Floors:

Floors have had a broad range of functions and finishes throughout the history of architecture. It
should be noted that looking down after entering a building is an important consideration that
should not be ignored. The commitment to floors has always been based on the project budget. If
funds are not available, floor finishes are left basic, and if funds are available, finishes tend to be
of a higher quality. Because there are so many material, color, pattern, and covering options
available, floors are still valued as surfaces worthy of financial investment and creative
expression.
Sub-Floor Structures:
There are generally two types of subfloor structures over which floor coverings can be installed:
Concrete Subfloors: Elevated concrete floors (cast-in-place concrete and concrete on metal
deck) and concrete slabs-on-ground, Figure 1 .
Wood Subfloors: Wood panels supported by wood light-frame or cold-formed steelframe
members, Figure 2 .

Figure 1
Sub-Floor Characteristics:
The long-term durability of floor coverings depends on the quality of the subfloor conditions. A
good subfloor will have some of the following characteristics:
Sound: Concrete should be finished smooth, without ridges, ripples, and imperfections,
and wood structures should be properly attached, solid and tight, with nails, screws, or
adhesive.

Figure 2
Dry: Subfloors must be sufficiently dry because adhesives will not adhere properly to a
wet or partially wet surface. Additionally, excessive moisture in a concrete subfloor will
damage floor coverings as the moisture leaves the subfloor.
Clean and Free of Foreign Materials: There should be no foreign materials, including
dust, solvents, paint, wax, oil, and so on, on the surface of the subfloor.
Selection Criterion for Floor coverings:
An almost limitless number of floor covering products and materials is available today. The
selection of materials must consider the design intent as well as the manner in which people will
interact with the floors.
Factors
There are many performance factors that should be considered when selecting floor coverings.
Some of the these factors are critically important and necessary to consider, whereas others do
not apply to every situation.
1. Slip Resistance: Many injuries result annually from falls on slippery surfaces, particularly
when wet. In areas where this is a hazard, surface conditions must provide adequate
resistance to slipping. This is measured by laboratory testing that establishes a numerical
value known as the coefficient of friction.
2. Durability and Longevity: Floor coverings may be subjected to many types of use and
exposure to environmental impacts. These include wear and damage due to the abrasive
impact of pedestrian and other types of traffic; staining and damage from liquids,
chemicals, and reagents; degradation from exposure to ultraviolet radiation from
skylights or large windows coverings; and issues related to water and moisture.
3. Flammability: Building codes require resistance to fire propagation (flame spread and
smoke development) for some applications.

4. Hygienic Qualities:In some applications, such as a hospital or commercial kitchen, a

floor covering should not give sanctuary to dirt and bacteria.
5. Walking Comfort: When people will be constantly standing on, or walking over, a floor
covering, underfoot comfort is very important. Hard, unyielding surfaces can cause
walker fatigue and, in some cases, lead to foot, leg, or back stress problems.
6. Maintenance Requirements: Maintenance is an ongoing expense for every building. For
every floor covering, there is a prescribed maintenance procedure to ensure the longest
possible performance time. Some floor coverings are more time-consuming and
expensive to maintain than others, a factor that must be considered in terms of long-term
maintenance goals and budgets for the building.

Common Types of Floor Finishing Surfaces

Ceramic Tile Flooring
The composition and installation of ceramic tile have changed little over the decades. The tiles
are adhered with mortar, and the voids between tile edges are then filled with grout.
Ceramic tile is made from natural clay, porcelain, or other ceramic materials. The exposed face is
either glazed or left unglazed and then fired to a temperature sufficient to produce the necessary
physical properties. Glazed tiles have glassy, or glossy, exposed surfaces. The glaze protects the
tile body against water absorption and provides for a wide range of colors. Glazes can be opaque,
transparent clear, or colored clear. One of the weaknesses of glaze is that it can be scratched,
which changes its appearance and performance characteristics.
Stone Panel Flooring
Stone panels for flooring, also known as dimension stone , are natural stones that have been
selected and fabricated (cut and trimmed) to specific shapes and sizes, with or without
mechanical dressing of one or more surfaces. Natural stones used for panel flooring include
granite, marble, limestone, slate, and other quartz-based stones such as sandstone, bluestone, and
quartzite.
Stone panels are uniformly dressed on five faces, with the backs being left ungauged. The panels
are actually slabs of stone and usually have large dimensions in one or both directions. Because
the panels are not uniformly thick, they must be installed over a thick-set mortar bed, Figure 3.

Figure 3

Terrazzo Flooring
Terrazzo flooring has much in common with concrete. Like concrete, a terrazzo binding matrix is
mixed with several aggregates and placed, wet and plastic, in its final location. However, unlike
concrete, the exposed surface is ground and polished after it cures to expose the binding matrix
and aggregates, thus revealing a smooth and colorful finish.
A binding matrix is the material that holds the aggregate chips in position. Until about the end of
the twentieth century, the most common binding matrix was cementitious, combining portland
cement (usually white), aggregate chips, and pigments if needed (either alkali resistant or
synthetic powdered, inorganic substances) to form a uniform matrix color. This binding matrix is
now being replaced with a resinous epoxy, most commonly polyester, polyacrylate-modified
cement, or polyurethane. The creative design of terrazzo flooring is the primary criterion for
selecting aggregate chips. The defining quality for these chips is their ability to be ground and
polished. Marble chips are the most common aggregate, glass chips are also used.

Figure 4
Carpet Flooring
The most emotionally comforting floor covering is carpet. It is widely used due to its softness,
contribution to quietness, and feeling of comfort. All carpet is manufactured in continuous
lengths. The essential difference between carpets is in their construction and how they are used
in a building. Two basic types of carpet are available: rolled goods and tiles . Rolled goods, also
called broadloom , dominates the carpet industry (rolls are typically 6 or 12 ft in width). Carpet
tiles, typically used in commercial buildings, have rubber backings and can be easily changed
when a tile becomes stained or otherwise damaged, Figure 5.
Fibers, the basic component of carpet, are either natural or synthetic. Fibers are used to make the
yarn that is used to make carpet:

Figure 5
Wood Flooring
Wood flooring is valued in residential applications for the warmth and beauty it brings to a room.
It is also used extensively for athletic floors, such as basketball and volleyball courts, as well as
for theater and dance floors, where durability and hardness, are highly desired. Although most
wood species can be fabricated for wood flooring, all of them are not equal in performance. Oak
and maple are the most commonly used species in the United States.
Generally, wood floorings are classified as either solid wood flooring or engineered wood
flooring. As the name implies, in solid wood flooring the same wood species is used throughout
the entire piece, Figure 6. It is susceptible to changes in size due to moisture content. It can be
flat sawn, quarter sawn and is available in different appearance grades. Like plywood,
engineered wood flooring is a combination of a surface veneer, usually a hardwood, which is
laminated to one or more plies of a wood veneer from a less expensive wood species that
provides dimensional stability and added strength.

Figure 6

Typical components of a Window and its types

Figure 7
Types of Windows
Fixed Window
A fixed window generally does not have a sash because the glass is held directly by the window
frame. A fixed window gives 0% ventilation, and is generally more energy efficient because of
its lower air leakage rate, Figure 8 (a).
Single-Hung Window
A single-hung window consists of one sash that can slide vertically over a fixed lite of glass. It
can provide up to 50% ventilation. An insect screen unit can be easily included on the outside,
Figure 8 (d).
Double-Hung Window
A double-hung window consists of two sashes, both of which can slide up and down. The
maximum amount of ventilation provided by a doublehung window is 50%. An insect screen can
be included on the outside. Some contemporary double-hung windows include a tilt-and-turn
mechanism that allows the cleaning of the outside of the window from the inside, Figure 8 (b).
Horizontal Sliding Window
A sliding window consists of one sash that slides horizontally over a fixed sash. Alternatively,
both sashes may slide with respect to each other, as shown here. A sliding window can provide
up to 50% ventilation. A sliding window is more prone to air leakage than other window styles.
An insect screen unit can be easily included toward the exterior, Figure 8 (c).
Casement Window

A casement window (also called a side-hung window) may consist of one operable sash, as
shown here, or two sashes that close on each other with or without a center mullion. Because the
sash closes on the frame with pressure, providing a compression seal, a casement window is
generally less prone to air leakage and, hence, can be more energy efficient than single-, doublehung or sliding windows. A casement window can provide up to 100% ventilation. Screen units
with a casement window are generally provided on the inside with sashes opening out, Figure 8
(e).
Awning Window
An awning window (also called a top-hung window) is similar to a casement window but
provides a degree of rain protection when the window is partially open. It can provide up to
100% ventilation. An insect screen unit can only be provided toward the interior of an awning
window, Figure 8 (f).

(a)

(d)

(g)

(b)

(e)

(h)

(c)

(f)
Figure 8

Hopper Window
A hopper window (also called a bottom-hung window) is similar to an awning window but opens
inward at the top. Like an awning window, it can provide up to 100% ventilation. An insect
screen unit can be provided toward the outside, Figure 8 (g).
Pivoting Window
A pivoting window may be pivoted at the center or off center. It allows easy cleaning of the
window from the inside and can provide up to 100% ventilation. It has the ability to direct the
flow of ventilation. A screen unit cannot be provided with a pivoting window, Figure 8 (h).
Typical components of a Door

Figure 9