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Chapter6:MotivationConcepts

Chapter6:BasicMotivationConcepts
WhatisMotivation?
Motivation=Theprocessesthataccountforanindividualsintensity,direction,andpersistence
ofefforttowardachievingagoal
Intensity=howhardanemployeetries
Direction=shouldbenefittheorganization(i.e.qualityofeffortcounts!)
Persistence=howlongcananemployeemaintainhis/hereffort?

Note:thegoalisanorganizationalgoal

SomeKeyPoints:Motivationisnotdirectlyobservable(itisinternaltoeachemployee),itis
personal(whatisarousingdiffersandhowbehaviorisdirectedisoftendifferent),howeverthe
processiscommonanditisgoaldirected.
EarlyTheoriesofMotivation
HierarchyofNeeds(a.k.a.Maslow'sPyramid)
Physiological
includeshunger,thirst,shelter,sexandotherbodilyneeds
Safety
includessecurityandprotectionfromphysicalandemotionalharm
Social
includesaffection,belongingnessacceptance,andfriendship
Esteem
includesinternalesteemfactorssuchasselfrespect,autonomy,andachievementand
externalesteemfactorssuchasstatus,recognition,andattention
Selfactualization
thedrivetobecomewhatoneiscapableofbecomingincludesgrowth,achievingones
potential,andselffulfillment
Note:Anindividualmovesupthestepsofthehierarchy.Lowerorderneedsare
satisfiedexternally(i.e.physiologicalandsafety)whilehigherorderneedsaresatisfied
internally(i.e.social,esteem,andselfactualization).
TheoryXandTheoryY
DouglasMcGregorproposedtwodistinctviewsofhumanbeings:onebasically
negative,labeledTheoryX,andtheotherbasicallypositive,labeledTheoryY.
TheoryX
Theassumptionthatemployeesdislikework,arelazy,dislikeresponsibility,andmustbe
coercedtoperform.(Lowerorderneedsdominate)
TheoryY
Theassumptionthatemployeeslikework,arecreative,seekresponsibility,andcan
exerciseselfdirection.(Higherorderneedsdominate)
McGregorbelievedTheoryYassumptionsweremorevalidthanTheoryXandproposedsuch
ideasasparticipativedecisionmaking,responsibleandchallengingjobs,andgoodgroup
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relationsasapproachesthatwouldmaximizeanemployee'smotivation.
**Question=whattypeofmanagerwillyoube(orareyou)?OnewhobelievesinTheoryXor
TheoryY?Behonest!Doyouthinkthisisimportant?Why?Whynot?
TwoFactorTheory
Intrinsicfactorsarerelatedtojobsatisfaction,whileextrinsicfactorsarerelatedtojob

dissatisfaction.
Hygienefactors=whentheseareadequate,workersfeelOK(i.e.theyareNOT

dissatisfied).Examplesincludequalityofsupervision,companypoliciesandadministration.
Motivators=examinesfactorscontributingtojobsatisfaction.Thustherearefactorswhich

leadtojobsatisfactionandthingsthatdont(i.e.noticethereisadifferencebetweennon
satisfyinganddissatisfyingfactors)
ContemporaryTheories

McClelland'sTheoryofNeeds
TheNeedforAchievement:thedrivetoexcel,achieveinrelationtoasetofstandards,
strivetosucceed.
TheNeedforPower:Theneedtomakeothersbehaveinawaythattheywouldnothave
behavedotherwise.
TheNeedforAffiliation:Thedesireforfriendlyandcloseinterpersonalrelationships.
Question:Whatcanwedowiththisinformation?Answer:Matchpeopletojobs!
Thosehighon"achievement"tendtopreferjobswithpersonalresponsibility,feedbackand
moderaterisks.TheyDONOTalwayscareaboutmotivatingothers!
Ingeneral,individualshighontheneedfor"Power"andlowontheneedfor"Affiliation"tendto
performbetterinmanagerialroles.
CognitiveEvaluationTheory
Allocatingextrinsicrewardsforbehaviorthathadbeenpreviouslyintrinsicallyrewardingtends

todecreasetheoveralllevelofmotivation.
GoalSettingTheory
Thetheorythatspecificanddifficultgoalsleadtohigherperformance.
Goalstellanemployeewhatneedstobedoneandhowmucheffortwillneedtobe
expended.
Specificgoalsincreaseperformancethatdifficultgoals,whenaccepted,resultinhigher
performancethandoeasygoalsandthatfeedbackleadstohigherperformancethan
doesnonfeedback.
Specifichardgoalsproduceahigherlevelofoutputthandoesthegeneralizedgoalof"do
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yourbest."
Thespecificityofthegoalitselfactsasaninternalstimulus.
Besuretonotetheimportanceofgoalcommitment,selfefficacy,taskcharacteristics,
andnationalcultureongoalsettingtheory.
ManagementbyObjectives("MBO")
Thisapproachputsgoalsettingtowork.
Itisaprogramthatencompasses:
specificgoals(tangible,verifiable,measurable)
participativelyset
foranexplicittimeperiod
withperformancefeedbackongoalprogress
MBOoperationalizestheconceptofobjectivesbydevisingaprocessbywhichobjectives
cascadedownthroughtheorganization.
Theresultisahierarchyofobjectivesthatlinksobjectivesatoneleveltothoseatthenextlevel.
Fortheindividualemployee,MBOprovidesspecificpersonalperformanceobjectives.

SelfEfficacyTheory
Selfefficacyreferstoanindividual'sbeliefthatheorsheiscapableofperformingatask.The
higheryourselfefficacy,themoreconfidenceyouhaveinyourabilitytosucceedinatask.
ReinforcementTheory
Acounterpointtothegoalsettingtheory.
Inreinforcementtheory,abehavioristicapproach,whicharguesthatreinforcement
conditionsbehavior.
Reinforcementtheoristsseebehaviorasbeingbehaviorallycaused.
Reinforcementtheoryignorestheinnerstateoftheindividualandconcentratessolelyon
whathappenstoapersonwhenheorshetakessomeaction.
Becauseitdoesnotconcernitselfwithwhatinitiatesbehavior,itisnot,strictlyspeaking,a
theoryofmotivation.
Itdoeshoweverprovideapowerfulmeansofanalysisofwhatcontrolsbehavior.

EquityTheory
Individualscomparetheirjobinputsandoutcomeswiththoseofothersandthenrespond
soastoeliminateanyinequities.
Equitytheoryrecognizesthatindividualsareconcernednotonlywiththeabsoluteamount
ofrewardsfortheirefforts,butalsowiththerelationshipofthisamounttowhatothers
receive.
Historically,equitytheoryfocusedon:
distributivejusticeortheperceivedfairnessoftheamountandallocationofrewards
amongindividuals.However,equityshouldalsoconsiderproceduraljusticeorthe
perceivedfairnessoftheprocessusedtodeterminethedistributionofrewards.
Interactionaljusticeisalsoimportant.
*Question:So,whathappenswhenyourpayisinequitable?
ExpectancyTheory
Thestrengthofatendencytoactinacertainwaydependsonthestrengthofan
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expectationthattheactwillbefollowedbyagivenoutcomeandontheattractivenessof
thatoutcometotheindividual.Thetheoryfocusesonthreerelationships:
Effortperformancerelationshiportheprobabilityperceivedbytheindividualthatexerting
agivenamountofeffortwillleadtoperformance.
Performancerewardrelationshiporthedegreetowhichtheindividualbelievesthat
performingataparticularlevelwillleadtotheattainmentofadesiredoutcome.
Rewardspersonalgoalsrelationshiporthedegreetowhichorganizationalrewardssatisfy
anindividualspersonalgoalsorneedsandtheattractivenessofthosepotentialrewards
fortheindividual.
DontForgetAbilityandOpportunity

Performance=f(AbilityXMotivationXOpportunity)
Question:Thinkabouthowthefundamentalattributionerrorcanleadyouastrayin
termsofunderstandingothersbehaviorintheworkplace.Howdoability,motivation,and
opportunityinfluenceYOURperceptionsofworkplacebehavior?)
IntegratingContemporaryTheoriesofMotivation

First,consideremployeesopportunity,abilityandthepurposeorobjectivesofthecurrent
performanceevaluationsysteminwhichtheywork.Then,considerthelinkbetweenindividual
effortindividualperformanceorganizationalrewardsandpersonalgoals.Eachlinkcanbe
influencedbyavarietyoffactors(i.e.needs,reinforcement,equity)

MotivationTheoriesareCultureBound

NotethatmosttheoriesweredevelopedintheUS.Manytheoriesdonotalwaysworkaround
theworld(e.g.,equitytheory).However,manydo(e.g.,havinginterestingwork).

SummaryandImplicationsforManagers

NeedTheories
Maslowshierarchy,Twofactor,ERG,&McClellands
GoalSettingTheory
Clearanddifficultgoalsoftenleadtohigherlevelsofemployeeproductivity.
ReinforcementTheory
Goodpredictorofqualityandquantityofwork,persistenceofeffort,absenteeism,
tardiness,andaccidentrates.
EquityTheory
Strongestwhenpredictingabsenceandturnoverbehaviors.
Weakestwhenpredictingdifferencesinemployeeproductivity.
ExpectancyTheory
Focusonperformancevariables
Itisarationalmodelsobecarefulwhenusingit
Thistheorymaybebetterappliedtoemployeeswithgreaterdiscretionintheirjobs
(i.e.,asopposedtosemiskilledpositions)

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