Non-Destructive Testing

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Nondestructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science
and industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without
causing damage. Because NDT does not permanently alter the article being inspected,
it is a highly- valuable technique that can save both money and time in product
evaluation, troubleshooting, and research. Common NDT methods include ultrasonic,
magnetic-particle, liquid penetrant, radiographic, and eddy-current testing NDT is a
commonly-used tool in forensic engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical
engineering, civil engineering, systems engineering, medicine, and art. Specialist high
risk areas such as nuclear and oshore structures, and gas and oil pipelines, make
extensive use of Non-Destructive Testing of metallic components during manufacture
and construction as part of quality assurance procedures as well as during routine
maintenance inspections to detect cracking and corrosion. Radiography and
ultrasonics are most widely used for checking of welds, although eddy current and
magnetic methods are also available. Alternating current eld measurement
techniques permit non- contacting crack detection and sizing in welded joints both in
air and underwater. [1]
1.2. DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
In destructive testing, tests are carried out to the specimens failure, in order to
understand a specimens structural performance or material behavior under dierent
loads. These tests are generally much easier to carry out, yield more information, and
are easier to interpret than nondestructive testing. Destructive testing is most suitable,
and economic, for objects which will be mass produced, as the cost of destroying a
small number of specimens is negligible. It is usually not economic to do destructive
testing where only one or very few items are to be produced (for example, in the case
of a building). Some of the destructive testing are:
Stress testing: It is used to determine the stability of a given system or entity.
It involves testing beyond normal operational capacity, often to a breaking
point, in order to observe the results. Stress testing may have a more specic
meaning in certain industries, such as fatigue testing for materials.
Crash testing: This testing usually performed in order to ensure safe design
standards in crash worthiness and crash compatibility for automobiles or
related components. Some of the examples are Frontal-Impact Tests, Oset
Tests, and Side-Impact Tests, Roll over Tests, Roadside hardware crash tests
etc.
Hardness testing: Hardness refers to various properties of matter in the solid
phase that gives it high resistance to various kinds of shape change when force
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is applied. Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by strong
intermolecular bonds. However, the behavior of solid materials under force is
complex, resulting in several dierent scientic denitions of what might be
called hardness in everyday usage.
1.3 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Non-Destructive testing (NDT) are noninvasive techniques to determine the integrity
of a material, component or structure or quantitatively measure some characteristic of
an object. In contrast to destructive testing, NDT is an assessment without doing
harm, stress or destroying the test object. The destruction of the test object usually
makes destructive testing more costly and it is also inappropriate in many
circumstances. NDT plays a crucial role in ensuring cost eective operation, safety
and reliability of plant, with resultant benet to the community. NDT is used in a wide
range of industrial areas and is used at almost any stage in the production or life cycle
of many components. The mainstream applications are in aerospace and civil
structures, power generation, automotive, railway, petrochemical and pipeline
markets. NDT of welds is one of the most used applications. It is very dicult to
weld or mold a solid object that has no risk of breaking in service, so testing at
manufacture and during use is often essential.
While originally NDT was applied only for safety reasons it is today widely accepted
as cost saving technique in the quality assurance process. Unfortunately NDT is still
not used in many areas where human life or ecology is in danger. Some may prefer to
pay the lower costs of claims after an accident than applying of NDT. That is a form
of unacceptable risk management.
For implementation of NDT it is important to describe what shall be found and what
to reject. A completely awless production is almost never possible. For this reason
testing specications are indispensable. Nowadays there exist a great number of
standards and acceptance regulations. They describe the limit between good and bad
conditions, but also often which specic NDT method has to be used. The reliability
of an NDT Method is an essential issue. But a comparison of methods is only
signicant if it is referring to the same task. Each NDT method has its own set of
advantages and disadvantages and, therefore, some are better suited than others for a
particular application. By use of articial aws, the threshold of the sensitivity of a
testing system has to be determined. If the sensitivity is to low defective test objects
are not always recognized. If the sensitivity is too high parts with smaller aws are
rejected which would have been of no consequence to the serviceability of the
component. With statistical methods it is possible to look closer into the eld of
uncertainly. Methods such as Probability of Detection (POD) or the ROC-method
Relative Operating Characteristics are examples of the statistical analysis methods.
Also the aspect of human errors has to be taken into account when determining the
overall reli- ability. Personnel Qualication is an important aspect of non-destructive
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evaluation. NDT techniques rely heavily on human skill and knowledge for the
correct assessment and interpretation of test results. Proper and adequate training and
certication of NDT personnel is therefore a must to ensure that the capabilities of the
techniques are fully exploited. There are a number of published international and
regional standards covering the certication of competence of personnel.
The most common NDT Methods are discussed in this presentation. In order of most
used, they are: Visual inspection, Ultrasonic Testing (UT), Radiographic Testing (RT),
Liquid penetrant Testing, Magnetic particle Testing, Electromagnetic Testing (ET) in
which Eddy Current Testing (ECT) is well known and Acoustic Emission (AE or
AET). Besides the main NDT methods a lot of other NDT techniques are available,
such as Shearography Holography, Microwave and many more and new methods are
being constantly researched and developed. In the next sections the methods are
explained and their applications to structures are discussed.

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CHAPTER 2
VISUAL INSPECTION
Visual testing is probably the most important of all non-destructive tests. It can often
provide valuable information to the well trained eye. Visual features may be related to
workmanship, structural serviceability, and material deterioration and it is particularly
important that the engineer is able to differentiate between the various signs of
distress which may be encountered. These include for instance, cracks, pop-outs,
spalling, disintegration, colour change, weathering, staining, surface blemishes and
lack of uniformity. Extensive information can be gathered from visual inspection to
give a preliminary indication of the condition of the structure and allow formulation
of a subsequent testing programme. The visual inspection however should not be
confined only to the structure being investigated. It should also include neighbouring
structures, the surrounding environment and the climatic condition.
2.1 TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VISUAL INSPECTION
An engineer carrying out a visual survey should be well equipped with tools to
facilitate the inspection. These involve a host of common accessories such as
measuring tapes or rulers, markers, thermometers, anemometers and others.
Binoculars, telescopes, borescopes and endoscopes or the more expensive fibre scopes
may be useful where access is difficult. A crack width microscope or a crack width
gauge is useful, while a magnifying glass or portable microscope is handy for close up
examination. A good camera with the necessary zoom and micro lenses and other
accessories, such as polarized filters, facilitates pictorial documentation of defects,
and a portable colour chart is helpful in identifying variation in the colour of the
concrete.

Fig. 2.11 Videoscope

Fig. 2.12 Borescope

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Fig. 2.13 Magnifying glass

2.2 GENERAL PROCEDURE OF VISUAL INSPECTION

Before any visual test can be made, the engineer must peruse all relevant structural
drawings, plans and elevations to become familiar with the structure. Available
documents must also be examined and these include technical specification, past
reports of tests or inspection made, construction records, details of materials used,
methods and dates of construction, etc.
The survey should be carried out systematically and cover the defects present, the
current and past use of the structure, the condition of adjacent structures and
environmental condition. All defects must be identified, the degree classified, similar
to those used for fire damaged concrete and, where possible, the causes identified. The
distribution and extent of defects need to be clearly recognized. Visual comparison of
similar members is particularly valuable as a preliminary to testing to determine the
extent of the problems in such cases.
Segregation or excessive bleeding at shutter joints may reflect problems with the
concrete mix, as might plastic shrinkage cracking, whereas honeycombing may be an
indication of a low standard of construction workmanship. Lack of structural
adequacy may show itself by excessive deflection or flexural cracking and this may
frequently be the reason for an in situ assessment of a structure. Long term creep
defections, thermal movements or structural movements may cause distortion of
doorframes, cracking of windows, or cracking of a structure or its finishes.
Material deterioration is often indicated by surface cracking and spalling of the
concrete and examination of crack patterns may provide a preliminary indication of
the cause. Systematic crack mapping is a valuable diagnostic exercise when
determining the causes and progression of deterioration.
Visual inspection is not confined to the surface but may also include examination of
bearings, expansion joints, drainage channels and similar features of a structure. Any
misuse of the structure can be identified when compared to the original designed
purpose of the structure.

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A careful and detailed record of all observations should be made as the inspection
proceeds. Drawings can be marked, coloured or shaded to indicate the local severity
of each feature.

Fig. 2.21 Cracks due to differential settlement of central column.

Fig. 2.22 Cracks due to bending and shear stresses.

Fig. 2.23 Sketch of severe rusting of reinforcing bars due to chemical action

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CHAPTER 3
ULTRA SONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST
In ultrasonic testing, very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center frequencies
ranging from 0.1-15 MHz and occasionally up to 50 MHz are launched into materials
to detect internal aws or to characterize materials. The technique is also commonly
used to determine the thickness of the test object, for example, to monitor pipework
corrosion. Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and alloys,
though it can also be used on concrete, wood and composites, albeit with less
resolution. It is a form of non-destructive testing used in many industries including
aerospace, automotive and other transportation sectors
3.1 HOW IT WORKS
In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine is
passed over the object being inspected. The transducer is typically separated from the
test object by a couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing.

Fig. 3.11 Typical UPV testing equipment

There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform, reection and
attenuation. In reection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer performs both the
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sending and the receiving of the pulsed waves as the sound is reected back to the
device. Reected ultrasound comes from an interface, such as the back wall of the
object or from an imperfection within the object. The diagnostic machine displays
these results in the form of a signal with amplitude representing the intensity of the
reection and the distance, representing the arrival time of the reection. In
attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter sends ultrasound through
one surface, and a separate receiver detects the amount that has reached it on another
surface after traveling through the medium. Imperfections or other conditions in the
space between the transmitter and receiver reduce the amount of sound transmitted,
thus revealing their presence.
Table 3.1 Velocity criterion for concrete quality grading
Sr. No.

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity by Cross Concrete

probing
(Km/Sec)
grading

quality

Above 4.5

Excellent

3.5 to 4.5

Good

3.1 to 3.5

Medium

Below 3.0

Doubtful

Fig. 3.12 UPV Apparatus

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CHAPTER 4
SCHMIDT/REBOUND HAMMER TEST
4.1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE
The Schmidt rebound hammer is principally a surface hardness tester. It works on the
principle that the rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the surface
against which the mass impinges. There is little apparent theoretical relationship
between the strength of concrete and the rebound number of the hammer. However,
within limits, empirical correlations have been established between strength properties
and the rebound number.
4.2 EQUIPMENT FOR SCHMIDT/REBOUND HAMMER TEST
The Schmidt rebound hammer is shown in Figure. The hammer weighs about 1.8 kg
and is suitable for use both in a laboratory and in the field.

Fig. 4.11 Schematics of Rebound Hammer

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A schematic cutaway view of the rebound hammer is shown in Figure. The main
components include the outer body, the plunger, the hammer mass, and the main
spring. Other features include a latching mechanism that locks the hammer mass to
the plunger rod and a sliding rider to measure the rebound of the hammer mass. The
rebound distance is measured on an arbitrary scale marked from 10 to 100. The
rebound distance is recorded as a rebound number corresponding to the position of
the rider on the scale.
4.3 GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR SCHMIDT REBOUND HAMMER TEST
The hammer pushed hard against the concrete, the body is allowed to move away
from the concrete until the latch connects the hammer mass to the plunger.The
plunger is then held perpendicular to the concrete surface and the body pushed
towards the concrete. This movement extends the spring holding the mass to the body.
When the maximum extension of the spring is reached, the latch releases and the mass
is pulled towards the surface by the spring. The mass hits the shoulder of the plunger
rod and rebounds because the rod is pushed hard against the concrete. During rebound
the slide indicator travels with the hammer mass and stops at the maximum distance
the mass reaches after rebounding. A button on the side of the body is pushed to lock
the plunger into the retracted position and the rebound number is read from a scale on
the body.

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CHAPTER 5
COVER METER TESTING
5.1 PRINCIPLE
The basic principle is that the presence of steel affects magnetic field. An
electromagnetic search probe is swept over the surface of the concrete under test. The
presence of reinforcement within the range of the instrument is shown by movement
of the indicator needle. When the probe is moved until the deflection of the needle is
at a maximum, the bar in question is then parallel to the alignment of the probe and
directly beneath it. The needle indicates the cover on the appropriate scale for the
diameter of the reinforcing bar.
5.2 MAIN APPLICATION
It is used for determining the presence, location and depth of rebars in concrete and
masonry components. Advanced versions of covermeter can also indicate bar diameter
when cover is known. It is moderately easy to operate. However, some training or
experience is required to interpret the results.
5.3 ADVANTAGES
The presence of closely spaced reinforcing bar, laps, transverse steel, metal tie, wires
or aggregates with magnetic properties can give misleading results. The meter has
several scales for different bar sizes, therefore the bar diameter must be known if a
true indication of cover is to be obtained.
5.4 LIMITATIONS
The maximum range of the instrument for practical purposes is about 100 mm. It does
not give indication of the quality of concrete cover or the degree of protection
afforded to the reinforcement.

Fig. 5.1 Covermeter testing

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CHAPTER 6
CARBONATION DEPTH MEASUREMENT TEST
6.1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE
Carbonation of concrete occurs when the carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere in the
presence of moisture, reacts with hydrated cement minerals to produce carbonates,
e.g. calcium carbonate. The carbonation process is also called depassivation.
Carbonation penetrates below the exposed surface of concrete extremely slowly. The
time required for carbonation can be estimated knowing the concrete grade and using;
t= (d/k) 2
Where, t is the time for carbonation,
d is the concrete cover,
k is the permeability.
Table 6.1 Permeability values versus concrete grade
Concrete Grade
15
20
25
30
35
40

Permeability Value
17
10
6
5
4
3.5

6.2 EQUIPMENT FOR CARBONATION DEPTH MEASUREMENT TEST

If there is a need to physically measure the extent of carbonation it can be determined
easily by spraying a freshly exposed surface of the concrete with a 1%
phenolphthalein solution. The calcium hydroxide is coloured pink while the
carbonated portion is uncoloured.
6.3
GENERAL
PROCEDURE
MEASUREMENT TEST

FOR

CARBONATION

DEPTH

The 1% phenolphthalein solution is made by dissolving 1gm of phenolphthalein in 90

cc of ethanol. The solution is then made up to 100 cc by adding distilled water. On
freshly extracted cores the core is sprayed with phenolphthalein solution, the depth of
the uncolored layer (the carbonated layer) from the external surface is measured to the
nearest mm at 4 or 8 positions, and the average taken. If the test is to be done in a
drilled hole, the dust is first removed from the hole using an air brush and again the
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depth of the uncolored layer measured at 4 or 8 positions and the average taken. If the
concrete still retains its alkaline characteristic the color of the concrete will change to
purple. If carbonation has taken place the pH will have changed to 7 (i.e. neutral
condition) and there will be no color change.

Fig. 6.1 Coring of concrete surface for testing

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Fig. 6.2 Testing on walls
6.4 RANGE AND LIMITATIONS
MEASUREMENT TEST

OF

CARBONATION

DEPTH

The phenolphthalein test is a simple and cheap method of determining the

depth of carbonation in concrete and provides information on the risk of
reinforcement corrosion taking place. The only limitation is the minor amount of
damage done to the concrete surface by drilling or coring.

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CHAPTER 7
LIQUID PENETRATION TEST
7.1 GENERAL
Dye penetrant inspection (DPI), also called liquid penetrant inspection (LPI), is a
widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to locate surface-breaking
defects in all non-porous materials (Can be applied to welds, tubing, castings,
forgings, aluminum parts, turbine blades and disks, gears, metals, plastics). The
penetrant may be applied to all non-ferrous materials, but for inspection of ferrous
components magnetic-particle inspection is preferred for its subsurface detection
capability. LPI is used to detect casting and forging defects, cracks, and leaks in new
products, and fatigue cracks on in-service components. The merits of this technique
are, Limited training is required for the operator (although experience is quite
valuable), Low testing costs.
7.2 PRINCIPLE
DPI is based upon capillary action, where low surface tension uid penetrates into
clean and dry surface-breaking discontinuities. Penetrant may be applied to the test
component by dipping, spraying, or brushing. After adequate penetration time has
been allowed, the excess penetrant is removed, a developer is applied. The developer
helps to draw penetrant out of the aw where a visible indication becomes visible to
the inspector. Inspection is performed under ultraviolet or white light, depending upon
the type of dye used - uorescent or non uorescent (visible).
7.3 PROCEDURE
1. Pre-cleaning: The test sur- face is cleaned to remove any dirt, paint, oil,
grease or any loose scale that could either keep penetrant out of a defect, or cause
irrelevant or false indications. Cleaning methods may include solvents, alkaline
cleaning steps, vapor degreasing. The end goal of this step is a clean surface where
any defects present are open to the surface, dry, and free of contamination.
2. Application of Penetrant: The penetrant is then applied to the surface of
the item being tested. The penetrant is allowed time to soak into any aws (generally
5 to 30 minutes). The dwell time mainly depends upon the penetrant being used,
material being testing and the size of aws sought. As expected, smaller aws require
a longer penetration time
3. Excess Penetrant Removal: The excess penetrant is then removed from the
surface. The removal method is controlled by the type of penetrant used. Waterwashable, solvent-removable, lipophilic post-emulsiable or hydrophilic postemulsiable are the common choices. Emulsiers represent the highest sensitivity
level, and chemically interact with the oily penetrant to make it removable with a
water spray. When using solvent remover and lint-free cloth it is important to not
spray the solvent on the test surface directly, because this can the remove the
penetrant from the aws. This process must be performed under controlled conditions
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so that all penetrant on the surface is removed (background noise), but penetrants
trapped in real defects remains in place.
4. Application of Developer: After excess penetrant has been removed a
white developer is applied to the sample. Several developer types are available,
including: non-aqueous wet developer, dry powder, water suspendable, and water
soluble. Choice of developer is governed by penetrant compatibility (one cant use
water-soluble or suspendable developer with water-washable penetrant), and by
inspection conditions. When using non-aqueous wet developer (NAWD) or dry
powder, the sample must be dried prior to application, while soluble and suspendable
developers are applied with the part still wet from the previous step. NAWD is
commercially available in aerosol spray cans, and may employ acetone, isopropyl
alcohol, or a propellant that is a combination of the two. Developer should form a
semi-transparent, even coating on the surface. The developer draws penetrant from
defects out onto the surface to form a visible indication, a process similar to the action
of blotting paper. Any colored stains indicate the positions and types of defects on the
surface under inspection.
5. Inspection: The inspector will use visible light with adequate intensity
(100 foot-candles or 1100 lux is typical) for visible dye penetrant. Ultraviolet (UV-A)
radiation of adequate intensity (1,000 micro-watts per centimeter squared is common),
along with low ambient light levels (less than 2 foot-candles) for uorescent penetrant
examinations. Inspection of the test surface should take place after a 10 minute
development time. This time delay allows the blotting action to occur. The inspector
may observe the sample for indication formation when using visible dye. Also of
concern, if one waits too long after development, the indications may bleed out such
that interpretation is hindered.
6. Post Cleaning: The test surface is often cleaned after inspection and
recording of defects, especially if post-inspection coating processes are scheduled.
The aws are more visible, because the defect indication has a high visual contrast
(e.g. red dye against a white developer background, or a bright uorescent indication
against a dark background). The developer draws the penetrant out of the aw over a
wider area than the real aw, so it looks wider.

Fig. 7.11 Stages of test procedures

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CHAPTER 8
HALF-CELL ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL METHOD
8.1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE
The method of half-cell potential measurements normally involves measuring the
potential of an embedded reinforcing bar relative to a reference half-cell placed on the
concrete surface. The half-cell is usually a copper/copper sulphate or silver/silver
chloride cell but other combinations are used. The concrete functions as an electrolyte
and the risk of corrosion of the reinforcement in the immediate region of the test
location may be related empirically to the measured potential difference. In some
circumstances, useful measurements can be obtained between two half-cells on the
concrete surface. ASTM C876 - 91 gives a Standard Test Method for Half-Cell
Potentials of Uncoated Reinforcing Steel in Concrete.
8.2 GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR HALF-CELL ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL
METHOD
Measurements are made in either a grid or random pattern. The spacing between
measurements is generally chosen such that adjacent readings are less than 150 mV
with the minimum spacing so that there is at least 100 mV between readings. An area
with greater than 150 mV indicates an area of high corrosion activity. A direct
electrical connection is made to the reinforcing steel with a compression clamp or by
brazing or welding a protruding rod. To get a low electrical resistance connection, the
rod should be scraped or brushed before connecting it to the reinforcing bar. It may be
necessary to drill into the concrete to expose a reinforcing bar. The bar is connected to
the positive terminal of the voltmeter. One end of the lead wire is connected to the
half-cell and the other end to the negative terminal of the voltmeter. Under some
circumstances the concrete surface has to be pre-wetted with a wetting agent.
This is necessary if the half-cell reading fluctuates with time when it is placed in
contact with the concrete. If fluctuation occurs either the whole concrete surface is
made wet with the wetting agent or only the spots where the half-cell is to be placed.
The electrical half-cell potentials are recorded to the nearest 0.01 V correcting for
temperature if the temperature is outside the range 22.2 5.5oC.
Measurements can be presented either with a equipotential contour map which
provides a graphical delineation of areas in the member where corrosion activity may
be occurring or with a cumulative frequency diagram which provides an indication of
the magnitude of affected area of the concrete member

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Fig. 8.1 Half-Cell Electric potential testing on concrete surface

.
Half-Cell potential (mV) reading

Percentage chance of active

corrosion

< -350

90%

-200 to 350

50%

> -200

10%

8.3 APPLICATIONS OF HALF-CELL ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL TESTING

METHOD
This technique is most likely to be used for assessment of the durability of reinforced
concrete members where reinforcement corrosion is suspected. Reported uses include
the location of areas of high reinforcement corrosion risk in marine structures, bridge
decks and abutments. Used in conjunction with other tests, it has been found helpful
when investigating concrete contaminated by salts.
8.4 RANGE AND LIMITATIONS
POTENTIAL INSPECTION METHOD

OF

HALF-CELL

ELECTRICAL

The method has the advantage of being simple with equipment also simple. This
allows an almost non-destructive survey to be made to produce isopotential contour
maps of the surface of the concrete member. Zones of varying degrees of corrosion
risk may be identified from these maps.
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The limitation of the method is that the method cannot indicate the actual corrosion
rate. It may require to drill a small hole to enable electrical contact with the
reinforcement in the member under examination, and surface preparation may also be
required. It is important to recognize that the use and interpretation of the results
obtained from the test require an experienced operator who will be aware of other
limitations such as the effect of protective or decorative coatings applied to the
concrete.

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CHAPTER 9
INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY
9.1 GENERAL
Infrared Thermography is the science of measuring and mapping surface
temperatures. An infrared thermographic scanning system can measure and view
temperature patterns based upon temperature dierences as small as a few hundredths
of a degree Celsius. Infrared thermographic testing may be performed during day or
night, depending on environmental conditions and the desired results. Infrared
thermography, a nondestructive, remote sensing technique, has proved to be an
eective, convenient, and economical method of testing concrete. It can detect
internal voids, delaminations, and cracks in concrete structures such as bridge decks,
highway pavements, garage oors, parking lot pavements, and building walls. As a
testing technique, some of its most important qualities are;
(1) It is accurate
(2) It is repeatable
(3) It doesnt cause any inconvenience to the public and
(4) It is economical.
9.2 IR THERMOGRAPHY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
Examples are inspections of bridge decks and of paving in general. For locating
delaminations at bridge decks, an ASTM standard, published in 2007 with the title
Standard Test Method for Detecting Delaminations in Bridge Decks Using Infrared
Thermography [4], exists. The method is intended for use on exposed and overlaid
concrete bridge decks, asphalt or concrete overlays as thick as 100 mm. The standard
has no Precision and Bias statement and should not be used for acceptance or
rejection of a material because comparative data is not available. According to the test
procedure, bridge deck should be dry for a minimum of 24 hours prior to the test and
the temperature difference must be at least 0.5 C between the delaminated or
deboned area and the adjacent solid concrete.
9.3 ACTIVE THERMOGRAPHY TESTING PROCEDURES
If a thermal gradient between the scene and the object of interest exist, the target can
be inspected using the passive approach. However, when the object or feature of
interest is in equilibrium with the rest of the scene, it is possible to create a thermal
contrast on the surface using a thermal source; this is known as the active approach in
infrared thermography. Energy brought to the object of interest will cause the change
of thermal gradient compared to the bulk material thus witnessing the presence of
subsurface anomalies.
9.3.1 Pulsed thermography
Pulsed thermography (PT) is one of the most common thermal stimulation methods
used in thermography for nondestructive testing. One reason for this is the quickness
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of the inspection, in which a short thermal stimulation pulse lasting from a few
milliseconds for high-conductivity material, such as metal, to a few seconds for low
conductivity specimens, such as plastics, is used. Basically, PT consists of heating the
specimen briefly and then recording the temperature decay curve, Figure

Fig. 9.1 Schematics of the pulsed thermography test procedure

Qualitatively, the phenomenon is as follows, the temperature of the material changes
rapidly after the initial thermal pulse because the thermal front propagates by
diffusion under the surface and also because of radiation and convection losses. The
presence of a subsurface defect modifies the diffusion rate so that when observing the
surface temperature, a different temperature with respect to the surrounding sound
area appears over a subsurface defect once the thermal front has reached it. As for the
detection depth, it is limited since thermography for nondestructive testing is a
border technique, but often, anomalies such as cracks start close to the surface.
9.3.2 Lock-in thermography
Lock-in thermography (LT) is based on thermal waves generated inside a specimen
and detected remotely. Wave generation, for example is performed by periodic
deposition of heat on a specimens surface while the resulting oscillating temperature
field in the stationary regime is recorded remotely through thermal infrared emission.
Lock-in refers to the necessity to monitor the exact time dependence between the
output signal and the reference input signal, the modulated heating. This is done with
a locking amplifier in point-by-point laser heating or by computer in full-field (lamp)
deployment so that both phase and magnitude images become available. Phase images
are related to the propagation time, and since they are relatively insensitive to local
optical surface features such as nonuniform heating. The depth range of images is
inversely proportional to the modulation frequency, so that higher modulation
frequencies restrict the analysis in a near surface region.

Dept. of Civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shivamogga

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Non-Destructive Testing

Fig. 9.2 Schematics of the Lock-In Thermography test procedure

Table9.1 Comparative characteristics of Pulsed and Lock-In Thermography
Heat source
Regime
Advantages

Disadvantages

Pulsed Thermography
Lock-In Thermography
Heat pulse
Transitory
Fast
Little impact of
nonuniform
A single experience
heating,
launches a series of
environmental
thermal waves at
reflections,
several
emissivity
frequencies.
variations
and
nonplanar surfaces.
Low power thermal
waves.
Depth inversion is
straightforward
Inversion
Requires a test for
techniques
are
every
inspected
complex
depth.
Affected
by
Slow: a permanent
nonuniform
regime has to be
heating.
reached

CHAPTER 10
CONCLUSIONS
Dept. of Civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shivamogga

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Non-Destructive Testing

The present report aimed at explaining the methods of NDT and their techniques.
Engineering is not always complete, and further research works are needed. To set up
a good system for maintenance of existing concrete structures, there are still many
things to be done. Dierent methods can be applied to the same problem, but the best
method is chosen based on the features of the problem.

Dept. of Civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shivamogga

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Non-Destructive Testing

BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] J H BUNGEY, Non-destructive testing in U K.,Seiken Symposium, 2000.
[2] Guidebook on non-destructive testing of concrete structures - INTERNATIONAL
ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, VIENNA, 2002.
[3] Concrete Technology- A.M. Neville, J.J. Brooks, 2nd edition, Trans-Atlantic
Publications.
[4] ASTM D 4788-03; Standard Test Method for Detecting Delaminations in Bridge
Decks Using Infrared Thermography; 2007.

Dept. of Civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shivamogga

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