STUDY OF OPEN-GRADED DRAINAGE LAYER DESIGN

FOR AIRFIELDS
Rita Moura Fortes
Professor of Department of Civil Engineering and Head of Propaedeutic Engineering Department,
Presbyterian University Mackenzie

Joo Virgilio Merighi

Professor and Head of Department of Civil Engineering, Presbyterian University Mackenzie

ABSTRACT: Open-Graded Friction Course (OGFC) is considered a hot mix asphalt (HMA)
mixture with high interconnecting voids. Some European experience has reported that void
levels approaching 18 to 22% provide a good skid-resistance. Other authors have
recommended that the voids in the finished mixture must comprise between 25 and 30 % of
the total volume.
The elevated void content associated with a crushed stone makes possible the formation of
good macrotexture and this improves surface drainage reducing hydroplaning, splash and
spray behind vehicles.
Aeronautics authorities have studied the operations with turbojet aircraft in situations where
the pavement surface is wet. In accord with FAA, theirs researches have studied the
performance of runway pavement surface designs, aiming to maximize the skid-resistance
with appropriate materials, corresponding technologies and forms, to available it evolution
and to detect it decrease.
The FAA recommends the use of porous friction course, chip seals, and aggregate slurry seals
to obtain a good skid-resistance. Nevertheless they affirm that cut grooves must be making
after final compaction because it has been highly effective.
This asphalt mix has high void content, being thus a skeleton of uniform aggregate size and a
minimum of fines, improving wet weather driving conditions by allowing the water to drain
through its porous structure away from the pavement surface.
So, the researchs goal is examines the drainage condition in plaques of OGFC, simulating the
field condition in laboratory. Two gradations of OGFC mix materials with two different kinds
of binder were developed and tests to characterize the mix in terms of volumetric index,
strength, permeability and creep static are presented.
KEY WORDS: OGFC, open-graded friction course, static creep test, testing.

1. INTRODUCTION
The increment of new aircrafts generation for short and medium distance with condition to
operate in small airfields has produced a proliferation of airlines companies in the hinterland
of Brazil. In almost case the runways and taxiways are generally constructed with asphalt
pavements.
The relationships necessary to establish a good performance for Jacobs et al (2002) is based in

requirements for airfield pavements and defined in a pyramid of technical requirements in five
different levels:
Users requirements (safety, comfort, availability and sustainability of the surface of the
pavement). This requirements involves issues such as: accessibility, ride
(drivability/smoothness), skid resistance, noise, spray/splash and reflectivity;
Functional requirements related issues such as: cost, chemical spill tolerance, pavement
life and reparability;
Structural requirements involve the structural performance of the pavement, including:
cracking, rutting, ravelling, faulting, scaling, polishing, pitting (studded tire wear),
debonding and delaminations;
The components of a material. For example: the asphalt concrete mix composition, the
percentage air voids, aggregate size distribution and form, density etc.;

Mix composition and components requirements involve the studies of the mix design
to improve the performance of the pavement in each case when it will be used. For Maarten et
al. (2002) the material characteristics like resistance to fatigue, temperature and reflection
cracking and permanent deformation should be taken into account in airfield pavements.
Looking at the top of the pyramid are the user and societal requirements and these are related
issues such as the open-graded friction course (OGFC) can attend because the high void
content, being thus a skeleton of uniform aggregate size and a minimum of fines (Mallick et
al., 2000; Huber, 2000), associated with a crushed stone makes possible the formation of good
macrotexture and this improves surface drainage reducing hydroplaning, splash and spray
behind vehicles.
For Airfields Runway pavement Skid resistance of pavement surfaces is the most important
component to measure the safety and is dependent on the surface microtexture and
macrotexture. It is essential to braking and deceleration operations (El-Desouky et al., 2003).
In the United States the Open-Graded Friction Course (OGFC) has been used since 1950 to
improve the surface frictional resistance of asphalt pavements.
In terms of procedures for maintenance of airports, the FAA through of the document
Advisory Circular AC 150/5320-12C (FAA, 1997) affirms that for aircraft operation in wet
weather conditions, an open graded, thin hot-mix asphalt surface course called porous
friction course (PFC) also could achieve good results.
Many authors have reported service life of eight or more years for this kind of pavement.
About 80 percent of the states using OGFC have standard specifications for design and
construction (Mallick et al., 2000).
2. SCOPE
The aggregate used was produced in local quarry crushing basalt operation.
In sequence, after some determined gradations like those usually utilized in the mix asphalt
projects, some of them attend the SMA conception in terms of stone-on-stone contact.
These mix projects were tested using 19,0 mm nominal maximum aggregate sizes and a
gradation B and C of Department of Transportation of So Paulo State usually utilized in
projects of mix at Regional Airports of So Paulo State.
All mixtures projects and test specimens were compacted with Marshall Apparatus and the
volumetric properties for each mixture were determined. Creep static tests were conducted at
25C and 40C at the optimum asphalt content for all specimens.
The proposal of this research is find a mix, which has a good performance in terms of
permanent deformation resistance and in second instance; the increase of surface frictional
resistance of asphalt pavements should reducing superficial water through the increase of
superficial permeability.

3. STONE MATRIX ASPHALT SMA

SMA first appeared in Germany at the end of the 1960s and aimed at increasing the
resistance of pavements subject to snow layers over which cars with skid chains on their
wheels circulated (Lanchas, 1999).
According to this author, the first SMA paving was done on Freiligrath of Wilhelmshaven
Street July 30, 1968, in Germany and still was in an excellent condition in 1999. According to
Brown & Haddock (1997) this asphalt mix model has been studied in the US since 1991. The
rationale procedure is basically the structuring of discontinuous coarse aggregate skeleton
(Stephenson and Bullen, 2002; Lanchas, 1999; Brown, 1992; Brown & Haddock, 1997;
Bolzan, 2002) so that, 65 to 85 % is retained in a 4,75 mm sieve. Owing to the high
percentage of coarse aggregate presented in the mix, the efforts are conveyed stone-on-stone
and the fine aggregate mix plays a passive role, simply filling up the voids in the coarse
aggregate backbone.
SMA has been reported as an ideal surface layer in heavy traffic situations (Brown, 1992). It
is recommended when it is looking for a high performance rut resistance properties. The good
resistance is caused by stone-on-stone contact of the mix skeleton.
The SMA concept can only be used if there is grained stone in the solid skeleton of the
mixture. Bearing in mind that the coarse aggregate diameter exceeds 4,75 mm, in order to
assure contact among the mixes studied, the methodology shown by Brown & Haddock
(1997) and suggested by Brown & Mallick (1994) was used. This method is based on the
ratio between coarse aggregate voids (VCA) in the SMA asphalt mix and the coarse aggregate
voids in the mixture containing only fraction coarse aggregate (aggregate 4,75 mm)
compacted with low content asphalt (VCALA) obtained from specimen compacted in the
Marshall cylinder.
According to this procedure, if the VCA/ VCALA ratio is lower than 1, the grained stone in the
SMA mixture is guaranteed.
According Brown & Mallick (1994) the coarse aggregate voids (VCA) in an asphalt mixture
is defined by:
(1)
VCA = 100 [ ( m / agr ) x Pag ]
Where: VAC = voids in the coarse aggregate of asphalt mixture, expressed in percentage;
m = bulk specific gravity of the compacted specimen, expressed in kN/m3;
agr = bulk specific gravity of the course aggregate, expressed in kN/m3;
Pag = percentage of coarse aggregate (> 4,75 mm) in the mixture, expressed in percentage.
Whereas the voids in the coarse aggregate compacted with low asphalt binder is defined by:
VCALA = {[ (agr x a ) - agD ] / (agr x a )}x 100%
(2)
Where: VCALA = coarse aggregate voids compacted with low asphalt binder, expressed in %;
a = unit weight of water, expressed in kN/m3;
agD = unit weight of the course aggregate fraction, expressed in kN/m3.
The gradation curve must be discontinuous so that the changing from coarse to fine aggregate
must also be discontinuous, with voids formation that will be filled up by fine aggregate
mortar and asphalt binder.
4. OPEN-GRADED ASPHALT FRICTION COURSE (OGFC)
Open-Graded Friction Course is considered a hot mix asphalt (HMA) mixture with high
interconnecting voids.

The dense-graded mix layer normally produces an essentially impermeable pavement. As a

result, water will tend to pool on the surface, consequently, reducing skid resistance and
promoting hydroplaning.
On the order hand, the OGFC superficial layer is very porous and permeable. Then, the water
excess enters in the surface and drains the surface of the pavement because. The macrotexture
with high voids facilitates the drainage of this water. So that, the water is removed more
quickly of the pavement surface and this minimize hydroplaning potential.
When compared with dense-graded HMA, OGFC has demonstrated the following advantages,
in according with literature review: reduced vehicle splash and spray behind vehicles; high
frictional qualities; reduce the potential for hydroplaning; reduce the tire-pavement noise.
In the literature it can observer that OGFC has been using in USA since 1950 (Kandhal and
Mallick, 1998). In according with these authors, the experience of States with OGFC has been
widely varied. They affirm that many transportation agencies have reported good performance
while others have stooped using this kind of mix because poor performance.
Some important information related by authors (Kandhal and Mallick, 1997; Kandhal and
Mallick, 1998 ) were: more than 70 percent of the agencies which use OGFC reported service
life of eight or more years; about 80 percent of the agencies using OGFC have standard
specifications for design and construction and a vast majority of agencies reporting good
experience using polymer modified asphalt binder.
The conception of OGFC was represented in the figure 1 where it can observer the high
porosity asphalt system. In terms of superficial drainage the figure 2 shows the difference
between the dense-graded and open-graded mix.
Aggregate
Void

Binder

Figure 1: Schematic representation (left) and a bored specimen (right) of OGFC.

Dense-graded mixes

O pen-graded m ixes-graded m ixt

Dense-graded mixes

Dense-graded mixes

Sub Grade

Sub Grade

Figure 2: Schematic representation of drainage behavior of dense-graded and opengraded.

5. MATERIAL PROPERTIES
5.1 Aggregate
They were studied 2 kind of aggregate: granite and basalt, both from So Paulo State. Table 1
shows the principals characteristics.

Table 1: Sand equivalent fine aggregate, specific gravity, L.A Abrasion and shape index
Material

Granite (from near So Paulo city)

Basalt BA West of So Paulo State

Sand equivalent Fine

aggregate (powder of
stone) (%)
66
59

Specific
gravity
(kN/m3)
27,00
29,40

L.A.
Abrasion
#1 (%)
25,1
24.0

Shape
Index
#1
Cubic
Cubic

5.2 Asphalt Cement - AC

The asphalts used in this study were asphalt cement AC-20 and polymer modified asphalt
(PMA). The polymer used was styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS). The properties tests are
given in table 2.
Table 2: Properties of the asphalts cement used in this study.
Test
Specific Gravity, 25 C (g/cm)
Penetration 25 C, 100g, 5 s
Viscosity SSF 135 C (s)
Viscosity SSF 155 C (s)
Viscosity SSF 177 C (s)
Flash Point (C)
Softening Point (C)
Viscosity at 175 C (cP)
Elastic recovery (%) 25 C
Thermal susceptibity index

Test Results
AC-20
PMA
1,023
1,040
54,0
50,0
202
78
35
295
235
49,5
75
65
450
0
85
1,3
2,0

6. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Aiming to verified the comportment of the OGFC in the field compaction and to compare
volumetric parameters with results obtained in laboratory tests, was made mix in laboratory
plant and compacted initially with vibratory plaque under neoprene wrap. After the initial
compaction, was removed the neoprene wrap and the mix was compacted with plaque
compacting vibratory machine shown in Figure 3.
Is very important to inform that in case of OGFC with stone-on-stone contact, are necessary
approximately 50% of compaction energy when compared with traditional HMA.
The laboratory test samples used in this research can be classified according to two sets:
cylindrical specimens that were prepared using Marshall method and obtained vibrating
plaque. It is compacted into 100 mm (about 4 inch) diameter and 50 blows per face. Three
specimens from the same mix were tested at each AC content. The production of the
specimens used in this case will be reported in this chapter.
6.1 Types of Mixture Tested
The mixtures compositions used in this research are shown in Table 3. The mixture GR-B
and GR-C are used frequently in roads and airport pavement in the 30 airports So Paulo
State and correspond a dense HMA. The aggregates gradations GR-M8; GR-M10; Ba-1 e Ba2 listed in Table 4 and showed in Figure 4, attend the requirements described in chapter 2 in
terms of the condition stone-on stone contact and OGFC condition.

Figure 3: Vibrating plaque for compaction of asphalt mix.

Table 3 Composition of the mixes studied
Sieve Size (mm)

Gr - B

Gr - C

Gr M8 Gr - M10

Ba - 1

Ba 2

25,0

100,0

100,0

100,0

100,0

100,0

100,0

19,1

92,7

99,9

100,0

100,0

100,0

100,0

12,7

78,8

88,9

100,0

100,0

47,4

53,3

9,5

70,3

78,2

43,1

44,7

35,1

40,9

4,8

44,6

49,9

17,0

10,5

3,5

20,2

2,4

30,3

33,9

12,1

6,4

1,0

15,0

2,0

28,0

32,0

11,8

6,0

0,6

13,9

0,4
0,2
0,1

12,6
7,0
3,2

14,0
7,8
3,6

4,9
2,6
1,1

2,7
1,6
0,8

0,4
0,3
0,3

7,2
4,4
2,4

Gr = granite aggregate

Ba = basalt aggregate

Gr - B

100,0

Percent Passing (%)

90,0

Gr - C

80,0
70,0

Gr -M8

60,0
50,0

Gr - M10

40,0
30,0

Ba - 1

20,0
10,0

Ba - 2

0,0
0,0

0,1

1,0

10,0

100,0

Sieve Size (mm)

Figure 4: Graduation of aggregates that were studied

6.2 Test Results And Analysis
The results obtained from these studies are shown in Tables 4 and 5.
In the static creep test, the specimen was placed in a load device. This apparatus was suitable
to apply vertical loads on to the specimen. The device should be able to maintain specific

loads for long periods. There is a method test for one-dimensional consolidation that was
adapted using a box in order to keep the temperature in 40C.
Firstly it was applied 0,2 MPa in a preliminary normal stress. Thus the test was developed in
four steps. Each step showed a normal stress and it was applied 0,55 MPa (approximately
80 psi). The deformation was registered during 0, 10, 20, 30, , 90, 100, 200, 500 and
1000s. using a dial gage graduated in units of 0,001 mm, and it was able to register a
maximum deflection of 5 mm.
Secondly, the load was removed and its deformation had been registered during 1010,
1020, 1030, , 1090, 1100, 1200, 1500 and 2000 s. In addition to this it was applied a new
loading for more three times totalizing four experiences done.
The permeability test was conducting using the Florida DOT falling-head laboratory
permeability test, according to recommendations written by Kandhal and Mallick (1997,
1998).
There was measured the Pavement Macrotexture Depth Using a Volumetric Technique
(ASTM, 1996-2001). Figure 5 shows the test and the value obtained was 3,06 mm.

Figure 5: Measuring Surface Macrotexture Depth

Table 4 : Test Results for the trail gradation blends
Trial blend/
Property
Gr - B
Gr - C
Ba - 1
Ba - 2
Gr - M8
Gr - M10

m (kN/m3)
24,24
24,07
2,02
2,08
19.00
18.46

Gr = granite aggregate;

agr
(kN/m3)
27,00
27,00
29,4
29,4
27.00
27.00

Air Voids
(%)
4,6
3,6
25,1
23,3
27.3
29.4

Ba = basalt aggregate;

VMA (%)

VCA (%)

VCALA (%)

15,1
15,9
34,5
32,8
31,0
33,0

33,7
45,0
41,0
38,7

48,0
48,0
41,6
39,6

VMA = voids in mineral aggregates.

Figure 7 summarizes the air void in function of the mix design. It is possible to observer that
both mixes Gr-B and Gr-C keeps a low air void because there are dense mix. The mixtures
series M8 and M10 are with air void less than 20% while the series Ba-1 and Ba-2 are more
than 20% bur in both case is possible to observer than the permeability coefficient is very
high. For series M8 and M10, the exponent is minus 3 while the series Ba-1 and Ba-2 the
exponent is minus 2. In resume, both series have a good permeability but the series Ba is
better then series Gr because its air void is bigger. The presence of polymer in the mixtures,
possibility betters performance of the drainage.
In terms of tensile stress, the Figure 8 illustrates the comportment for different mix design.
The mixes Gr-B and Gr-C, both dense-graded mix, with low air void, show the high tensile
stress when compared with rest mixes. These comportment is natural, however can observer
that the presence of polymer in the mix increases the resistance for all series.
The permanent deformation has better performance in the mixtures with polymer but is clear
that all mix wit contact stone-on-stone demonstrate bigger performance when compared with
dense mix (figure 9).

In terms of Pavement Macrotexture Depth it is possible to affirm that the dense HMA the
value observed is about 0,8 mm while in OGFC it was obtained 3,06 mm, approximately four
times bigger.
Table 5: Results of volumetric, strength, permeability and static creep properties
PROPERTIES/
MIXTURE

ACCON
TENT

(kN/m3)

VMA
(%)

Air
void
(%)

Marshall
Stability 60C
(kN)

T25
(MPa)

Permeability
(cm/s)

24,24
24,07
19,91
20,13
20,28
20,15
20,35
20,59
20,80
20,45
19,04
20,16
18,80
20,17
19,80
20,81
18,90
20,85
20,0
20,3

15,1
15,9
29,9
29,6
29,4
29,5
28,3
27,8
26,2
30,7
38,1
34,5
39,0
34,7
36,3
32,6
38,4
32,5
35,2
34,3

4,6
3,6
20,2
18,7
17,5
19,8
18,7
17,1
14,2
18,5
29,7
25,1
29,6
25,2
26,9
22,9
29,5
22,7
25,8
24,7

12,70
11,45
3,92
3,75
3,29
4,25
1,72
4,76
4,01
5,12
1,97
3,56
1,78
5,35
2,75
4,67
3,01
7,12
5,20
6,90

2,0
1,32
0,55
0,51
0,47
0,75
0,86
0,73
0,78
1,05
0,35
0,57
0,27
0,79
0,56
0,80
0,45
1,24
0,67
0,92

6,0 x10-6
7,2 x 10-7
7,2 x 10-3
3,0 x 10-3
1,2 x 10-3
4,2 x 10-2
4,6 x 10-3
3,5 x 10-3
2,8 x 10-3
4,6 x 10-2
1,6 x 10-2
1,8 x 10-2
1,2 x 10-2
5,1 x 10-2
5,0 x 10-2
7,1 x 10-2
5,6 x 10-2
7,2 x10-2
3,0 x10-2
2,7 x 10-2

(%)
Gr B- AC-20
Gr C - AC-20
Gr - M8 AC-20
Gr - M8 AC-20
Gr -M8 AC-20
M8 Polymer
Gr - M10 AC-20
Gr - M10 AC-20
Gr - M10 AC-20
Gr -M10 Polymer
Ba 1 AC-20
Ba 1 AC-20
Ba 1 AC-20
Ba 1 Polymer
Ba 2 AC-20
Ba 2 AC-20
Ba 2 AC-20
Ba 2 Polymer
Ba 1 AC-20**
Ba 2 AC-20**

4,8
5,3
5,0
5,5
6,0
5,3
4,8
5,3
5,8
5,0
4,5
4,8
5,1
4,8
4,5
4,8
5,1
4,8
4,8
4,8

T25= Tensile stress in 25C

ACcontent = Asphalt content
45

35

A ir void (% )

30
25
20
15
10
5

r-

Po
ly
m
er
M
10
A
G
C
r-2
0
M
10
A
G
C
r-2
0
M
10
G
A
rC
-2
M
10
0
Po
ly
m
er

C
-2
0
A
8

M
rG

r-

A
C

C
-2
0

-2
0

r-

0,34
0,51
0,27
0,28
0,29
0,30
0,29
0,33
0,32
0,25
0,24
0,22
0,26
0,18
0,19
0,20
0,27
0,15
0,19
0,19

(**) Sample obtained from Vibrating plaque

A C CO NTE NT
(% )
V M A (% )

VAM; Air Void (%)

40

Permanent
Deformation
(mm)
25 C 40 C

M ixture
Figure 7: VAM; Air Void vs. AC content for all mix studied

0,42
0,77
0,45
0,51
0,54
0,38
0,45
0,48
0,55
0,44
0,45
0,39
0,50
0.32
0,51
0,37
0,42
0,32
0,30
0,32

T25C
7

AC CONTENT (%)
6

5,3
4,8

5,5
5

sT25
(MPa)
MPa

5,8
5,3

5,3
4,8

T25C

5
4,5

4,8

5,1

4,8

4,5

4,8

5,1

4,8 4,8 4,8

4
3
2
2

1,32

0,55 0,51 0,47

0,75 0,86 0,73 0,78

1,24

1,05

0,35

0,57

0,79
0,27

0,56

0,8

0,45

0,67

0,92

G
r-

M
G 8A
rC
-2
M
G 8A 0
rM C-2
8
0
M AC
8
2
G
r - Po 0
M lym
G 10
e
rA r
M CG 10 20
rA
G M1 C-2
r0
0
A
M
10 C2
Po 0
ly
m
er

Figure 8: Variation of tensile stress (T25C) for different mix design

AC CONTENT (%)

Permanent Deformation
(mm) - 40 C

M
rG

G
r-

M
8

-2
0

8
A
C
G
-2
r0
M
8
A
C
M
20
8
Po
ly
G
rm
er
M
10
A
G
C
r-2
M
0
10
A
G
C
r-2
M
0
10
G
A
rC
M
-2
10
0
Po
ly
m
er

Figure 9 Variation of permanent deformation vs. AC content for all mix studied
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
It is observed that some mixes which attended the concept stone-on-stone contact. It was
select two series mixes: Gr-M8, Gr-M10, Ba-1 and Ba-2. The method used was proposal by
Brown and Haddock (1997), because it is simple and efficient.
It is possible to conclude:
1.
In fact, the gradation Gr-B and Gr-C presented the worst performance in terms of
drainage of superficial pavement layer.
2.
The SBS polymer modifiers mixtures obtainable the best performance in terms of
permanent deformation resistance and permeability.
3.
Using polymer modifiers mixtures was near five times more permeable.
4.
Adding polymer modifiers in the mixtures was observed an increase in tensile stress
results.

5.

6.

The Static Creep Test enables the verification of temperature effects. The table 5
showed that there is a temperature increases; there is also a permanent deformation
increase.
The authors intend to do more laboratory tests and an experimental field test in
airfields runway pavement

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