Biochemistry

A cofactor is a non-protein chemical compound that is required for the protein's biological activity. These
proteins are commonly enzymes, and cofactors can be considered "helper molecules" that assist in
biochemical transformations.
Cofactors can be classified depending on how tightly they bind to an enzyme, with loosely bound
cofactors termed coenzymes and tightly bound cofactors termed prosthetic groups.

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is a coenzyme found in all living cells. The compound is a
dinucleotide, since it consists of twonucleotides joined through their phosphate groups. One nucleotide
contains an adenine base and the other nicotinamide. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two
forms, an oxidized and reduced form abbreviated as NAD+ and NADH respectively.
In metabolism, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide is involved in redox reactions, carrying electrons from
one reaction to another. The coenzyme is, therefore, found in two forms in cells: NAD+ is an oxidizing
agent it accepts electrons from other molecules and becomes reduced. This reaction forms NADH,
which can then be used as a reducing agent to donate electrons. These electron transfer reactions are the
main function of NAD.
These electron transfer reactions are the main function of NAD. However, it is also used in other cellular
processes, the most notable one being a substrate of enzymes that add or remove chemical groups from
proteins, in posttranslational modifications. Because of the importance of these functions, the enzymes
involved in NAD metabolism are targets for drug discovery.
Although NAD+ is written with a superscript plus sign because of the formal charge on a particular
nitrogen atom, at physiological pH for the most part it is actually a singly-charged anion (charge of minus
1), while NADH is a doubly-charged anion.

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Phosphorylation is the addition of a phosphate (PO43) group to a protein or other organic molecule (see also: organophosphate). Phosphorylation turns
many protein enzymes on and off, thereby altering their function and activity. Protein phosphorylation is one type of post-translational modification.
Glycolysis
Preparatory stage
Step 1: The first step in glycolysis is phosphorylation of glucose by a family of enzymes called hexokinases to form glucose 6phosphate(G6P). This reaction consumes ATP, but it acts to keep the glucose concentration low, promoting continuous transport of glucose
into the cell through the plasma membrane transporters. In addition, it blocks the glucose from leaking out the cell lacks transporters for
G6P, and free diffusion out of the cell is prevented due to the charged nature of G6P.