201 D Document

201D Script
Corrosion Management
Methodology
201D Ch1 Practice of Risk-Based Management for

Corrosion
Section 1: Introduction
I n t r o d u c t i on
This segment discusses decisive questions that must be answered to define the
corrosion problems being addressed; links these questions to a corrosion risk
management approach; describes the corrosion prevention and mitigation design
process; and covers the role of corrosion planning and actions during the
acquisition of new systems and facilities.
Resolving Corrosi on Pr ob lems

Sound management decisions and effective courses of action are important to
resolve specific corrosion problems.
First, you need to communicate an awareness of corrosion risks
consequences to everyone involved in the acquisition, operation,
maintenance of systems vulnerable to corrosion.
and
and
Second, you need a sound strategy backed up by an effective corrosion

prevention and control plan to assure better corrosion management and
mitigation throughout the systems life cycle. That means taking action to
avoid or mitigate high risks during system design; specifying practices to
avoid detrimental effects during manufacturing and assembly; defining tools
and techniques to identify high risk conditions and poor quality maintenance
during inspection and repair; and specifying the relevant processes to guide
failure analysis and corrective action when corrosion-causedfailures occur.

Corrosion
Section 2: Problem Definition
D e ci si v e C or r o si on Q u e st i o n s
Developing effective courses of action to thwart or minimize the incidence and
effects of corrosion depends on the answers to decisive corrosion questions.
These questions are focused around: types of equipment and facilities, materials
from which they are manufactured or constructed, and of environments to which
they are exposed.
For example, results of exposure to seawater, harsh environments, temperature,
and stress will vary in in
tensity, depending on the specific operating or storage environment and the
exposure time.
Cor r o si on Q u e s t i on s: G u i d e t o I d e n t i f y R i sk s
A risk based approach to corrosion management and mitigation refers to these
decisive questions as a guide to identifying corrosion risks, and to determining
potential barriers you can employ to control those risks.
Although the objective is to prevent corrosion when possible, that is not always
technologically or financially practical.
In those cases, you determine allowable corrosion and develop a corrosion
management plan for acceptable life performance. Then implement and follow up the
plan.

Corrosion
Section 3: Risk Management Perspective
Corr osi on Risk Vari abl e s
Corrosion risk is a function of vulnerability, probability, and consequence. If
any of the variables equal zero, there is no risk.
As each variable increases, the risk also increases and you must assess the
compound effect in terms of allowable corrosion and acceptable performance.
Cor r o si on : R i sk , U t i l i t y , an d Re l i a b i l i t y
The relationship between risk, utility, and reliability can also be quantified.
When expressed in terms of risk, utility is the product of frequency, consequence
and a utility function, such as cost of equipment failure, summed over the
individual corrosion scenarios.
Utility is often used to assess business or enterprise risk, where financial risk
needs to be evaluated and related to non-technical risk.
Reliability is the probability that a system will perform its specified function
over a given time period. Mathematically, reliability is the inverse of failure
probability.

Corrosion
Risk M anagemen t: B ow-Ti e A pproach
The Bow-Tie Approach to Risk Management is shown in this diagram.
Threats listed on the left side can lead to critical adverse events, such as an
explosion, a crash, or the failure of a critical component. Consequences of those
failures are listed on the right.
You need to define multiple barriers that can isolate the event from the threat,
and also define barriers that can prevent the consequences of the event. The
barriers should be chosen such that the probability of all barriers failing is
virtually zero.
Cor r o si on B ar r i e r s
This illustration of the application of barriers to prevent unacceptable events

or consequences shows the compound effects of multiple barriers in reducing the
occurrence of adverse events or the incidence of damage.
Corr osi on B arrier s: Swi ss Chee se M od el

One method of creating barriers for corrosion threat management is the Swiss
Cheese Model shown here, where a series of barriers with unavoidable holes allow
threats to advance until they encounter a solid section of one of the barriers.

Corrosion
Only if a threat avoids all solid barrier sections can it cause a critical event
or subsequent damage. Thus the more barriers and fewer small unavoidable holes,
the lower the risk of corrosion.
R i sk - B a se d I n s pe ct i o n
Risk Based Inspection (RBI) links potential risks with appropriate inspection
methods and techniques. RBI assesses and manages safety, health, environmental
and economic risks at the equipment level.
R i s k a n d I n s p e c t i o n Ac t i v i t y
This graph shows risk versus inspection activity. The upper curve reflects risk
using typical inspection programs. Note that risk eventually increases even with
more inspection because damage is accumulating and evolving. The risk based
inspection program lowers overall risk by reducing probability of failure, but it
never reduces risk to zero.

Corrosion
There is usually some residual risk that must be accepted or dealt with.
Co n d i t i on - B as e d M ai n t e n an ce
Well, condition-based maintenance allows us the opportunity to identify the
condition of the equipment so we know the requirements and the repair
requirements on an asset prior to going in and if you will induct it into a
facility that may not be needed. So our baseline means a lot to us in the Marine
Corps to know the condition of that asset so thats what we refer to as
condition-based maintenance:
What is the need?
What is the requirement?
What skill sets are required to repair that asset?
By identifying all of our assets by a corrosion category code and those category
codes go from a category code 1 being a best condition asset to a category code 5
being the worst condition asset.
And we identify our repairs and our levels of maintenance requirements by those
category codes so our condition-based maintenance is what we use every day on how
we repair our assets.
Re l i a b i l i t y- Ce n t e r e d M a i n t e n a n c e
Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM) takes Condition-Based Maintenance (CBM)
to the next level and condition-based maintenance is more of a reactive mode you see a failure and youre going to correct that.

Corrosion
With reliability-centered maintenance, youre taking a look at the actual parts
and trying to do and find methods and processes to increase the reliability so
you do not have these failures again in the future. Its a process that started
back in the 60s and it takes a more in-depth look to try to find the methods and
processes to increase the reliability which has impacts, again, on the
availability and the over-all system performance.
The AAV now has to last for another 15 years so were looking at all the
different components that have been failing over the years and trying to figure
out ways to increase the reliability since were starting to get a lot of higher
failures. So theyre gonna be looking heavily at reliability-centered maintenance
in order to increase the availability, the system performance and over-all total
ownership cost of the system.
Mainten ance A ppr oach Variab les
Each of the above approaches to managing corrosion risk depends on quality

information, design, plans, people, and judgment. No approach can compensate for
shortfalls in information, design, planning execution, qualified personnel and
teams,
or
poor
engineering
or
operational
judgment.

Corrosion
Section 4: Corrosion Prevention and Mitigation Design
Process
Corr osi on Miti gation and D ef en se Acqui siti on Pr ocess
Reducing the incidence, frequency, and impact of corrosion is best accomplished
during the design and development of a system or facility. The defense
acquisition process provides a model within which to insert plans, decisions, and
actions to prevent or mitigate corrosion and its effects early in the design
process.
Corrosion planning should be introduced very early during concept refinement, and
a corrosion prevention action team established before milestone A (indicated by
A in the triangle). The corrosion prevention and control plan should be
included in the request for proposal process during technology development.
Other important actions are indicated on the model shown here. The sooner that
corrosion planning and decision-making is integrated with the entire development,
the more likely that corrosion risks will be avoided or controlled. Waiting until
a system or facility is operational to correct a faulty design or configuration
is many times more expensive than addressing potential problems up front.

Corrosion
Process
S y st e m D e si g n an d P e r f or m a n c e
While designing to the specified form, fit and function is the essence of
engineering work, the best performance measure is the degree to which a system
conforms to its specified objectives.
Unfortunately, many engineers consider that performance is defined by how well
the system operated the day it leaves the factory.
The traditional design flaw is the failure to focus on how a system will perform
in the years after deployment.
Syst em P erf ormance Through out Lif espan

Fortunately, a new engineering paradigm focuses on system performance throughout
its useful lifespan. Engineers can analyze the likely environmental conditions,
predict how and when certain components are likely to fail, and plan to avoid or
mitigate such potential failures.
The key questions engineers must answer are:
1. How well will the system perform its mission requirements at a given point
in its life cycle?
2. What is the probability of mission success when a system is required to
perform?
3. For how many years can the system be expected to exhibit cost effective
performance?
P e r f o r m a n c e - B a s e d Ac q u i s i t i o n
Since the year 2000, many new systems have been acquired by the federal
government using Performance-Based Acquisition (PBA), a technique that structures
all aspects of a systems acquisition around its purpose and desired outcomes, as
opposed to the process by which the work is to be performed.

Corrosion
Process
Since the advent of performance-based acquisition, most military system
specifications are articulated in terms of operational performance of the
finished product. Decisions regarding material selection and detailed designs to
meet those performance specifications are left to the manufacturers and their
subcontractors.
While the objectives of PBA are to reduce cost and accelerate acquisition, it
shifts additional risk (including corrosion risk) to the government for increased
sustainment costs over the life cycle of the system.
Still, the goal is to reduce total operating cost.
DoD S trategic P erf ormance Requir ement s

This figure shows the flow of performance requirements from DoD strategic
objectives through specific technical objectives to a prime contractors system
definition for manufacturing. Once performance specifications establish technical
objectives such as range, payload, size, weight, human factors, and corrosion
prevention and control, it is up to the prime contractor to define major systems
and develop top-level technical requirements and designs.
These requirements and designs establish a baseline for specifying and designing
assemblies, subassemblies, components, and materials that comprise the major
systems and will be manufactured and assembled by the prime contractor,
subcontractors, and suppliers.

Corrosion
Process
While
performance-based
acquisitions
are
supposed
to
contain
measurable
performance standards and a performance assessment plan, effective implementation
of these standards and plans depend on sufficient government oversight to assure
performance quality and reliability.
Perf ormance Reli abili ty and Expected S ervice Lif e

Performance reliability is the measure of how well a system can be expected to
perform specified functions, when it is employed, throughout its service life.
Reliability can be quantified either intuitively or mathematically. Service life
is the period of system use from initial operational employment until it can no
longer be usefully employed.
Service life might be ended by system loss, major failure, obsolescence and
replacement, or planned retirement and disposal. Expected service life is usually
expressed in calendar years or total operating hours and is often determined by
reliability prediction or accelerated life testing to failure.
Systems for which loss or failure have no health or safety consequences may be

Corrosion
Process
operated until failure. Other systems may be refurbished or retired based on CBM
or RCM conditions that dictate intervention before failure.
Syst em D evel opment : Paradig m Shif t

The old paradigm of developing systems based almost exclusively on initial
performance and unit cost is being replaced by the concept of affordable system
operation throughout its life cycle.
This means evaluating performance, availability, and life cycle cost over the
projected life of the system. This emphasizes the need to understand corrosion
processes, to know how corrosion mitigation systems behave, and to establish a
sound technical basis to support performance, availability, cost calculations,
and judgments.
Af f o r d a b l e S y s t e m L i f e
This diagram shows the elements of Affordable Systems Operational Effectiveness.

System performance and availability provide technical effectiveness.
Process effectiveness means cost effective production and support, which

Corrosion
Process
translates technical effectiveness into system effectiveness.
With reasonable controlled life-cycle cost, this system effectiveness yields an
affordable system throughout its useful life.
Dow nstream Life Cycle Costs
This diagram illustrates the impact of downstream life cycle costs,

typically account for between 65% and 80 % of total life cycle costs.
which
What this diagram does not show is the leverage up-front expenditures can have on
downstream costs.
Up-Fr on t Corr osi on Inv est ment s

Typically, each up-front dollar spent to reduce downstream costs leverages five
to ten dollars in cost avoidance. This is particularly true of corrosion
prevention investments R&D dollars spent upfront to design corrosion prevention
or resistance into the system can significantly reduce corrosion procurement
funds, and avoid huge expenditures of operation and maintenance funds to repair
or replace corroded facilities and equipment.

Corrosion
Process
Corr osi on Miti gation: Acqui si tion Cycl e
The time to prevent or mitigate corrosion and reduce total ownership costs is
early in the acquisition cycle.
Bath Tub Curve (Life Cycle Cost s)
The bathtub curve shown here illustrates the typical trend in life cycle costs
for systems and facilities. Early costs are attributed to birth defects, and
these costs bottom out early in the life cycle. Normal operating costs gradually
increase until near the end of the life cycle where age and wear cause everincreasing failures.
Early investment in corrosion prevention and mitigation can reduce failures and
costs along the entire bathtub curve, and also extend the life of the system,
leading to a better performance, availability, and an overall increase in
affordability.
Mat erial S election and E nviron ment Conditi ons

In order to select the best material for corrosion resistance, you need to
thoroughly
understand
the
operational
environment,
including
corrosive
environments during transportation and storage.
Even after effective material selection, certain environmental conditions can
accelerate corrosion.
Finally, there are several design considerations that, if overlooked, can have
serious if not catastrophic results.
201D Ch2 Systems Health Management

Section 1: Diagnostics and Prognostics
I n t r o d u c t i on : D i a g n o st i c s an d P r o g n o st i cs
This segment discusses diagnostics and prognostics, accelerated
application of prognostics to system health management.
testing,
and
Corr osi on Risk: Curr en t t o Future Stat e

Where there is a risk of corrosion, we need to determine the current state of
corroding materials and the attendant causes of that corrosion.
We also need to forecast the expected future state and behavior of corroded or
vulnerable materials, including their predicted reliability and length of service
life.
Such determinations and predictions are undertaken by using diagnostic and
prognostic technologies and methods; by applying accelerated test techniques; and
by performing system health monitoring, performance assessment and integrity
management during a systems service life.
Cor r o si on D i ag n os t i c s
Corrosion diagnostics consists of an analysis and assessment of corrosion damage
and its causes. The corroded material is inspected along with the environment to
which it has been exposed to establish the current status of the material and the
type of corrosion that was initiated.
Analysis and assessment is based on these observations along with knowledge of
the material characteristics, design, construction, and associated manufacturing
and repair processes.
Cor r o si on D i ag n os t i c s: P u r p os e
Corrosion diagnostics are used to determine if a component or system conforms to
its design and operational requirements, and is safe for continued use.
Results can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of current corrosion prevention
and control strategies, and if needed, to develop alternative strategies and
methods.
Diagnostics also provide early warning of corrosion-induced failures, such as
metal cracking and embrittlement that can trigger catastrophic results.

Corr osi on Di ag nostics: S yst em i n O perating Parameter s

Diagnostics will reveal if a system is still being maintained within specified
corrosion allowances or operating parameters. Corrosion damage increases as time
passes, so periodic inspections, and reassessment are necessary.
Risk based corrosion management, covered in segment one, is needed to establish
appropriate inspection methods and intervals, based on the observed corrosion
process and damage evolution.
Non-destructive inspection methods, covered later in the course, are often used
to detect, measure, and evaluate the form and extent of corrosion damage.
Cor r o si on P r og n os t i c s
Corrosion prognostics is the technical process of analyzing and predicting the
likelihood and extent of future corrosion damage. The baseline for this
prediction is the existing state determined by the corrosion diagnostics.
Results of diagnostic monitoring and analysis is used in predictive models to
forecast corrosion growth rates, damage potential, and impact on system
performance and service life. Monitoring methods include direct measurement;
electrical, electrochemical, and inductive resistance sensors; hydrogen probes;
and non-destructive inspection.
Cor r o si on P r og n os t i c s: P u r p os e
Prognostics can guide future corrosion prevention and control strategy. It
provides a good foundation for maintenance and material decisions regarding
inspection intervals and schedules; actions to reduce life-cycle costs and
increase reliability; and feasibility of replacement, repair, or retirement of
equipment or facilities.
Cor r o si on P r og n os t i c s
Predictive models process corrosion diagnostics and prognostics data, corrosion
database information, and multiple physics models. These models analyze and
correlate physical, chemical, mechanical, and electrochemical effects integrating
associated materials, environmental and mechanical data.

Predictive models also use data from laboratory or field tests that evaluate
material performance under operating conditions. A simple example of a predictive
model computation is the prediction of remaining service life by dividing the
remaining corrosion allowance found in the corrosion database by the observed
diagnostic corrosion rate.

Section 2: Accelerated Corrosion Testing
Accel erated Corrosi on Testi ng

Accelerated testing is a method of environmental stress testing at increased
operational rates to more quickly improve product reliability during system
development.
It can reveal design weaknesses early in development and allows engineers to
change design parameters on a system still in development, thus reducing the
probability of in-service failures.
It also identifies safe operating limits and design margins, such as corrosion
allowances. Accelerated tests may be performed on materials, components, or
complete systems to evaluate competitive designs and to increase confidence in
effective, long-term performance of the selected alternative.
Types of Accel erated Corr osi on Testing

Accelerated testing falls into two categories - qualitative testing and
quantitative testing. Qualitative tests stress components to accelerate failures
that can affect reliability.
The object is to identify failure modes and define the best material for an
application. However, qualitative testing does not indicate overall reliability
or expected service life. Quantitative tests are used to characterize the effects
of given failure modes on component performance and to determine a systems time
to failure.
To determine time-to-failure, Quantitative tests are used to characterize the

effects of given failure modes on component performance and to determine a
systems time to failure. To determine time-to-failure, that will be used
continuously or at a very high rate. Usage rate acceleration is used on
components that are not operated continuously.

Syst em Fail ur es
Catastrophic failure occurs when a system or component stops working and is
beyond repair. This table depicts catastrophic failure modes for common products
that you use frequently.
Perf ormance Thresh old Val u e

To prevent a catastrophic failure of a system or component, we assign a
performance threshold value. This value is below which a system or component is
defined to have failed, and at which point we remove it from service. This
process is referred to as defined failure.

Accel erated Testi ng Pur poses

Accelerated testing is used for many purposes related to material selection,
component design, quality, performance, and reliability.
This is a list of
description of each.
12
uses
of
accelerated
testing.
Click
here
for
full

Accel erated Testi ng M od el s

Accelerated testing is one approach to performing quantitative analysis. Models
and analytic representations provide tools with which to describe mechanisms
governing the process being investigated.
Selecting the proper model to analyze test data is vital since most accelerated
testing involves fitting test data to the model and extrapolating the results.
Stati stical M od el
Statistical Modeling is a quantitative analysis technique used to predict the
success or failure of a component or system. This mathematical model is developed
or selected to address a well-defined problem. Once a model is developed or
selected, the frequencies of occurrence of various stresses may be fed into that
model.
For the exposure of the component or system being analyzed so you can have things
like both the level and occurrence of things like mechanical stresses, thermal
stresses, or chemical stresses.
Once you feed those into the model, then you would have a fairly accurate
prediction if you have the correct model of the success or failure of that system
or component.

Accel erated Testi ng : Pitfall s and Li mitati ons

Accelerated testing is not without its limitations and pitfalls. Test failures
might be induced by failure modes not experienced during normal operation and
lead to false conclusions.
Likewise, failure to properly identify operating or environmental conditions can
produce inaccurate accelerated test results. If operating conditions are not
properly recorded or qualitatively tested, unexpected failure modes might occur.
If an accelerated test fails to identify a relevant, realistic failure mode, that
failure mode will not be evaluated. For example, testing for uniform corrosion
without accounting for the possibility of localized pitting corrosion can cause
unexpected failure during subsequent operational use.
Selecting the wrong model will often produce unrealistic results. Finally,
failure to account for coupled or sequential corrosion reactions, such as stress
corrosion cracking following pitting corrosion, can generate false analytic
conclusions and downstream fatigue or material failures.

Section 3: Applications
Prog nosti cs an d Health Manag ement System

The integration of diagnostics, prognostics and quantitative and qualitative
testing and analysis provides the foundation for a modern Prognostics and Health
Management System.
The objective is a system capable of using the inputs described in this slide to
estimate the likelihood and time of a future system failure, so appropriate
preventive actions can be taken now.
Prog nosti cs an d Health S yst em Archi tect ure

This diagram illustrates the Prognostics and Health System architecture under
development at the Sandia National Laboratory.
Although the technology may not yet be sufficiently mature for use with many
weapon systems, this integrated approach continues to be developed and should be
considered and employed by decision-makers at all levels.
201D Ch3 Corrosion Detection and Monitoring

Section 1: Non-destructive Evaluation and Inspection
Cor r o si on D e t e c t i o n a n d I n s pe c t i o n I n t r o d u ct i on
This segment of Course 201D addresses both corrosion detection and inspection
methods, as well as corrosion monitoring and sensors.
Cor r o si on P r e v e n t i on an d C o n t r ol G u i d e
The AMMTIAC Corrosion Prevention and Control Guide is the source of much
information in this segment, and provides an excellent reference for further
information.
Non- Destr uctive Eval uati on and Inspection

Non-destructive evaluation (NDE) and non-destructive inspection (NDI) methods
provide the capability to detect, characterize, and quantify corrosion damage.
Non-destructive inspection employs visual techniques, as well as eddy current,
ultrasonic, acoustic emission, thermographic and electromagnetic radiation
technologies.
Visual Inspecti on
Visual inspection is the easiest method to detect corrosion. The type of
corrosion often is described and classified based on the appearance of its
visible surface, and in some cases it can be measured. In other cases, it is
documented using sketches, photography, or video.
Visual Inspecti on: Corrosi on Product A ppearan ces

These types of corrosion are frequently associated with specific alloys and the
appearance of resulting corrosion products. Aluminum is susceptible to pitting,
intergranular and exfoliation corrosion.
The corrosion products tend to be white or a gray powder. Magnesium alloys tend
to pit, and corrosion produces mounds of snow-like powder.
Low alloy steels are susceptible to surface oxidation, pitting, and intergranular
corrosion. The corrosion products are reddish brown oxides - which you would call
'rust'.

Visual Inspecti on: Corrosi on Product A ppearan ces

Copper-based alloys suffer from pitting and intergranular
corrosion products are usually dark oxides on a rough surface.
corrosion,
and
It is important to collect samples of these products in order to characterize the

corrosion and analyze its mechanisms.
To learn more, click here to a downloadable table that details the appearance of
corrosion in various alloys.

Visual Inspecti on D evi ce s

Visual inspection often depends on devices to enhance observation. These devices
include microscopes, magnifying glasses, boroscopes, fiberscopes and odoscopes.
Boroscopes and fiberscopes are designed to inspect hidden surfaces and feature
lighting and lenses to enhance visibility.
Bor oscope VS. Fiber scope

Boroscopes tend to be fairly rigid, while fiberscopes are flexible and can be
used in more difficult-to-access locations.
L i q u i d P e n e t ra n t I n s p e c t i o n
In liquid penetrant inspection, a colored dye is spread on the material and

allowed to penetrate cracks and other openings. After removing excess penetrant
from the surface, a powdery substance is applied to highlight patterns of surface
cracks or other corrosion-related surface damage, such as pitting.

Mag netic Parti cle Inspe cti on

Magnetic particle inspection detects surface imperfections, cracks, pits, or
breaks when magnetic particles deposited on the surface are exposed to a magnetic
field.
The magnetic field induces flux lines that are distorted by the imperfections and
cause the magnetic particles to form patterns that reveal those imperfections.
Eddy Curr ent In specti on

The portable eddy current instrument shown here can detect cracks in fastener
holes due to crevice corrosion or stress corrosion cracking.
Eddy current inspection uses electromagnetic induction to produce eddy currents

in the material being inspected. Surface or subsurface defects are detected by

induction coils or probes that measure eddy currents throughout the material.
These coils or probes locate where cracks, pits, or other defects disturb the
eddy currents.
Ultrasoni c Inspecti on
Ultrasonic inspection is used to detect surface and subsurface flaws, cracks and
delamination. An ultrasonic transducer transmits high frequency sound waves
through the material being tested.
Sound waves reflected by inclusions, defects and delaminations in the material

are processed and analyzed.
This technique is particularly useful for detecting and examining subsurface
corrosion and resulting damage.
Electr omag neti c Radi ati on

Electromagnetic radiation is used on materials to determine structural conditions
and detect corrosion related defects and associated characteristics.

Electromagnetic radiation employs microwaves, thermal rays, x-rays and gamma rays
or neurons. This diagram depicts the electromagnetic radiation spectrum.
Microw ave Inspe cti on
This picture shows a portable microwave tester consisting of a laptop computer,

transducer, scanning device and instrumentation. Microwave inspection is a
technology that can reliably detect defects such as poor adhesion, incomplete
bonding or structural defects in non-metallic materials. The transducer produces
microwaves that penetrate the material being tested.

When discontinuities are encountered, they reflect and refract the microwave
energy back to a probe that detects differences in microwave voltage amplitude at
different positions on the material.
The data are processed and produce digital images of amplitude at these positions
for analysis and interpretation by experts.
Radi ographi c In specti on

As shown in this illustration, radiographic inspection devices transmit x-rays,
gamma rays or neurons through the material being tested and onto a sensing medium
that records the results.

Since material radiation absorption characteristics differ with changes in

material composition and configuration, flaws and other anomalies are depicted in
the recorded result.
Ther mographi c Inspecti on

Thermographic inspection uses heat-sensing devices to detect infrared radiation
emitted from heat conductive materials.
Measurement of temperature variations are used to map accurate, two-dimensional

thermal patterns that indicate defects such as subsurface flaws, voids, cracking,
corrosion, debonding, and water absorption.

Thermographic inspection is particularly useful for inspecting components with

complex shapes.
No n - D e st r u c t i v e I n s p e c t i o n M e t h od s
Heres the table of the non-destructive inspection methods, listing the
technology, advantages, disadvantages, and types of defects detected by each
technology.


Topic 18 : Non-D estructive Eval uati on A ppr oach es

To summarize non-destructive evaluation approaches, visual inspection is simple
but cannot detect or evaluate corrosion below the surface.
Electromagnetic detection techniques such as electrical, acoustic, radiographic,
or thermographic technologies can detect and analyze subsurface defects as well
as surface corrosion.
All of these methods depend on trained, experienced operators capable of using
these technologies to identify and analyze corrosion and its effects.

Section 2: Corrosion Monitoring
Cor r o si on M on i t or i n g
Corrosion monitoring is a technique to develop and evaluate corrosion control
methods.
Corrosion monitoring can detect material status or environmental conditions that
could cause corrosion and subsequent damage, and indicate needed prevention and
control requirements and methods.
Such methods might include inspection, changes
maintenance schedules, treatments, or repairs.
in
process
control,
revised
Corrosion monitoring also can be valuable in predicting useful life of materials

or components and assessing remaining service life.
Cor r o si on M on i t or i n g M e t h o d s
Corrosion is monitored by various analytic methods including direct observation
and measurement, as well as electrical and electrochemical techniques.
Electrical monitoring techniques measure resistance, electrical potential
(voltage) and current. Electrochemical methods sense various electrochemical
phenomena such as polarization, passivation and impedance.
Corr osi on M oni tori ng Analyti cal M eth od s

Analytical methods are based on measuring the presence and concentration of
chemical and biological elements and ions as well as corrosion products and
inhibitors. Direct measurement of ion, bacteria, and corrosion products reveal
the amount of corrosion. Indirect methods measure pH, conductivity, reaction
products, and amount of inhibitors.
Linear Polariz ati on Resi stance Tech ni que

Linear polarization resistance is a non-destructive electrochemical measurement
technique that makes real-time measurements.

Electr och emi cal Impedance S pe ctr oscopy
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy or EIS is a highly specialized technique

to measure the quality of organic coatings, as well as changes in the state of
the material that can be related to corrosion damage.
E l e c t r och e mi cal N oi se M e t h o d
The electrochemical noise (EN) method measures surface potential compared to a
reference electrode, where fluctuations in potential predict the onset of pitting
or other forms of localized corrosion.
Electr och emi cal Resi stance Sen sors

Electrical resistance
environment.
sensors
are
metal
probes
inserted
into
the
corrosive
Corrosion causes probes to lose cross sectional area. Measuring increasing

electrical resistance of the cross section indicates the corrosion rate.

Ind uctive Resi stance Pr ob es

Inductive resistance probes contain a coil in the sensing element that measures
changes in reductive resistance, and thus corrosion, as the sensing element
thickness changes.
Topic 9 : Hydrogen Probes

Hydrogen probes are used to measure corrosion rate and penetration of materials
in acidic environments, where hydrogen is a byproduct of the corrosion reaction.
The rate at which hydrogen is generated and material is consumed indicates how
much corrosion is being generated. Even in high strength materials, where
corrosion may not cause structural problems,atomic hydrogen can generate on the
surface, be absorbed by the material, and cause delayed hydrogen embrittlement or
hydrogen stress cracking.
Cor r o si on M on i t or i n g M e t h o d s an d S e n s or s
Corrosion monitoring methods and sensors are powerful tools available to help
prevent or control corrosion.
They sense current material and environmental conditions and track trends useful
in evaluating corrosion prevention and control programs and in predicting future
problems and useful service life.

Section 1: Non-electrochemical Test Methods
Corr osi on Testing f or P erformance Eval uati on: Introdu ct ion

This segment of Course 201D discusses corrosion testing for evaluation and
performance. It concludes Course 201D by briefly discussing Department of Defense
Corrosion policy, specifications, and standards.
Corr osi on Test M eth od s Classificati on

Corrosion testing and evaluation test methods can be
electrochemical type tests and electrochemical type tests.
classified
as
non-
Topic 3 : Non- Ele ctr ochemical Te st M eth od s

Non-electrochemical test methods include several forms of coupon testing, salt
spray testing, atmospheric corrosion testing, and environmental and chemical
analysis.
Cor r o si on Cou p on T e s t i n g
Corrosion coupon testing exposes metal specimens to a corrosive environment.
Coupons are cut to specific dimensions, measured, weighed, and cleaned prior to
exposure to a controlled corrosion environment.
The coupons are periodically removed from the corrosion environment, cleaned,
weighed, and measured to determine weight-loss and the extent of corrosion.
These tests provide information on the general corrosion resistance of materials
in a given environment, or the corrosive effects of different environments on a
specific material.
There are standard test procedures on specimen preparation and cleaning after
test exposure to ensure accurate measurement of material loss due to corrosion.
Salt Frog Testi ng

Salt Fog testing is a commonly specified commercial practice, where samples are
exposed to a salt spray in an enclosed chamber at an elevated temperature.
Bare or coated specimens are exposed for specific time periods, then removed and
evaluated for corrosion and coating losses.

Salt S pray Ch amber

This salt spray chamber shows coupons exposed to a continual spray of warm moist
salt solution.
This aggressive test is not very reliable for predicting material lifetime and
life performance, but is an excellent test of coating, plating, or surface
preparation quality.
Salt S pray Testi ng Cauti on

Salt spray testing should be used with caution since test environment conditions
often are not the same as operational environment, temperature, moisture content,
acidity, and wet-dry cycles.
Atmosph eric Corr osion Testi ng

Atmospheric corrosion testing is conducted at various locations in the United
States and around the world in rural, marine, and industrial environments.
Moderate-sized rectangular metal panels are placed on exposure racks under
controlled conditions, and corrosion rates are measured over varying periods of
exposure time.
Corr osi on Testing Rack s and Panel s

This picture shows atmospheric corrosion testing racks, where the metal panels
are held by ceramic insulating fixtures to eliminate galvanic action.
Panels with coatings applied may have scribes in the coating to expose the
underlying metal to the atmosphere and thus to corrosion.
Sample sets may be removed at different times to evaluate corrosion rates as a
function of exposure time.

Stress Corr osi on Cracki ng : U-B end S peci men

This shows a U-bend specimen being tested for susceptibility to stress corrosion
cracking in an atmospheric environment. The specimen is held in a non-metallic
fixture to avoid galvanic action.
The outer fibers of the specimen at the u-bend are in tension from the
deformation. If this material is susceptible to atmospheric corrosion, stress
corrosion cracks would initiate at the outer surface and move toward the inner
surface.
Environ ment and M at erial Ch emi cal A nalysi s

Environment and material chemical analysis evaluates corrosion as a function of
exposure time with respect to both the environment and corrosion products. It is
very useful for determining corrosion causes and mechanisms.
Mat erial Quantitativ e A nalysi s: S pecialized Techni qu es

Metalsmaterial quantitative analysis uses atomic absorption spectrometry, ion
chromatography,
plasma-atomic-emission
spectroscopy,
and
scanning
electron
microscope analysis for inspecting specimens after they've corroded. These
specialized techniques characterize the corrosive environment, analyze corrosion
products, and inspect metal corrosion morphology to evaluate the extent of
corrosion and the composition of corrosion products.

Non-M etalli c Mat eri al Ch emi cal Analysi s

Non-metallic material chemical analysis is used to gather element spectroscopy
and morphology information from plastics, polymers, ceramics, glasses, and
composites that are used in corrosion applications.
Chemi cal A nalysis: Advantages and Di sadvantages

This table summarizes advantages and disadvantages of chemical
techniques. The primary disadvantage is the inability to measure
corrosion rates.
analysis
material

Section 2: Electrochemical Test Methods
Electr och emi cal Test Meth od s

Electrochemical Test Methods are used to evaluate corrosion control alternatives,
monitor the effectiveness of corrosion control programs, and monitor corrosion
rates.
Analysis of corrosion rates indicates movement toward end-of-life failures and
enables optimization of maintenance, repair, replacement and retirement schedules
for better life cycle cost effectiveness.
Electrochemical methods are also used to evaluate alternative materials during
material selection.
Linear Polariz ati on Tech ni qu e

Linear polarization uses a power supply to impose a very small voltage on a metal
structure and to monitor the direct current response.
The slope of the resulting

corrosion rate of the metal.
voltage
versus
current
line
is
related
to
the
Electr och emi cal Noi se Tech ni que

Electrochemical noise is the fluctuation of voltage and current between freely
corroding electrodes. Observing the frequency and the distribution of that noise
provides some indication of the onset of localized corrosion such as pitting, or
the condition of the corroding material.

Cor r o si on P ot e n t i al M e as u r e me n t s
Corrosion potential measurements use reference electrodes to measure the
potential of a metal compared to the potential of the reference electrode. For
example, the breakdown of a materials passivity can be recognized by a
significantly negative potential.
Other changes indicated by potential measurements include the oxygen level in a
solution and the effectiveness of specific corrosion protection methods.
Potenti ostatic P ol arizati on

Potentiostatic polarization uses an external power source to polarize the
material. The potential of the surface of the metal is measured with respect to a
reference electrode.
When the surface is polarized, the resulting potential as a function of current

density scans provide information regarding corrosion rates and corrosion
mechanisms and behavior.
Potenti ostatic P ol arizati on: Pol ariz ati on Curves

Polarization curves developed from potentiostatic polarization scans can be used
to measure the corrosion rate of materials.
This is particularly useful in analyzing active-passive metal behavior, where
passivity is an extremely important property of the material.

This graphic shows the polarization curve for an active-passive metal. Such
graphics indicate how well the passive film protects the metal, and if the metal
will repassivate quickly or continue to corrode locally.
Potenti ostatic P ol arizati on: Cycli c Potenti odynami c P ol ar izati on

A form of potentiostatic polarization
called
cyclic
potentiodynamic
polarization increases the potential at
a constant rate until the current
begins to increase, then decreases the
potential, which results in cyclic
polarization. As shown here, this can
produce a very large hysteresis loop.
Within the entire hysteresis range, the
material could either be passive or
active, and if it is active, very
serious crevice corrosion could occur.
Thus,
cyclic
polarization
provides
valuable
information
regarding
the
relative
corrosion
resistance
of
passive metals.

Cycli c Polariz ati on Curves

This shows the use of cyclic polarization to compare localized corrosion
resistance of two Iron-Chromium-Nickel-Molybdenum alloys, where one alloy
contains much more chromium and molybdenum.
The alloy with added chromium and molybdenum shows little or no hysteresis, while
the other alloy is characterized by a large hysteresis loop, indicating it is
less corrosion resistant.

Section 3: DoD Policy Scpecifications and Guidance
for Corrosion Testing
DoD Polici es, Speci ficati ons an d G uidan ce
DoD Policies, Specifications, and Guidance mandate corrosion testing.
Corr osi on Pr eventi on and Contr ol Spe cificati on and Standar ds

There are scores of specifications and standards
prevention and control. These include structural
specifications, test methods, and standards.
applicable to corrosion
specifications, material
The CorrD efense Websi te

The CorrDefense website at www.corrdefense.org maintains up-to-date versions of
the various corrosion policy guides, standard procedures, specifications and
standards, or links to such documents.

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201D Script

201D Ch1 Practice of Risk-Based Management for

Resolving Corrosi on Pr ob lems

Second, you need a sound strategy backed up by an effective corrosion

201D Ch1 Practice of Risk-Based Management for

201D Ch1 Practice of Risk-Based Management for

201D Ch1 Practice of Risk-Based Management for

This illustration of the application of barriers to prevent unacceptable events

Corr osi on B arrier s: Swi ss Chee se M od el

201D Ch1 Practice of Risk-Based Management for

201D Ch1 Practice of Risk-Based Management for

201D Ch1 Practice of Risk-Based Management for

Mainten ance A ppr oach Variab les

Each of the above approaches to managing corrosion risk depends on quality

201D Ch1 Practice of Risk-Based Management for

201D Ch1 Practice of Risk-Based Management for

Syst em P erf ormance Through out Lif espan

201D Ch1 Practice of Risk-Based Management for

DoD S trategic P erf ormance Requir ement s

201D Ch1 Practice of Risk-Based Management for

Perf ormance Reli abili ty and Expected S ervice Lif e

201D Ch1 Practice of Risk-Based Management for

Syst em D evel opment : Paradig m Shif t

This diagram shows the elements of Affordable Systems Operational Effectiveness.

201D Ch1 Practice of Risk-Based Management for

Dow nstream Life Cycle Costs

This diagram illustrates the impact of downstream life cycle costs,

Up-Fr on t Corr osi on Inv est ment s

201D Ch1 Practice of Risk-Based Management for

Bath Tub Curve (Life Cycle Cost s)

Mat erial S election and E nviron ment Conditi ons

201D Ch2 Systems Health Management

Corr osi on Risk: Curr en t t o Future Stat e

201D Ch2 Systems Health Management

Corr osi on Di ag nostics: S yst em i n O perating Parameter s

201D Ch2 Systems Health Management

201D Ch2 Systems Health Management

Accel erated Corrosi on Testi ng

Types of Accel erated Corr osi on Testing

To determine time-to-failure, Quantitative tests are used to characterize the

201D Ch2 Systems Health Management

Perf ormance Thresh old Val u e

201D Ch2 Systems Health Management

Accel erated Testi ng Pur poses

201D Ch2 Systems Health Management

Accel erated Testi ng M od el s

201D Ch2 Systems Health Management

Accel erated Testi ng : Pitfall s and Li mitati ons

201D Ch2 Systems Health Management

Prog nosti cs an d Health Manag ement System

Prog nosti cs an d Health S yst em Archi tect ure

201D Ch3 Corrosion Detection and Monitoring

Non- Destr uctive Eval uati on and Inspection

Visual Inspecti on: Corrosi on Product A ppearan ces

201D Ch3 Corrosion Detection and Monitoring

Visual Inspecti on: Corrosi on Product A ppearan ces

It is important to collect samples of these products in order to characterize the

201D Ch3 Corrosion Detection and Monitoring

Visual Inspecti on D evi ce s

Bor oscope VS. Fiber scope

In liquid penetrant inspection, a colored dye is spread on the material and

201D Ch3 Corrosion Detection and Monitoring

Mag netic Parti cle Inspe cti on