Words

Definitions

Anion:

A negatively charged Ion, one that would attract

towards an anode.
This is the size of the atom and is the distance from the
centre of the nucleus to the outer most electrons in a
stable atom.

Atomic
Radius
Avogadros
number
Cation
Divalent
Ductile
Electron
Affinity

Electronegati
vity
Ion
Ionisation
Energy
Isotope
Malleable

A positively charged ion that has lost electrons.

An atom that has two valence electrons (Di-Valent
means two-valence).
To deform without fracture. If something is very ductile,
it can be hammered into sheets without damage very
easily.
The amount of energy released when an electron is
added to an atom to form a negatively charged ion. It is
also the amount of energy required to strip an electron
from a negative ion. A higher electron affinity means
meaning it is harder to remove an electron.
The ability for an atom to attract electrons in order to
covalently bond. The higher electronegativity, the more
strongly it will attract them.
An element that has gained or lost an electron and does
no longer has the same number of electrons as protons.
The minimum amount of energy required to remove an
electron from an atom in a gaseous state in order to
form a positively charged ion.

Able to be hammered and pressed into shape without

breaking.

Oxidation
Valence
shell/electro
ns

The outer most shell with electrons/outer most

electrons in an atom.

Guide
Words in this colour have their definitions in the table of definitions above.

Atoms

The
The
The
The

number of protons in an atom determines what element it is no matter what.

number of protons is also the atomic number of the element.
mass number is the number of protons +neutrons.
number of electrons is the same as the number of protons in atoms in

The Periodic Table

The periodic table is a table of elements arranged which shows all the elements arranged
from the smallest to the largest.
The columns in the periodic table are called Groups with the main groups from 1 to 8.
The rows in the periodic table are called Periods and go from 1-7.
As seen in the picture above, it is important to know the properties of the types of
elements and where they are found in the periodic table.
Alkali Metals:
Very Reactive.
Malleable, Ductile and good conductors.
One loosely bound Valence electron.
Reacts violently with water.
Forms cations with a 1+ charge.
Alkaline Earth Metals:
Low Electron Affinities and Electronegativity
Two valence electrons
Smaller Atomic Radii than Alkali Metals
Readily forms divalent cations with a 2+ charge.
Transition Metals:
Fairly unreactive.
High melting, boiling point and electrical conductivity.
Have a wide range of oxidation states.
Have low Ionization energy.
The Halogens:
Very high electronegativitys.
Seven valence electrons.
Highly reactive with alkali metals and alkaline earth metals.
Have low Ionization energy.
Metalloids:
Have similar metal and non-metal properties.
They are all solids.
Found in the small step portion of the periodic table.
Noble Gases:
Completely unreactive.
Full valence shell.
Very low electronegativitys.
Low boiling points.
Gases at room temperature.

The Electrons
Electrons are negatively charged particles which orbit around the nucleus of an atom.
They determine how the atom behaves and most of its properties.
The Bohr Model:
Proposed by the scientist Niels Bohr.
The Bohr Model states that electrons have set distances in
which they orbit a nucleus.
Each set distance is a shell and can be referred to as n.
Each set distance has a fixed amount of energy with each
electrons in that orbit having that amount of energy.
The further distance away you get from the nucleus, the
more energy is contained in the orbits.
Orbitals (sub-shells):
Within each shell of an electron are orbitals.
An orbital is a probability cloud and is defined as an area in space where there is a high
probability of finding electrons.
Each orbital can only hold a maximum of two electrons.
There are s, p, d and f orbitals and each orbital has its own unique shape.
Electrons fill shells from the lowest energy level to the highest.
The periods in the periodic table represent which shell the electrons will go into.
s-orbital:
Found in the first shell of the atom.
It can hold a maximum of two electrons.
Is a spherical shape.
This is why the first period in our period table only has two elements.
p-orbital:
Found in the second shell of the atom.
The second shell is larger and can include more than just the s-orbital.
It can hold a maximum of six electrons.
It consists of three configurations along the 3D x-y-z axis with each one holding two
electrons.
d-orbital:
Found in the third shell of the atom.
It can hold a maximum of ten electrons.
4

It consists of five configurations each one holding two electrons.

f-orbital:
Found in the fourth shell of the atom.
It can hold a maximum of fourteen electrons.
It consists of seven configurations each one holding two electrons.

Electron Configuration:
Electron configurations are a way of writing down where each electron is located within
an atom.
It involves three main parts written down to form an equation.
In order to write the electron configuration of an atom, we write:
1. The number of the shell.
2. The letter of the orbital.
3. The number of electrons in that orbital.

Electrons fill orbitals in a certain order, from the lowest energy to the highest. A trick
we can use to write this is to memorise the following diagram and draw diagonal lines
to determine the order in which orbitals will be filled in.

From this diagram, we know that electrons will fill in the following order:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 and so on.
Just by looking at the above equation, we know:
This atom has a total of 30 electrons. (Total number of electrons in each orbital.
We can determine that this is an atom of Zinc. (Assuming it isnt an ion)

 Write the
electron
configuration
for Chromium.

1. Chromium is in the second period of the periodic table.

2. It is the 24th element, meaning it has a total of 24
electrons in its natural state.
3. We know how many electrons each orbital can hold.
4. All we need to do now is look at the diagram and start
filling in all 24 electrons for Chromium in the order of the
diagram.
5. Therefore Chromium has the following electron
configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4

Ionization Energy:
Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom
to create a positively charged Ion.
When an electron is removed from an atom, it forms a positively charged ion called a
cation. This is because before the electron was removed there were an equal number
of protons and electrons and hence the overall charge was neutral. Now that the
electron is removed, there are more protons than electrons and hence the overall
charge is positive.
The outer most electrons have the most energy and hence require the least energy to
be removed so they are the first to be removed.
The closer an electron is to its nucleus, the more energy required to remove the
electron.
When all of the electrons in the outer most shell are removed, there is a jump in energy
required to start removing electrons in the next outer most shell.
This makes sense as electrons are being attracted towards the protons in the nucleus
and the closer they are, the stronger the
force of attraction and hence the more
energy required to remove the electron.
Energy is also required when adding
electrons to form negatively charged ions
called anions. This energy is called the
electron affinity.
The orbitals are also on periodic table as
shown below with the number of
elements for each row of the orbitals
corresponding to the number of electrons the orbital can hold, for example all the sorbitals in green have only two elements in each row.

Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry is the science of measuring chemicals that go into and out of reactions.
It allows us to count atoms and molecules by weighing them.
Atomic Mass:
The atomic mass of an element is the average number of all the isotopes of that
element and their abundance on earth.
Atomic mass is measured in atomic mass units (amu).
We can calculate atomic mass by adding the number of protons and neutrons in an
element.
We can also calculate it if given the isotopes and their abundances by using the
following steps.
Convert the abundance of each isotope of the element from a percentage
to decimal.
Multiply the abundance of each isotope by its mass.
Add the final results of each isotope together.
Relative Atomic Mass:
The ratio of the average mass of an atom to 1/12 th of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
1 amu = 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 (12C) atom which is 1.99264648 x 10-23.

 Gallium has two

stable isotopes:
Galium-69
(60.11%
abundant) and
Galium-71
(39.89%
abundant). Their
atomic masses
are 68.926 and
70.925
respectively.
Calculate the
average atomic
mass of Gallium.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Convert the percentages to decimals.

60.11*(1/100) = 0.6011 and 39.89*(1/100) = 0.3989
Multiply the isotopes masses by their abundance.
Add the results together.
(0.6011*68.926) + (0.3989*70.925)
= 69.72 amu

If you have a look at the periodic table for the mass of

Gallium, you will notice it is 69.72 amu.

Moles:
A mole is one of the most important units in chemistry.
It allows us to express a chemicals atomic mass in terms of grams.
A mole is equivalent of the amount of atoms in 12 grams of Carbon-12 which is 6.022 x
1023.
This number is known as Avogadros number.
A mole of anything means 6.022 x 1023 of that object, so a mole of rice would mean
6.022 x 1023 grains of rice.
For example, a mole of oxygen would mean 6.022 x 1023 atoms of oxygen which in
total comes to 16 grams. If you look at the period table, the relative atomic mass of
oxygen is 16 amu.
This is known as the elements Molar Mass.
To calculate the molar mass of a compound, you must add the molar mass of all the
individual elements.
Calculate the
Molar Mass of
Sucrose C12H22O11.

1. Find the Molar mass of each atom in sucrose from the

periodic table.
2. Carbon = 12.01, Hydrogen = 1.008, Oxygen = 16.00.
3. Multiply the number of atoms of that element in
sucrose by its molar mass from the periodic table.
4. C = 12.01*12 = 144.12 g, H = 1.008*22 = 22.176 g, O =
16*11 = 171 g.
5. Add the total Molar mass of all three elements that
make up sucrose.
6. 144.12 g + 22.176 g + 171 g = 342.926 g
7. This means that the total mass of C12H22O11 weighs
342.926 g.

Reactions:
A reaction takes place when atoms of the same
or different elements react together to form a
new substance.

 A reaction involves the reactants which are the elements that are being rearranged
and the products which are the new substances that are formed due to the reaction.
The total number of atoms of each element remains the same before and
after the reaction. (Conservation of mass)
Balancing Equations:
A balanced equation is an equation that has an equal number of each element on both
sides of the equation.
This involves the law of conservation of mass.
This equation is used to tell you how much of each element goes into and comes out of
the reaction.
In order to balance an equation we use the following steps:
Start with the most complicated molecule.
Now since the goal is to have an equal number of each atom on each side
of the equation, we start multiplying atoms by certain amounts on each
side of the equation until we end up with a balanced equation.
We demonstrate this by placing a number beside the element to show how
many of that element is required.
Balance the
following
equation of
sucrose:
C12H22O11 + O2 = CO2 +
H2O

1. We first start with the most complicated molecule, in

this case C12H22O11
2. Now there are 12 carbon atoms on the left side of the
equation and only 1 on the right hand side. We can
immediately put a 12 beside the CO2 so now with 12
carbons on both side of the equation, the carbons are
balanced out.
3. Now we can move onto the Hydrogen atoms. There are
22 on the left hand side and only 2 on the right hand
side. We can put an 11 beside the H2O so now the
Hydrogens on both sides are balanced out.
4. Finally, there are 13 Oxygen atoms on the left hand
side and 35 on the right hand side. We can put a 12
beside the O2 to balance the Oxygen atoms out.
5. The final equation we end up with is C12H22O11 + 12 O2 =
12 CO2 + 11 H2O which has both sides of the equation
balanced with equal amounts of elements.

Molar Ratios:
Molar ratios are used to calculate the amount of a compound for a certain amount of
another.
By some simple mathematics, you can calculate your answer.

How much
Oxygen would
you need to
inhale in order to
burn 5 grams of:
C12H22O11 + O2 = CO2
+ H2O

1. To solve this, first we balance the equation. From the

last question: C12H22O11 + 12 O2 = 12 CO2 + 11 H2O g.
2. Next, we convert the equation to moles in order to
make it into grams. Doing this we get 342.296 g C12H22O11
+ 348 g O2.
3. Now thats 342.296 g of sugar for every 348 g of
Oxygen. Now to find out how much Oxygen for each
gram of sugar, we divide 342.296/348 which equals out
to be 0.984 g of sugar for each gram of Oxygen.

4. Now for 5 g of Oxygen, we need 0.984*5 g of sugar

which is 4.92 g.

Water and Solutions

A solution is a substance that is capable of dissolving another substance.
Water is the best solutions on earth as it is capable of absorbing more than anything else.
Solutions:
A Solution is the process by which a gas, liquid, or solid is dispersed homogeneously in
a gas, liquid, or solid without chemical change.
A Solution is made of a Solvent which is a substance or substances and a Solute
which is the main substance it will be dissolved in, usually liquid.
A water base solution is called an aqueous solution.
Water:
Water is the best solvent on earth for various reasons.
10

 It is very abundant all over the earth.

It is liquid at a wide range of temperatures.
Its very polar.
Electronegativity:
Electronegativity refers to the ability for an atom to attract shared electrons.
Every atom on the periodic table has a number with the highest being the most
electronegative.
This number increases from left to right on the periodic table as the number of protons
increases which means more positive charges.
This electronegativity decreases as you go down the periodic table as the electrons
begin shielding themselves as they increase in number.
These values can be seen in the table below along with the trend due to the shielding
effect and increase of protons.

Polarity:
Polarity refers to having one side slightly
positive in charge and the other side
slightly negative.
For a molecule to be polar, it cannot be
made of the same elements as the
electronegativity of both elements is
the same and one side will not be more
negatively charged than the other.
For a molecule to be polar, the difference
between their electronegativys must be
greater than 0.5.
When the difference is greater than 0.5,
the valence electrons of the atoms spend most of their time around the more
electronegative atom.
This result in one side of the molecule being slightly negative and the other side being
slightly positive.
This is called a Dipole Moment and is required for a molecule to be polar.
A dipole moment is when there is one part of a molecule which is negatively charged
and the other part positively charged.
When one of the atoms in the molecule is more
electronegative, it will pull not only its own but also its
neighbouring electrons closer towards itself.
This will lead the electron cloud of negativity to be greater
on
one side than the other and hence a polar molecule. This is
seen in the picture to the right.
Although if the atom is symmetrical, the distribution of
charges may cancel each other out making the molecule
non-polar.
11

 This can be seen in the following pictures with these opposite charges cancelling each
other out:

In order to show the dipole moment of a molecule is electronegative, we draw an arrow

sign with a plus sign at the tip and facing the electronegative side as shown in the
picture below.
We also put the delta + and delta also shown in the picture.

Effects of Polarity on Solutions:

When there is a polar solution, all the molecules want to be arranged in a way where
they are in their lowest energy state.
This is achieved by each individual atom in a molecule attracting the oppositely
charged atom of the neighbouring molecule until all the atoms are perfectly arranged.
This can be seen below in picture of these molecules of water.
This can also physically be seen in a glass of water and is why a glass of 100 mL can
hold a little over 100 mL of water also as seen in the picture below.

This leads to all the molecules of water or other polar solutions being arranged in a way
that achieves the lowest surface area.
When a non-polar liquid is added to a polar solution such as oil being added to water,
this mixture of non-charged oil molecules and charged water molecules will not want to
mix.
Water will continue to do everything it can to minimise its surface area much like when
there is air in a solution it tends to rice, the same will occur with the molecules of the
non-polar solution as they will be pushed up as the molecules of water attempt to
reorganise themselves back into their lowest energy state and surface area.
Dissolving:
12

 When something is dissolved, it is absorbed by another substance without any chemical

change occurring.
A polar substance will dissolve other polar substances such as water dissolving salt or
sugar.
There are two different ways molecules can be dissolved which depend on the type of
atoms in the molecule:
Polar substances such as water are able to weaken the attraction between ions of
different charges.
This is due to its Dielectric Properties and it is what allows water and other polar
substances to break down ionic bonds and attach to their opposite charges.
Ionic compounds dissolving in polar solutions:
Ionic compounds are made up of molecules which are bonded together through the
attraction of oppositely charged ions in what is called an Ionic bond.
Ionic compounds involve molecules that are made up of metals + non-metals.
Salt is an example of an Ionic compound as it is made up of Na+Cl- made up of two
oppositely charged ions bonded together.
When a molecule made up of an ionic bond is
dissolved by the molecules of the of the solute,
the individual atoms of the ionic bond break up
from the bond and each ion is attracted to the
opposite charge of the molecules of the solute.
In the example of salt dissolving in water, the
Na+Cl- would lose its bonds and the Na+ would
be
attracted to the negative side of the water (H2O)
whilst the Cl- would be attracted to the positive
side of the water molecule.
Once the ions are surrounded by the water
molecules, they are now shielded from the other oppositely charged ions.
Covalent compounds dissolving in polar solutions:
Covalent compounds are made up of molecules which are bonded by sharing
electrons in a covalent bond.
A compound that is covalently bonded dissolves in a polar solute; its covalent bonds
will not be broken up into their individual atoms.
Sugar is an example of a covalent compound
as
it is made up of C2H4O2 molecules.
When a molecule made up of a covalent bond
is
dissolved by the molecules of the of the solute,
the individual molecules of the covalent bond
break off and the water molecules attach its
charged sides to the oppositely charged sides of
the molecule of sugar.
In an example of sugar dissolving in water, the
C2H4O2 would keep its bonds and H2O molecules
will attach themselves to the molecule of sugar.
When a soluble substance is placed in a solute, there are various factors that may
affect how well it dissolves and is absorbed into the solution:
The size of the molecule:
Given the same size of a substance, smaller molecules will have a larger surface
area than bigger ones.
A particle that is larger in size will be absorbed by the solvent quicker.
13

 This is due to the particle having a larger surface area, which means more molecules
of the solute are exposed to the molecules of the solvent which.
Temperature:
The higher the temperature is, the more the solvent will dissolve.
This makes sense because a higher temperature means more kinetic energy, so
the particles are moving a lot faster, which means there will be more collisions with the
solute breaking it down at a quicker rate.
Increasing the temperature also increases the maximum amount of the solvent that
can be dissolved in the solution, not only the speed at which it is absorbed.
Agitation:
Agitation includes physics actions such as stirring or shaking the solvent and the
solution together.
This also works by increasing the Kinetic energy of the particles and causing more
collisions.
Chemical nature of solute:
A polar substance WILL dissolve in another polar substance. Two substances that can
dissolve each other are called Miscible.
A polar substance WILL NOT dissolve a non-polar substance. Two substances that
cannot mix or dissolve each other are called Immiscible.
This leads to a commonly used phrase like absorbs like.
Electrolytes:
An Electrolyte is the name given to an ion that has been dissolved into a solution.
This is due to the ion now being able to float freely in the solution while carrying its
electrical charge around.
Water for example is a poor conductor of electricity, but when you dissolve salt into
water, it becomes a better conductor of electricity due to the now dissolved ions of the
salt becoming electrolytes and able to carry and conduct electricity.
Due to this concept, we know that a solutions electrical conductivity can be related to
the amount of ions dissolved in the solution.
The higher amount of electrolytes in a solution, the higher its electro conductivity.
This can also be reversed to measure how concentrated a solution is by measuring its
electrical conductivity.
Not all electrolytes can conduct electricity equally well; due to this we have strong
electrolytes and weak electrolytes.
If a substance doesnt dissolve to form ions in the solution, the electrical conductivity
will remain the same.
Strong Electrolytes:
Strong electrolytes conduct electricity very well.
They are made up of Ions that dissolve very well solutions.
Salts are able to form strong electrolytes as Na+Cl- dissolving completely to form
Na+ and Cl-.
Strong bases or strong acids like H+Cl- are also another example of strong
electrolytes as they break down completely to form H+ and Cl-.
Strong Electrolytes:
Weak electrolytes do not conduct electricity very well.
They are made up of Ions that dissolve partially in solutions.
NH4+OH dissolve partially into NH4+ and OH which results in weak electrolytes as
only the NH4+ is an ion and the NH4+ is just a molecule.

Acid-Base Reactions in Solutions

14

 An acid is a molecule or ion that, when placed in water, will give up a hydrogen ion (H+) to
a base, or accept an unshared pair of electrons from a base.
Water is the best solutions on earth as it is capable of absorbing more than anything else.
Acids and Bases:
H+ ions are also referred to as protons.
An Acid is a molecule or ion that, when placed in water, will give up a hydrogen ion H+
to a base, or accept an unshared pair of electrons from a base.
An acid is a solution that has more free H+ atoms than OH-.
A Base is a substance which dissociates (separates) in aqueous solution to yield
hydroxyl ions OH- or negatively charged hydroxide ions which react with an acid to
form a salt.
A base is a solution that has more free OH- atoms than H+.
Acids and Bases react with each other in a Neutralization Reaction to form a salt.
An easy way to think of it is an acid has the H+ ion and a base has the OH- ion.
When an acid is place in water, it will give up its H+ ion.
Neutralisation Reactions:
When an acid is added to water, it donates
a
+
H to the water.
This leaves us with a positively charged
hydroxide ion H3O+ (which is a H2O
molecule that has gained a H+ ion) and a
salt.
This can be seen in the picture to the right
which shows three different acids donating a
H+ ion to water to form a H3O+ ion and a
negative ion or a salt.
In these reactions, water can react as either a base or an acid. If it gains a H+ ion then
it is a base or if it loses a H+ ion then it is an
acid.
The products of the reaction are called the
conjugate acid and the conjugate base.
If it is a conjugate acid, then it has lost a H+
ion but, if it is a conjugate base then it has
gained a H+ ion.
This can be seen in the picture on the right
of hydrochloric acid HCL acid reacting with
water.
For every acid there is a conjugate base and for every base there is a conjugate acid.
A strong acid is an acid that really likes to get rid of its H+ ion and one once it does it
is very hesitant in taking it back so its conjugate base is a weak base and vice versa.
Precipitation Reactions:
This is when a solid is formed when reacting two aqueous solutions.

Bonds
15

 Atoms can form different type of bonds including the main three: Ionic, covalent and
hydrogen bonds.
An atom is most
Atomic Mass:
The atomic mass of an element is the average number of all the isotopes of that
element and their abundance on earth.
Atomic mass is measured in atomic

Ionic Bonds:
Ionic bonds form when a metal and a non-metal share electrons and bond together
forming a molecule (For Example: NaCl).
This type of bond occurs in three main simplified steps:
1. An atom donates electrons and another atom receives the electron.
2. This causes an imbalance in charges in each atom with the atom gaining the
electron now being negatively charged and the atom donating the electron
having a positive charge.
3. The two atoms attract to each other due to the opposite charges and an ionic
bond is formed.
Ionic bonds are formed due to atoms wanting to have a full valence shell. In the Na+Clexample, by forming an ionic bond, both elements now have a full valence shell.
All atoms in their normal form have a neutral charge due to the balance of protons and
electrons. By gaining and losing electrons, this creates an Imbalance in the charges
resulting in a positively or negatively charged atom.
Due to the change of electrons in the Na and the Cl, they are no longer atoms but are
now called Ions.
The positively charged Ion (Na+) is called a Cation and the negatively charged Ion (Cl-)
is called an Anion.
Once the ionic bond between both ions is formed, the overall charge of the molecule
formed is neutral as the charges of both ions cancel each other out (This means the
molecule formed is NaCl not Na+Cl-). We have now created Sodium Chloride.
Now say we have many Na and Cl atoms all forming ionic bonds with each other, due to
the positive and negative charges of the ions formed, they will all combine together to
form what is called a Lattice Structure.
This forms when the negative side of multiple Na+Cl- bonds combines with the positive
side of other Na+Cl- bonds and vice versa eventually forming the Lattice structure
shown below.

16

Electronegativity
Electronegativity is a measure of how desperately an atom wants to gain electrons.
The more electronegative an atom is, the more it wants to gain electrons.
Na with an electronegativity of 0.9 is not very electronegative compared to Cl with
an electronegativity of 3.0.
This is why Na loses an electron while Cl gains one.
Generally, metals are not very electronegative compared to non-metals which are
usually very electronegative.
Ionic Charges
Atoms can form ions of different charges depending on which column or group they
reside in the periodic table.
It is more beneficial to know what charge each Ion gets by understanding the
concept behind the charges.
Keep in mind that each atoms goal is a full valence (outer) shell and all the atoms
originally have an equal number of protons and electrons which maintains their neutral
charge.

In Group 1, all the atoms have 1 valence electron which they would prefer
to donate in order to achieve a full valence shell. Once donated, these
atoms now have 1 less electron than protons. This leaves them with an
overall positive charge of +1.
In Group 2, all the atoms have 2 valence electrons which they would also
prefer to donate. Once donated, they now have two less electrons than
they do in protons and now have an overall charge of +2.
In Group 3, the concept is still the same as they have 3 valence electrons
and lose them to achieve a charge of +3.
Now Group 5 has elements which prefer to gain electrons rather than
donate them. They have 5 valence electrons and would prefer to gain
another 3 to achieve a full valence shell. Once they gain those electrons,
their overall ionic charge becomes -3 as they have 3 more electrons then
protons.
In Group 6 and 7, they gain 2 and 1 electrons respectively and will have
a charge of -2 and -1 respectively.
Finally, Group 8 will not gain or lose any electrons as they already have a
full valence shell and thus do not form ions.

Balancing Charges
In the example of NaCl, the Na is in group 1 and has an ionic charge of +1 while the
Cl is in group 7 and has an ionic charge of -1. These two charges are the same and do
not need balancing but this is not always the case.
An example of this is Lithium Oxide (Li2O) where Lithium sits in group one having a
+1 charge and Oxygen sits in group 6 having a -2 charge. These two charges do not
balance out and thus we need to balance them ourselves.
We can do this by adding more of either atom until the total charges are balanced.
In this example, we can add two Lithiums for every Oxygen. This means that the
charge for the two Lithiums is now +2 which the same as the charge for one Oxygen.
Now we have balanced out Lithium Oxide.
This means for every Oxygen atom, were going to have two Lithium atoms.
This can now be written as Li2O.
17

 What is the Ionic

bond for
Aluminium
Oxide?:

Covalent Bonds:
Ionic

18

1. Aluminium is in the 3rd group, which means it forms an

Ionic charge of +3.
2. Oxygen is in the 6th group, which means it forms an
Ionic charge of -2.
3. In order to balance this one out, we need to find the
lowest common multiple of 3 and 2.
4. We cannot have half an Oxygen atom, but we can add
more of both elements.
5. By having 2 Aluminiums, the total charge is for Al is
now +6.
6. Now we can add 3 Oxygens to make the total charge
for Oxygen -6.
7. Finally, the balanced Equation for Aluminium Oxide is
Al2O3.