in attitudes of male and female students toward
research?
Q4.Are there differences between the performance of male and female students in
research courses?
What you are going to do? Verb
What is going to be research? Key words/Phrase (Variables)
Hypotheses
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H1: Male students have more positive attitude towards research than female
students.
H2: Male students perform better than female students in research courses.
OR
H1: Female students have more positive attitude towards research than male
students.
H2: Female students perform better than male students in research courses
EXAMPLE 3
Rephrasing the Research Problem: Example
1. Why is productivity in China (or Japan) so much higher than in Pakistan? (Broad
general way)
2. What factors were responsible for the higher labour productivity of Chinas
manufacturing industries during the decade 2001 to 2010 relative to Pakistans
manufacturing industries? (Specific)
3. To what extent did labour productivity in 2001 to 2010 in China exceed that of
Pakistan in respect of 20 selected manufacturing industries? What factors were
responsible for the productivity differentials between the two countries by
industries? (Rethinking & Rephrasing)
Research Problem
Description of a difficulty that needs to be solved
Issue(s)
Idea(s)
Curiosity
Selection of a Research Topic/Problem
a) Identify a general problem area
b) Narrow down the general problem area to specific
Characteristics:
i) Researchable
a) To investigate through the collection of data
b) No reward/punishment
ii) Theoretical and practical significance
iii) Interest
iv) Skills
v) Available resources
Sources: Theory/Literature, Experiences
Statement of the Problem
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i) Well-written statement-variable(s)/relationship
ii) Research plan/Design
Variable
Concept/Construct ?
Conceptualization ?
Operationalization ?
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework of the study is a structure that can hold or support a theory of a research
work. It presents the theory which explains why the problem under study exists.
i) Variables of the study
ii) A general representation of relationship between things/variables in a given phenomenon
Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework is the researchers idea on how the research problem will have to be explored.
i) Operationalization of the theory
ii) Direction (model-previous study/modification)
Variable:
A dimension along which individual attributes (e.g. people, events, and objects)
can vary (i.e. data can be collected and measured)
Any observation that can take on different values
Attribute: a specific value on a variable
An independent variable is any variable that is being manipulated.
A dependent variable is any variable that is being measured.
Levels of Measurement
Objects Events People
Assigning discrete categories called Categorical Measurement
Identifying the attributes on numerical scale called Metric Measurement
Categorical Measurement
a) Nominal:
Homogeneous, Mutually exclusive and exhaustive, Dichotomous/Binary
b) Ordinal
Rank ordered along some dimension, relative position
Metric Measurement
a) Interval
Same distance apart, has an arbitrary zero
b) Ratio
Same as interval except it has an absolute zero point
Types of Data
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Time series data: .at different time.

Cross-section data: at the same point in time.
Pooled data: .combination of time series and cross-section data.
Panel data: special type of pooled data.same cross-sectional units
Types of Research
a) Descriptive vs. Analytical
b) Fundamental vs. Applied
c) Quantitative vs. Qualitative
i) Descriptive vs. Analytical
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.
The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state affairs as it
exists at present. In analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of
the material. (Kothari)
ii) Fundamental vs. Applied
Fundamental or pure research is conducted solely for the purpose of gathering
information and building on existing knowledge, as opposed to applied research,
which is geared towards the resolution of a particular question.
iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Quantitative research is based on the quantitative measurements of some
characteristics. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantities. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to quality.
Quantitative research is used to quantify the relationship between variables.
Qualitative research is used to gain insight into peoples attitudes, behaviors,
value systems, concerns, motivations, aspirations, culture or lifestyles.

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Quantitative and Qualitative research Approaches

Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
Systematic
Systematic
Objective
Facts & Figures

Subjective
Opinions, Preferences,
Personal Considerations

Deductive
Previous known fact
General to Specific
Waterfall: Theory Hypothesis
Observations Confirmation

Inductive
based on format/pattern
Specific to General
Hill climbing: Observations
Tentative Hypothesis Pattern
Theory
Transferability
to apply the results of research in
one context to another similar
context
Words
Non-Numerical data, Mainly verbal
data

Generalizability
The results of research can be
applied to the population at large.
Numbers
Numerical data

Correlational Research
To identify/discover/predict the relationship between two or more variables.
Correlational studies as a means of looking for relations between variables when experiment cant
be done.
A statistical relationship between two or more things
An act which produces an effect
Correlation and Causation
Correlation is a first step to determine causation.
If there is no association between two variables then there is no causal connection.
Correlation does not prove causation.
Directionality problem
X<>Y
Third variable problem
Z
X<>Y
How to do?
1) Correlation Analysis
Karl Pearson Correlation
Spearman Rank Correlation
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 Kendalls Tau Correlation

Etc
2) Regression Analysis
Simple Regression Analysis
Multiple Regression analysis
Canonical Correlation Analysis
Etc

Experimental Research
Collecting evidence to show the effect of one or more variable(s) upon other if a researcher
/experimenter manipulates the independent variable(s)
Main steps of Experimental research
1) Random selection
2) Random assignment to different levels of
independent variable(s)
3) Manipulate the levels of independent variable(s)
4) Control the Extraneous variable(s)
Descriptive study
It involves gathering data that describes events and then organizes, tabulates and describes the data.
1) Measure of central tendency
2) Measure of statistical variability
3) Measure of distribution shape
Categorical Data Pie chart or Bar chart
Metric Data Histogram or line graphs

Data Collection Methods

How to Collect Replies?
I. Observing
a. Participant observation
b. Non-Participant observation
II. Interviews
a. Face-To-Face Interview
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b. Telephone Interview
III. Questionnaires
a. Paper-Pencil-Questionnaire
b. Web based Questionnaire
Hand-delivering
Structured/Unstructured
Interview vs. Schedules
Enumerators
By Mail
Gathering Data in one place
IV. Focus Group Discussion
a. 5-10 informant
V. Projective Techniques
a. Visual/Verbal Stimulus
b. Hypothetical Questions
Questionnaire Design:
Elements
o Determine the questions to be asked
o Question Sequence/ Layout
o Question Type/wording
Sequence/Layout
o Brief Introductory Statement
o Font, Bold, etc.
o Easier Question at the Beginning
Argue/Logic
Question types
o Open-Ended Vs Close-Ended
o Single Vs Multiple
o Ranking Vs Rating
Open-Ended Vs Close Ended
Q1: What do you think about two candidates in this election?
Q2: Who will you vote for this election?
Single Vs Multiple
Q1: Which of the following means do you use to travel to
university?

Car

Bike , Bus
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Q2: Which is your most usual means of travelling to university?

Q3: Select up to three of the options below and enter in the boxes Option
A
B
C, D, E
Ranking Vs Rating
o Place in order of importance to you the following factors for investing in stock market (1-3 in order;
where 1 is the most important factor)
Most commonly used applicationLikert Scale e.g.
1
2
3
4
5
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neither Agree Nor Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Good
Neutral
Bad
Never
Infrequently
Sometimes
Frequently
Always
Question Wording:
Be concise and unambiguous
Q1: Do you believe that the UK should have a bicameral parliament? (Avoid
Jargon word)
Q2: Have you been to the cinema recently?
Q3: Have you been to the cinema in the last two weeks?
Avoid Double/Negative/Leading Question
Double Q1: Do you think the Pakistani should eat less and exercise more?
Negative Q2: Are you against the ban on smoking?
Leading Q3: Would you vote for Mr. Ali?
Confidentiality and Ethics:
Privacy
Personally searching questions
Promises of confidentiality
o Your responses will be treated with confidentiality
Declared in the Questionnaire
Sampling Techniques
Probability Sampling
(Simple) Random Sampling
Systematic (Random) Sampling
Stratified (Random) Sampling
Cluster (Random) Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling
Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Quota Sampling
Convenience Sampling
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Survey Research
What is a Survey?
The Survey method is the technique of gathering data by asking questions to people who are thought
to have desired information.
A method of primary data collection based on communication with a representative sample of
individuals (called respondents).
Tool for obtaining information from a sample of individuals
1) Type of Information
Attributes (Gender, Age, Ethnicity etc...)
Behaviours and Experiences
How do people act?
Knowledge questions
Attitudes and opinions/ Expectations
What do people believe and how do they feel about things?
Whats going to happen?
2) Type of Data
Nominal, ordinal, Interval and Ratio
3) Type of Response
Open-ended
Closed questions
Dichotomous questions
Multiple-choice
Rank/priority
Likert scales (level of agreement)
Basic process
o Problem statement/Research question(s)
Research aims
o Population and sample
o Collecting Replies
o Questionnaire Design
o Pilot Survey
o Main Survey
o Analyze the Data
Classification of surveys
Descriptive surveys vs. Analytic surveys
Qualitative vs. Quantitative
Cross-sectional surveys vs. Longitudinal surveys:
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Types of Longitudinal Surveys

Trend study:
Same population but not composed of the same people (Examines general population over time)
Cohort study:
Examines specific sub-population (Subset of the population or sub-sample of the population)
Panel study:
Study the same sample of people every time
Types of Errors (Survey Research)
Coverage error:
Not included all elements (list or frame) of the population
Sampling error:
Taken only a subset of all people in the population instead of conducting a census
Measurement error:
Respondents answer to a giving question is inaccurate
Non-response error
A significant number of people in the survey sample do not respond to the questionnaire
Validity and Reliability
Validity:
An instrument is valid if it measures what it is supposed to measure.
Validity tests show how well an instrument that is developed measures the particular concept it is
intended to measure.
Valid
RealityYes
RealityNo
Test says Yes
True
False
Test says No

False

True

Reliability:
Consistency of measurement across time and judges
The degree of stability exhibited when a measurement is repeated under identical conditions.
The degree of stability exhibited when a measurement
is repeated under identical conditions. Realible
Measure # 1
Yes
Measure # 1
No

Measure # 2
Yes
Agree

Measure # 2
No
Disagree

Disagree

Agree

Types of Measurement Validity

1) Face Validity: (in the judgment of others)
Instrument measures what it looks like it measures
2) Content Validity: (Captures the entire meanings)
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 Adequate sampling of relevant material that the test purports to measure

Content of the measure is justified by other evidence, e.g. the literature
Usually evaluated and scored by experts in the content area
3) Criterion Validity: (Agrees with an external source)
An indicator is compared with another measure of the same construct in which the research has
confidence
Concurrent: agrees with a pre-existing measure
Predictive: agrees with future behavior
4) Construct Validity:(Multiple indicators are consistent)
Focuses on how well a measure conforms to/with theoretical expectations
How well an instrument measures a hypothetical construct such as IQ, anxiety, or attitudes etc
Convergent and Discriminant Validity
High correlation with measures of same traits & Low correlation with measures of unrelated
characteristics
Depression, Happiness, Anxiety, Physical health etc
Types of Measurement Reliability
1) Test-retest:
Stability over time
2) Inter-rater:
Reliability is of concern whenever test scores depend on a raters judgment
3) Internal Consistency:
Half split, Correlation coefficient, Cronbachs Alpha (0.7 - 0.95)
Interview Probes
Probe: to search/examine thoroughly, question closely,
Types of Probes
I. Detail-oriented Probes
-- Try to Understand
Try to get more detail
Q1: How are you going to try to deal with situation?
II. Elaboration Probes
-- Try to continue talking
To encourage the interviewee to tell us more
Q1: Can you give me an example of what you are talking about?
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III. Clarification Probes

-- Try to Clarify
The Interviewer is unsure of what the interviewee is talking about?
Q1: I want to make sure I understand what you mean. Would you describe it for me again?
Econometric issues:
1) Model specification
2) Multicollinearity
b/w predictors
Increase the error
Two Highly Correlated Variables
3) Heteroscedasticity
Difference b/w variances
Error Term: Variances Unequal
Example Lower, Middle, Upper Class
4) Auto-correlation
Correlation b/w Errors
Lag correlation of a given time series with itself
5) Serial Correlation
Lag Correlation b/w two different time series
5) Endogeneity etc
Correlation b/w Predictor & Error Term

1) Narrative Research
Narrative research is research that is concerned with stories.
The study of how different humans experience the world around them, and it
uses a methodology that allows people to tell the stories of their storied lives.
(Stephen E. Brock)
How much do you sacrifice to your children in order to be successful?
Types: Biography study, Autobiography and Life history etc
2) Phenomenology (Edmund Husserl)
The study of experience (as it is lived).
It is matter of studying every day experience from the point of view of the
subject (participant).
Identification of shared experience
Universal (General) nature of an experience
Locate essence
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Phenomenological Methodology
a) Epoche/Bracketing
Natural attitude
Independent existence (Neither for nor against)
Describe/ dont explain
b) Horizonalization (or Horizontalization)
Attempt to understand an experience
Every statement has equal value.
c) Delimited Horizon
Irrelevant to the topic
Non-Repetitive
Non-Overlapping
d) Clustering the Horizons into Themes
3) Participatory Action Research (PAR)
Par is a collaborative process between researchers and participants.
Critical dialogue
Shared responsibility

Improvement/Development
Cycle1
Study and Plan

Cycle2

Take Action

Take Action

Collect and Analyze

evidence

Reflect

Collect and Analyze evidence

Cycle3

Study and Plan

Reflect

4) Grounded Theory (Glaser)

To explore social process to generate/discover theory of human behavior
Procedure:
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i) Category: collection of concepts/incidents

ii) Open coding: Coding the data for major categories ---- Application of labels
iii) Axial coding: Connection between categories like: compare, contrast etc
iv) Causal Coordination: Identification of causal relations
5) Ethnography (Friedrich Mller)
A study of an entire cultural group. (Life ways or patterns including events,
beliefs and practices of a culture)
Qualitative data:
Interview transcript
Field notes (notes taken in the field being studied)
Audio/Video recordings
Images
Documents (reports, meeting minutes, e-mails etc...)
Analyzing Qualitative Data
Computer Software:
CAQDAS: Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis
Atlas-ti:
NUDIST: Non-numerical Unstructured Data Indexing Searching and Theorizing
NVivo: NUD*IST VIVO
Folio Views:
familiarizing yourself with your data
Reading and re-reading data, nothing down initial ideas
Category
Collection of concepts/incidents
Open coding
Coding the data for major categories-Application of labels
Axial coding
Connection between categories like compare, contrast etc
Reporting the Findings
Final analysis of selected extracts
Relating back of the analysis to the research question(s) and literature
Unit of Analysis
Chunk of data (words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs etc)
Open coding (one or two words summary, manageable segment, quick access, Nodes)
Range the themes
Ordinary themes
Unexpected themes
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Major and sub-theme

Examine the ideas that make up that theme and sub-theme (Interact with each other)
Write up
Narrative from themes and sub themes
Discussion of the inter relationship

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