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436
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
andlegality,
andbecause
topics,stigma,
people in thesesituationsare usually
adeptat coveringthe factswhennecoftentheonlywaya researcher
essary,
can obtainany data, or data that is
of obaccurate,is some combination
servingwhat is going on, talkingin
ratherloose,sharing,fashionwiththe
people in the situation,and reading
someformof document
thattheyhave
written.
Thesemethodsbestallow the
researcher
eitherto gain the trustof
thepeople in the situationor, if necessary,to accomplishclandestineresearch.In viewof thisdistinctive
relevance of qualitativedata collection
and analysisformanyareas of social
problems,the constantcomparative
methodof qualitativeanalysiswill in
I trust,increasethebattery
particular,
of alternative
approachesusefulto researchers
in theseareas.
the
My otherpurposein presenting
constantcomparative
methodmay be
stated by a direct quotationfrom
Robert K. Merton-a statementhe
made in connectionwith his own
qualitativeanalysisof locals and cosinfluentials:
mopolitansas community
This part of our report,then, is a bid
to the sociological fraternityfor the
practice of incorporatingin publications
a detailed account of the ways in which
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ConstantComparativeMethod of Analysis
437
his material.8
Not onlywouldanalysis
aftera codingoperationunnecessarily
withhis purpose,
delayand interfere
but explicitcodingitselfoftenseems
an unnecessary,
task.As a
burdensome
result,the analystmerelyinspectshis
data for new properties
of his theoSOME DIVERSE APPROACHES TO
reticalcategories
and writesmemoson
ANALYSIS
QUALITATIVE
theseproperties.
Two generalcurrentapproachesto
In thispaper,I wish to suggesta
the analysisof qualitativedata are thirdapproachto theanalysisof qualias follows: (1) If the analystwishes tativedata,combining,
by an analytic
to convert
dataintocrudely procedureof constant
qualitative
the
comparison,
formin orderto testpro- explicitcodingprocedureof the first
quantifiable
he codes the approachand thestyleof theory
visionallyan hypothesis,
develdata firstand then analyzesit. An opmentof thesecond.The purposeof
effort
is madeto code"all relevant
data the constant
methodof
comparative
[that] can be broughtto bear on a jointcodingand analysisis to generate
point,"and then the assemblage,as- theorymore systematically
than aland analysisof thisdata is lowedbythesecondapproachbyusing
sessment,
in a fashion theexplicitcodingand analytic
accomplished
systematically
procethatwill "constitute
prooffora given dures.At the same time,it does not
proposition.''2
thedevelopment
of theory
by
forestall
(2) If the analystwishesonly to adheringcompletelyto the firstapgeneratetheoreticalideas-new con- proachwhichis designedfor proviceptsand theirproperties,
hypothesessional testing,not discovering,of
and interrelated
anal- hypotheses.
hypotheses-the
to the
be confined
ysiscannotusefully
the second approach
Systematizing
practiceof codingfirstand thenanathismethoddoes not supplantthe
by
in
since
the
the
data,
analyst,
lyzing
requiredin indirectpursuitof his purpose,is con- skillsand sensitivities
Rathertheconstant
spection.
comparaand
stantlyredesigning
reintegrating
notionsas he reviews tivemethodis designedto aid analysts
his theoretical
with these abilitiesin generatinga
1 Op. cit., p. 390. This is, of course, theory
whichis integrated,
consistent,
also the basic position of Paul F. Lazars- plausible,close to the data, and in a
feld. See Allen H. Barton and Paul F.
form which is clear enough to be
Lazarsfeld,"Some Functionsof Qualitative
readily,if only partially,operationAnalysisin Social Research,"in SeymourM.
qualitativeanalysesactuallydeveloped.
bodyof such
Onlywhena considerable
reportsare availablewill it be possible
to codifymethodsof qualitative
analysis
with somethingof the claritywith
which quantitative
methodshave been
articulated.1
Lipset and Neil J. Smelser (eds.), Sociology: The Progress of a Decade, Englewood, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,1961. It is the
position that has stimulatedthe work of
Becker and Geer, and Berelson cited in
footnote2.
2 Howard S. Becker and Blanche Geer,
"The Analysis of Qualitative Field Data"
in Human Organization Research, edited
by Richard N. Adams and Jack J. Preiss,
Homewood: Dorsey Press, Inc., 1960, pp.
279-289. See also Howard S. Becker,
"Problems of Inferenceand Proof in Participant Observation," American Sociological Review, Dec., 1958, pp. 652-660, and
Bernard Berelson, ContentAnalysis, Glencoe: Free Press, 1952, Chapter III, and
page 16.
3 Constantlyredesigningthe analysis is
a well known normal tendencyin qualitative research(no matterwhat the approach
to analysis) which occurs throughoutthe
whole researchexperiencefrominitial data
collection throughcoding to final analysis
and writing.It has been noted in Becker
and Geer, op. cit., 270, Berelson, op. cit.,
125; and for an excellentexample of how
it goes on, see Robert K. Merton, Social
Theory and Social Structure,New York:
Free Press, 1957, pp. 390-392. However,
this tendencymay have to be suppressed
in favor of the purpose of the first approach, but in the second approach and
the approach to be presented here, it is
used purposefullyas an analytic strategy.
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438
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
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ConstantComparative
Methodof Analysis
439
TABLE I
USE
OF APPROACHES
Yes
Generating
Yes
Theory
No
TO QUALITATIVE
ANALYSIS
ProvisionalTesting of Theory
No
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440
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
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ConstantComparative
Methodof Analysis
441
ops as different
categoriesand their we were also discoveringthat our
propertiestend to becomeintegrated theorycould be generalizedto one
throughconstantcomparisonswhich which concernsthe care of all, not
forcetheanalystto makesomerelated just dying,patientsby all staff,not
theoretical
sense of each comparison. just nurses.Even more generally,it
of how socialvalues
3. Delimitingthe theory.As the couldbe a theory
will affectthe distheorydevelops, various delimiting of professionals
of theirservicesto clients:
featuresof the constantcomparative tribution
methodset in to curb what could for example,how theydecide who
otherwisebecome an overwhelmingamong many waitingclientsshould
task. This delimitingoccurs at two nextreceivea serviceand whatcalibre
levels: (1) the theoryand (2) the of theserviceto givehim.Thus,with
and conseoriginallistof categories
proposedfor reductionof terminology
whichareforcedby
coding.First,the theorysolidifiesin quentgeneralizing
the sensethatmajormodifications
of which
be- constantcomparisons-some
found
comefewerand feweras one compares can now be based on incidents
the next incidentsof a categoryto in the literature
of otherprofessional
of it. Latermodifications
are areas-theanalyststartsto achievetwo
properties
of theory:(1)
requirements
mainlyon theorderof logicalclarity; foremost
of variablesand formulain- parsimony
paringoffnon-relevant
properties;
detailsof proper- tionand (2) scopein theapplicability
tegrating
elaborating
ties intothe majoroutlineof interre- of thetheory
to a widerangeof situalated categories;and mostimportant,tions,7while keepinga close correreduction.By reductionI mean that spondenceof the theory
to data.
a higherlevel,smallersetof concepts, Second,delimiting
thetheory
results
based on discovering
underlying
uni- in a delimiting
of theoriginallist of
formities
in the originalset of cate- proposed categoriesfor coding. As
goriesor theirproperties,
mightoccur thetheory
grows,reduces,and increasto the analystby whichto writethe inglyworksbetterin orderinga mass
its termino- of qualitative
theory,hence,delimiting
data,theanalystbecomes
to it.Thiscommitment
logyand text.An illustration
now
showing committed
both integration
of moredetailsinto allowshimto delimittheoriginallist
thetheory
and someconsequent
reduc- of categories
for codingaccordingto
tion is the following.We decidedto the boundaries
of his theory.
In turn,
elaboratethetheory
byaddingdetailed his consideration,
coding, and anastrategieswhich the nursesused to lyzingof incidents
becomemoreselect
maintaintheirprofessional
composure and focused.He can devotemoretime
while taking care of patientswith to theconstant
of incidents
comparison
varying
degreesof socialloss.We dis- clearlyapplicableto a smallerset of
coveredthattherationales
whichthey categories.
used among themselves
could all be
Anotherfactor,whichthenfurther
considered"loss rationales."The undelimitsthelistof categories
forcodwas that all ra- ing, is that
derlyinguniformity
categoriesbecometheothe
tionales indicatedwhy
patient, retically
saturated.
Afterone has coded
givenhis degreeof socialloss,would, incidents
forthesamecategory
a numif he lived,now be sociallyworthless; berof
it becomesa quickoperatimes,
in spiteof thesocialloss,he wouldbe tion to see whetheror not the next
betteroff dead. (For example,he
incidentpoints to a new
would have braindamage,be in con- applicable
of the category.If yes, then
aspect
stant,unendurablepain, or have no the incidentis coded and
compared.
chancefor a normallife.)
of terminology 7 Merton, op. cit., p. 260.
reduction
By further
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442
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
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ConstantComparative
Methodof Analysis
443
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444
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
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Methodof Analysis
ConstantComparative
445
sis of one'ssubstantive
and the ample, two relatedpropertiesof a
theory,
analystshould includematerialfrom dyingpatientare his social loss and
other studieswith the same formal the amountof attentionhe receives
theoretical
howeverdiversethe fromnurses.This can easily be reimport,
substantivecontent.15The analyst statedas a proposition:patientsconshouldbe awareof thelevel of gene- sidereda high social loss compared
ralityat whichhe startsin relationto to thoseconsidereda low social loss
thelevelat whichhe wishesto endup. will tend to receivemore attention
The constantcomparativemethod fromnurses.
or proposican yield eitherproperty
15 ".
. the developmentof any one
tional theory.The analystmay wish
is
to proliferatemanypropertiesof a of these coherentanalyticperspectives
likelyto comefromthosewho restrict
or he maywishto writeprop- not
category
exclusively
to one substantive
theirinterest
ositions about a category.Property area," ErvingGoffman,
Stigma:Notes on
at the ex- theManagement
Engleof SpoiledIdentity,
theoryis often sufficient
Inc.,1963,
N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
stageof theorydevelopment woodCliffs,
ploratory
See also ReinhardBendix,"Conintopropo- p. 147.
and caneasilybe translated
cepts and Generalizations
in Comparative
sitions if the work of the reader Sociological
Studies,"American
Sociological
For ex- Review,August,1963, pp. 532-539.
requiresa formalhypothesis.
THE TEXTBOOK
Merrill-PalmerInstitute
functions
forindividMany thingshave been muchsaid formimportant
and as a consequence
about familysociology:it deals with uals and society,
area
sensitive
issuesand therefore
theobjec- familysociologyis an important
of researchers
and theacceptabil- of researchand has producedsomeof
tivity
studiesin thesocial
ityof research
bythepublichavecome themostimportant
slowly; everybodyis an expert in sciences.
The above issueshave been dealt
familysociology,
havinglivedmostof
much withmanytimes,and I shalltherefore
his lifein families,
and therefore
of familysociologyis trivialand com- not elaborate.Nor shall I go into a
monsensical;many groups have a general review of familyresearch,
vested interestin "the family"and becausethe familyarea has perhaps
thereforefamilysociologyis either had morethanits fairshareof such
howor insolently reviewsandcritiques.
conservative
Textbooks,
subserviently
radical; familysociologyboasts of ever,haveseldombeen lookedat critmanydiversestudiesbut few binding ically,exceptin the courseof reviews
unlesssprin- abouta singletextat a time.I shall
theories;it haslow status,
in a critical
vein,concentrate
kled with terms like "kinship" or therefore,
to the
textbooks,
uponfamilysociology
"comparative" or "structural-funcand of texts
neglectof readers,
tional"; it is popular with students relative
or that are primarilypractical(family
interest
(eitherbecauseof intrinsic
(anthropologsuspect. life) or cross-cultural
easy grading) and therefore
I have made no
Despite this rathergloomypicture, ical) in orientation.
familiesof one formor anotherare attempt
to rankthe textsin orderof
found,and universally
per- theirexcellence; all of thosethat I
universally
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