Staff and line

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Staff and line are names given to different types of functions in organizations. A "line function"
is one that directly advances an organization in its core work. This always includes production
and sales, and sometimes also marketing.[1] A "staff function" supports the organization with
specialized advisory and support functions. For example, human resources, accounting, public
relations and the legal department are generally considered to be staff functions.[2] Both terms
originated in the military.

Contents

1 Organizational lifecycle

2 Relative authority

3 Conflict between line and staff

4 Downsizing of staff function

5 References

Organizational lifecycle
Organizations begin as line-only, with line managers having direct control over all activities,
including administrative ones. Only later, as organizations grow in size, do they add staff
positions.[3]

Relative authority
Line managers have total authority over those who report directly to them, but staff workers have
primarily advisory authority. Their function is to create, develop, collect and analyze
information, which flows to line workers in the form of advice.[4]
Staff positions can have four kinds of authority: "advise authority," with line managers choosing
whether or not to seek advice from the staff person, and deciding what to do with the advice once
they get it; "compulsory advice" or "compulsory consultation" in which line managers must
consider the staff person's advice, but can choose not to heed it; "concurrent authority," in which
the line manager cannot finalize a decision without the agreement of the staff person, and
"functional authority" in which the staff person has complete formal authority over his or her
area of specialty.[5] Management theorists advise that functional authority for staff positions

should be extremely limited in scope: it should cover only a tiny aspect of the line managers' job,
it should relate only to areas in which line managers have no expertise, and it should be granted
only where company-wide uniformity is required. Common types of functional authority for staff
positions include authority over recruiting standards, reimbursement policies and quality
standards.[6]
Staff workers derive influence from expert authority or "authority of knowledge," from their
control of information which may be vital to line managers, and from their closer access to upper
management.[7][8]

Conflict between line and staff

It is very common for line and staff workers to come into conflict.[9] Staff specialists say line
workers avoid and ignore them, and line workers say staff workers lack expertise in the
organization's core work, distract them, and get in their way. American organizational sociologist
Melville Dalton attributed this to "the conspicuous ambition and individualistic behaviour among
staff managers," staff's anxiety to justify their existence, and the dependence of highly ranked
staff managers on line managers. Other management theorists have observed that line managers
sometimes resent staff advisors for being younger and better-educated than they are. Others
attribute the problem to staff managers not realizing that even though they have been delegated
authority in particular areas, their primary role is to serve and support line managers.
Management textbooks advise resolving line-staff conflict by explicitly recognizing the mutual
dependency of the two, making it clear what the staff role is, de-emphasizing any controlling
elements of the staff role, having staff deliberately set out to win the confidence and trust of line
workers, and emphasizing the staff role as part of the team.[10]

Downsizing of staff function

Historically, most MBA graduates have aspired to work in staff positions using their analytical
skills to advise line managers. In the 1980s when many large companies began downsizing to
reduce their number of employees, staff jobs were eliminated more often than line jobs. (For
example, IBM cut its staff positions from 7,000 to 2,000, and CBS cut hundreds of staff positions
from its New York headquarters.)[11] Thereafter, line jobs began increasingly to contain some
analytic functions, and more new MBA graduates began aspiring to line functions.[12]
Management experts believe organizations should minimize their investment in staff positions,
because they increase costs while not directly contributing to the organization's goals.
Increasingly organizations, especially smaller ones, are beginning to move away from line-staff
structures to structures that are more hybrid or matrixed.[13]

LINE-AND-STAFF ORGANIZATIONS

Photo by: James Thew

Organizational structure involves, in addition to task organizational boundary considerations, the

designation of jobs within an organization and the relationships among those jobs. There are
numerous ways to structure jobs within an organization, but two of the most basic forms include
simple line structures and line-and-staff structures.
In a line organization, top management has complete control, and the chain of command is clear
and simple. Examples of line organizations are small businesses in which the top manager, often
the owner, is positioned at the top of the organizational structure and has clear "lines" of
distinction between him and his subordinates.
The line-and-staff organization combines the line organization with staff departments that
support and advise line departments. Most medium and large-sized firms exhibit line-and-staff
organizational structures. The distinguishing characteristic between simple line organizations and
line-and-staff organizations is the multiple layers of management within line-and-staff

organizations. The following sections refer primarily to line-and-staff structures, although the
advantages and disadvantages discussed apply to both types of organizational structures.
Several advantages and disadvantages are present within a line-and-staff organization. An
advantage of a line-and-staff organization is the availability of technical specialists. Staff experts
in specific areas are incorporated into the formal chain of command. A disadvantage of a lineand-staff organization is conflict between line and staff personnel.
LINE-AND-STAFF POSITIONS

A wide variety of positions exist within a line-and-staff organization. Some positions are primary
to the company's mission, whereas others are secondaryin the form of support and indirect
contribution. Although positions within a line-and-staff organization can be differentiated in
several ways, the simplest approach classifies them as being either line or staff.
A line position is directly involved in the day-to-day operations of the organization, such as
producing or selling a product or service. Line positions are occupied by line personnel and line
managers. Line personnel carry out the primary activities of a business and are considered
essential to the basic functioning of the organization.
Line managers make the majority of the decisions and direct line personnel to achieve company
goals. An example of a line manager is a marketing executive.

Figure 1
Line-and-Staff Organization
Although a marketing executive does not actually produce the product or service,
he or she directly contributes to the firm's overall objectives through market

forecasting and generating product or service demand. Therefore, line positions,

whether they are personnel or managers, engage in activities that are functionally
and directly related to the principal workflow of an organization.

Staff positions serve the organization by indirectly supporting line functions. Staff positions
consist of staff personnel and staff managers. Staff personnel use their technical expertise to
assist line personnel and aid top management in various business activities. Staff managers
provide support, advice, and knowledge to other individuals in the chain of command.
Although staff managers are not part of the chain of command related to direct production of
products or services, they do have authority over personnel. An example of a staff manager is a
legal adviser. He or she does not actively engage in profit-making activities, but does provide
legal support to those who do. Therefore, staff positions, whether personnel or managers, engage
in activities that are supportive to line personnel.
LINE-AND-STAFF AUTHORITY

Authority within a line-and-staff organization can be differentiated. Three types of authority are
present: line, staff, and functional. Line authority is the right to carry out assignments and exact
performance from other individuals.
LINE AUTHORITY.

Line authority flows down the chain of command. For example, line authority gives a production
supervisor the right to direct an employee to operate a particular machine, and it gives the vice
president of finance the right to request a certain report from a department head. Therefore, line
authority gives an individual a certain degree of power relating to the performance of an
organizational task.
Two important clarifications should be considered, however, when discussing line authority: (1)
line authority does not ensure effective performance, and (2) line authority is not restricted to
line personnel. The head of a staff department has line authority over his or her employees by
virtue of authority relationships between the department head and his or her directly-reporting
employees.
STAFF AUTHORITY.

Staff authority is the right to advise or counsel those with line authority. For example, human
resource department employees help other departments by selecting and developing a qualified
workforce. A quality control manager aids a production manager by determining the acceptable
quality level of products or services at a manufacturing company, initiating quality programs,
and carrying out statistical analysis to ensure compliance with quality standards. Therefore, staff
authority gives staff personnel the right to offer advice in an effort to improve line operations.

FUNCTIONAL AUTHORITY.

Functional authority is referred to as limited line authority. It gives a staff person power over a
particular function, such as safety or accounting. Usually, functional authority is given to specific
staff personnel with expertise in a certain area. For example, members of an accounting
department might have authority to request documents they need to prepare financial reports, or
a human resource manager might have authority to ensure that all departments are complying
with equal employment opportunity laws. Functional authority is a special type of authority for
staff personnel, which must be designated by top management.
LINE-AND-STAFF CONFLICT

Due to different positions and types of authority within a line-and-staff organization, conflict
between line and staff personnel is almost inevitable. Although minimal conflict due to
differences in viewpoints is natural, conflict on the part of line and staff personnel can disrupt an
entire organization. There are many reasons for conflict. Poor human relations, overlapping
authority and responsibility, and misuse of staff personnel by top management are all primary
reasons for feelings of resentment between line and staff personnel. This resentment can result in
various departments viewing the organization from a narrow stance instead of looking at the
organization as a whole.
Fortunately, there are several ways to minimize conflict. One way is to integrate line and staff
personnel into a work team. The success of the work team depends on how well each group can
work together in efforts to increase productivity and performance. Another solution is to ensure
that the areas of responsibility and authority of both line and staff personnel are clearly defined.
With clearly defined lines of authority and responsibility, each group may better understand their
role in the organization. A third way to minimize conflict is to hold both line and staff personnel
accountable for the results of their own activities. In other words, line personnel should not be
entirely responsible for poor performance resulting from staff personnel advice.
Line-and-staff organizations combine the direct flow of authority present within a line
organization with staff departments that offer support and advice. A clear chain of command is a
consistent characteristic among line-and-staff organizational structures. Problems of conflict may
arise, but organizations that clearly delineate responsibility can help minimize such conflict.

The Advantages of the Line & Staff Organizational Structure

by David Ingram, Demand Media

Organizational structures include line and staff managers.

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Common Food & Labor Cost Percentages

Organizational structure is a formal outline of reporting relationships and information flows

within a company. Two types of managerial authority are granted by an organizational structure.
Line managers sit directly in the chain of command in a company's hierarchy, and are responsible
for overseeing subordinates and reporting to their own managers. Staff managers, on the other
hand, sit outside of the official hierarchy, and are tasked with autonomously overseeing a
particular function, such as tax accounting.
Decision Efficiency

Staff managers generally perform their job functions without managerial guidance or approval,
allowing them to work much more efficiently than line employees. Staff managers are placed in
charge of vital issues that are best handled by a single, highly specialized individual, or in which
a formal chain of command would simply hinder productivity and efficiency. Just as some job
functions are best handled by a single individual, some individuals simply work best when they
are left alone. Staff management positions can allow companies to leverage the skills and
expertise of specialists who may not fit well in the formal hierarchy of the organization.
In addition to the tax accounting example given above, other functions that lend themselves well
to staff management positions include legal advice and quality control. These are issues that are
vital to the company's success, but which do not require a large work group to accomplish.
Company Oversight

Line managers are vital to the success of any growing business. Line managers compose the
chain of command, and are responsible for directing, motivating and supervising employees at
all levels of an organization. Line managers make formal decisions within their sphere of
authority that directly influence the way a company does business, including production goals,
organizational policies and compensation decisions. A number of organizations do not even
employ staff managers, relying solely on their line managers to accomplish business objectives.
Related Reading: The Advantages of a Hierarchical Organizational Structure
Expert Advice

According to referenceforbusiness.com, staff managers often play a support role to line

managers. Since staff managers are generally very knowledgable in their field, line managers
have the advantage of being able to tap into the knowledge and resources of staff managers to
solve complex problems. Having specialized staff managers on board can help to bring clarity to
extraneous legal, tax and other issues.

Productivity

Line managers can work more efficiently with staff managers handling specialized functions. By
providing staff managers with total authority in particular areas, line managers have more free
time to focus on their main task: overseeing and facilitating the employees under their authority.
Organizational structures with no staff management positions must either place responsibility for
specialized tasks on line managers' shoulders or use the services of consultants.

Disadvantages of a Line & Staff Organization Structure

by Jackie Lohrey, Demand Media

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Vertical Organization Structure

Disadvantages to Forming a Formal Organizational Structure

How Does a Human Resources Manager Have Line, Staff & Implied Authority?

Disadvantages to a Vertical Organizational Structure

A line-and-staff organizational structure features multiple layers of managers, assistant managers

and supervisors, all of whom report to a single managing director. This reporting structure has
distinct advantages, such as relieving upper-level managers of the responsibility for making lowlevel decisions and allowing lower-level managers to focus on decisions relating directly to their
areas. Despite these pros, a line-and-staff organization structure also has some cons.
Overlapping Authority

Multiple authorities in a line-and-staff organization structure can create communications

problems and confuse employees. While rank-and-file employees report to their direct-line
supervisor, they technically also report to upper-level managers and must consider the decisions
and directions coming from those bosses as well. If lines of authority -- the who reports to
whom -- aren't clearly defined, employees may find it difficult to understand which manager
they really report to and whose directions they should follow.
Line-and-Staff Conflicts

Line-and-staff authorities follow two different perspectives. Staff authorities, such as those in
human resources or a production or inventory manager, most often view the business from a
quantitative perspective. Line authorities are closer to the action and, because of this, view the
business from a qualitative perspective. While different perspectives are basic and essential to a
line-and-staff organization structure, they can cause conflicts of interest and feelings of
resentment among managers. In addition, some managers -- especially those on a line
management level -- may consider how decisions affect only their department instead of how
they affect the business as a whole.
Related Reading: Organizational Structure of Nonprofits
Interdependence Issues

Line managers typically rely on advice and guidance from upper-staff-level experts. When
accurate advice and guidance help departments operate more efficiently, staff managers often get
the most credit and praise. When advice and guidance prove wrong and the actions of the
department affect the entire business, line managers are most often held accountable. Both
situations can cause feelings of jealousy, anger or resentment and create divisions among lineand-staff managers.

Cost Considerations

While specialization and the technical expertise of lower-level managers can work to the
advantage of a line-and-staff organization structure, these can also prove costly. Each layer of
authority adds to hiring, training and payroll expenses, and for a new business or a business with
limited finances, this can be a significant disadvantage. The more specialized the management
staff is, the greater the financial effects can be, as the business most often must absorb costs
associated with continuing education and maintaining technical expertise.

LINE AND STAFF STRUCTURE ORGANIZATION

Staff authority is used to support the line authority. Line authorities are more involved in the core
activities of the business. They have little time to analyze all information for many decisions.
They do not have expertise in all technical areas. Staffs are specialists, who help line authority in
discharging their duties. For example, a production manager (a line authority) does not have
enough time and experience to handle labor relation problems. Staffs (who are specialists) help
them in doing so.

Line and staff organizations have both line and staff executives. Line executives are assisted by
staff specialists in R & D, planning, distribution, quality, legal, audit, public relations, etc. The
job of staff is mainly advisory and guidance. Line executives maintain the supervisory power and
control over the execution of work.

Line and Staff Structure Organization