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4 629 Subgroups
Introduction
Recall the six symmetries of an equilateral triangle; the identity map, three
flips about the midlines through the vertices of the triangle, and two
(counterclockwise) rotations of 120 and 240 degrees.
This set, along with the group operation of composition, forms a self-
contained algebraic system called a group. It is distinguished by the fact the
group operation is closed and the group contains an identity (do nothing
operation), and every element in the group has an inverse. But this group is
only the outside of the shell, inside there may be smaller groups. For
example, in the dihedral group D3 of six symmetries of an equilateral triangle,
consider the subset of three rotational symmetries, the identity map e and the
two rotations of 120 and 240 degrees. The Cayley table for these symmetries
{e, R120 , R240 } is drawn in Figure 2, which can easily be verified to form a
group. The group operation is closed (i.e. the product of two elements
belongs to the group), e is the identity, and each element has an inverse.
Section 6.4 630 Subgroups
Example 1 (Subgroups
(Subgroups of Symmetries of an Equilateral Triangle)
Find the proper subgroups of the dihedral group D3 the symmetries of
an equilateral triangle.
We let the reader verify that each of these subgroups satisfy the necessary
requirements to be groups. See Problem 1.
Proper Subgroups
Subgroups of the Klein 4-
4-Group
Recall from Section 6.1 that the group of (rotational and reflective)
symmetries of a rectangle form a group, called the Klein 4-group, with
elements G = {e, R180 , H , V } , where as always " e " denotes the group identity,
R180 a rotation of 180 degrees, and H ,V flips around the horizontal and
vertical midlines, respectively. Figure 4 shows the Cayley table of the
symmetries of a rectangle and its three proper subgroups, all of order 2.
Note how the order of the subgroups always divides the order of the group.
We will not prove it here but this is a fundamental property was one of the
first fundamental theorems proven in group theory and is called Lagrange’s
theorem, after the great French/Italian mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange
(1736-1813).
Section 6.4 632 Subgroups
∗ e R180 H V
∗ e R180 H V
e e R180 H V
e e R180 H V
R180 R180 e V H
R180 R180 e V H
H H V e R180
H H V e R180
V V H R180 e
V V H R180 e
∗ e R180 H V ∗ e R180 H V
e e R180 H V e e R180 H V
R180 R180 e V H R180 R180 e V H
H H V e R180 H H V e R180
V V H R180 e V V H R180 e
Test of Subgroups
Subgroups
Although a subset H of a group G is a group only if it satisfies the four
axioms of a group; i.e.. Closure, Associativity, Identity, Inverse, the fact that
H is a subset of G , it is only necessary to verify that the group operation ∗
is closed in H and that every element of H has an inverse in H . There is no
need to show the existence of an identity; the identity in the larger group G is
also an identity in the subgroup H , This result is summarized in the following
theorem.
Section 6.4 633 Subgroups
Proof:
Since ∗ is a binary operation on G , it is also a binary operation on the
subset H , and by assumption i) we know ∗ maps H × H into H . Next, the
associative law ( a ∗ b ) ∗ c = a ∗ ( b ∗ c ) holds for all a, b, c ∈ H since H is a
subset of G and we know it holds for all a, b, c ∈ G . We now ask if the identity
e ∈ G also belongs to H and is the identity of H ? The answer is yes since
by picking an h ∈ H we know by hypothesis ii) there exists a h −1 ∈ H , and by
closure h ∗ h −1 = e ∈ H . Hence, we have verified the four properties required
for a group: closure, associativity, identity, and inverse. Hence H is a group.
▌
Solution
We observe that + is closed binary operation in 2 since if
m = 2k1 , n = 2k2 are even integers, so is their sum m + n = 2 ( k1 + k2 ) ∈ 2 .
Secondly, every even integer 2k ∈ 2 has an inverse, namely
−2k = 2 ( −k ) ∈ 2 . ▌
Note: The order of any subgroup of a group is a divisor of the group, and if the
order of the subgroup is a prime number then there will be a subgroup of that order.
Hence, there is not a subgroup of order 9 of a subgroup of order 30, and there
might be a subgroup of order 15, and there is a subgroup of order 5.
Section 6.4 634 Subgroups
Solution
In general it is not a simple task to find all subgroups of a group, but for
cyclic groups it is an easy task.
Example 4 (Subgroups
(Subgroups of the Dihedral Group D4 ) Figure 5 shows the dihedral
group D4 of eight symmetries of a square, also called the octic group.
b) There are several subsets of the eight symmetries that form a group
in their own right. These are called subgroups of the octic group. Can you
find all ten of them?
Solution
a) The reader can check but R270 Fne ≠ Fne R270 . Hence, the octic group is
not commutative.
{e} , {e,V } , {e, H } ,{e, Fnw} , {e, Fne } , {e, R180 } , {e, R180 ,V , H } , {e, R180 , Fnw , Fne }
Section 6.4 635 Subgroups
No motion e = R0
Rotate 90
R90
Counterclockwise
Rotate 180
R180
Counterclockwise
Rotate 270
R270
Counterclockwise
Horizontal flip H
Vertical flip V
Symmetries of a Square
Figure 5
Note: The two groups and are subsets of and under the same operation
of addition, hence both are subgroups of .
where the group operation is addition modulo 12, where the group operation is
addition modulo 12. If we start taking “powers” of g = 1 , we get (remember
powers are really adding 1)
which has generated the entire group 12 . On the other hand the element
g = 2 generates the subgroup 2 = {0, 2, 4, 6,8 } ⊆ G . Figure 7 shows the
subgroups generated by g = 1, 2,3, 4 . Do you see why 5 = 12 and
6 = {0, 6} .
Table 1 shows the subgroups generated by each element of the group and the
order of the subgroup generated by the generator.
Note: You may have noticed that the order of the subgroups seems to
always divide the order of the group. This is not a coincidence. The order of
a subgroup always divides the order of a group. For example a group of order
11 will only have the trivial subgroups of the group itself and the identity
subgroup. On the other hand the groups of order 6 we have seen (cyclic
group of order six and the dihedral group D3 of symmetries of an equilateral
triangle both have subgroups of order 2 and 3.
Solution
Starting with R120 and the identity e = R0 we form the set {R0 , R120 } after
2
which we compute R120 = R240 . Since this is not in {R0 , R120 } we include it,
3
getting {R0 , R120 , R240 } . We now compute the next power R 120 = R0 in which case
we stop, getting the subgroup R120 = {R0 , R120 , R240 } of rotations of D3 .
Solution
Systematically trying different generators, we find the 8 subgroups.
Hence, the four subgroups of Z 8 are {{0},{0, 4},{0, 2, 4, 6},{0,1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7}}
under the same addition and multiplication mod 8 as Z 8 .
Section 6.4 640 Subgroups
Problems,
Problems, Section 6.4, Subgroups
1. (True or False)
a) The order of any subgroup always divides the order of the group.
Ans: true
Ans:
Ans true
Ans:
Ans false, the identity alone is a subgroup
Ans: true
Ans: true, the identity and the group itself are both subgroups of S 2
Ans: false, the subsets must contain the identity element and some subsets fo
not.
Ans: yes
Ans:
Ans yes, and you should be able to envision them
Ans:
Section 6.4 641 Subgroups
1 = 6 order 6
2 = {0, 2, 4} order 3
3 = {0, 3} order 2
4 = {0, 2, 4} order 3
5 = 6 order 6
3. Find the Cayley table for the subgroup {e, R180 , v, h} of the group of
symmetries of a square.
Ans:
* e R180 v h
e e R180 v h
R180 R180 e h v
v v h e R180
h h v R180 e
4. Show that the group defined by the following Cayley table is a subgroup of
S3 .
∗ ( ) (123) (132 )
( ) ( ) (123) (132 )
(123) (123) (132 ) ( )
(132 ) (132 ) ( ) (123)
Ans:
Z ( G ) = { g ∈ G : gx = xg for all x ∈ G}
It can be shown that the center of any group is a subgroup of the group. Find
the center of the group of symmetries of a rectangle. Note: The center of a
group is never empty since the identity element of a group always commutes
with every element of the group. The question is, are there other elements
that commute with every element of the group.
Ans:
Section 6.4 643 Subgroups
1 = {1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 0} = 8
2 = {2, 4, 6, 0}
3 = {3, 6,1, 4, 7, 2,5} = 8
4 = {4, 0}
5 = {5, 2, 7, 4,1, 6, 3, 0} = 8
6 = {6, 4, 2, 0}
7 = {7, 6,5, 4,3, 2,1, 0} = 8
10. 11. (Subgroups of 11 ) Find the subgroups of the cyclic group 11 .
Section 6.4 644 Subgroups