CSWIP 3.4 - Welding Inspector - Level 2 wiss Tw ‘Trang & Examination Sees ‘Gran Pan Grom Arnon ‘Comore C821 GAL-UX Copyraheo ToLexam a8 CSWIP 3.1 - Welding Inspector — ®@ Level 2 Contents Section _ Subject ‘Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors General Terms and Definitions “Types of weld ‘Types of Joints (see BS EN ISO 15607) Features ofthe completed Weld Weis reparation Sue ot but woids Fact wold \Weising poston slope ard retation @ Wow Welding imperfections and Materia Inspection 1 Betintane 2 Cee 33 Gaviles 34 Soiainetisions 35 Lack ison nd poetaton 38 npetoct shape and dense 37 Misclaneous mpertectons 38 Acceptance standards ‘ Destructive Testing 41 Testypes, pices ana objectives 42 Mecrosope examinaton 5 Non-destructve Testing $1 Inoducton 52 ——_—Radograpie methods 53 _Divesens meade @ 54 Magneto pare testing 55 Dye venatarttesing € Wesieider Qualifications 81 General 82 Ginfed woldng procedure specitatons 83 Wilder quatfeaton wovw-twitraining.cometl cemigte 7 Materials Inspection TA General 72 Material type and weldabity 73 Alleying elements and the effects 14 Material traceatity 75 Material condition and dimensions, 78 Summary 8 Codes and Standards a1 General 82 Deintone 83 ‘Summary 2 Welding Symbols 9a Standards fr symbolic representation of welded joints on drawings 92 Elenentary welding symbols 93 ‘Combination of elomentary symbols 94 ‘Supplementary symbols 95. Postion of symbols on éawings 38 Relationship between the arow and joint Ines 97 Postion ofthe reference line and weld symbol 38 Positions ofthe continuous and dashed Ines 99 Dimensioning of welds 940 Complimentary indications eat Indeation of te welding process 812 Wed symbols in accordance with AWS 2.4 10 Introduction to Welding Processes 404 Gonerat 102 Profuctvty 103 Heetinput 104 Webing parameters 105 Power soutce characteristics 1" Manual Metal Arc/Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMA/SMAW) m4 MME basic equipment requirements a2 Power requirements 113 Welding variables 4 Sunmary of MM/SMAW 2 TG Welding 724 Process characteristics 122 Process variables 123 Filer wires 14 Tungsten inclusions 425 Crater eracking 128 ——_Coramon applicavons 427 Advantages, 128 ——_Disedvantages won titraining comse 18 ——‘MIGMAG Welding Br rooms 132 Voraties 133 MiG basi equpment requirements 13 Inpecton when MIGN/AG wang 135 Fneored arewaksng FAW) 135 Simmary ofsokd wre MGMAG 14 Submerged Are Welding M1 Process 42 Fines 143 rooms variables 1&4 Sorago and care of consumables 15 Powetecuoen 15 Thermal Cutting Processes 181 Onyrol cating 152 Patmaarecuting 183 Aeereouging 184 Manca metal ae oousng @ 18 Weng Consumables Tet Canmumabies for ta elding 12 ANSAS wand AVIS 35. 1E3__Tnapecton pis for MIA consumes 164 Conmumablester GW 185 Consumables er MGMAG 123 Gonmumable or SAW wotang 47 Weldablty of Stets 1 Imveducton 172 ctr that fet waldbity 173 Rydrogen eracerg 17a Stanton erockng “7S Lamolartentng 175 Vieldecay 18 Wold Repairs ter Twospecte areas 19 Residual Stresses and Distortions: @ G1 _Bevwopmer of reada! stresses 82 Whatcames detoton? 183 —Thomantypesct ostorion? {Ge Facoreaflacing dion? 18S —_brovenionby peseting, re-bending or use of rest 188 Preven by Sein 127 __Preventonby foneatontchriques 108 Coecthotechnguee pe www.twitraining.comcrn ts aes 2, tour ay tt owam Bi Steen eee i a | oe 2 kee SS 2, ste Ap fora a a Ges ] ee rey ‘ope Yorn oie Md So eer an Sr Moret See erea ed yr. ooart Agta Examination Contents ‘30 General multiple choice ‘Questions 45 Min 00 Technology questions 90 Min 20 Macroscopic questions, 45Min 20 Plate Butt questions 75Min 20 Pipe Buti questions 405 Min 70% is required in each section | 3 CD ssc wow twitralning.comSection 1 Typical Duties of Welding Inspectorsnse 1 Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors 14 General Wielding inspectors are employed to assist with the qualiy control (6) aaviles “necessary to. ensure that welled ems meet specied Teauiremerts and ae ft fr their application For employers to have confidence In thelr work, welding inspectors need to to understandintrpret the varous QC procedures and also have @ sound knowledge of welding technology, ‘Visual inspection is one of the nondestructive examination (NDE) disciplines and for some applications may be the ony form, Foc more demanding sevice conditions, visual inspecton i usualy followed by one or moro of the oer non-desvvetve testing. (NDT) techniques - stiface Gack detection and volumetric inspection of but welds. ‘Application Standerds/Codes usualy speciy (or refer to oer standards) ‘at give the accoptance citera for weld inspection and may be very Specie about the partcuar techniques to bo used for surface. crack detecton and vlumetic inspection, they donot usualy gve any guidance about basic requirements for visual inspection. ‘Guidance and basi requirements for visual inspection are given by 150 17637 (Non-destructive examination of fusion welds - visual Examination) 441 Basie requirements for visual inspection (to ISO 17637) 150 17637 provides te folowing + Requirements for welding inspection personne {+ Recommendatons about conditions sutabe for visual examination. {Advice onthe use of gaugestinepecton aids that may be neededihelful for ingpecton. + Guidance about information that may need to be in the inspection records ‘+ Guidance about when inspection may be required during fabricaton ‘Asummary of each ofthese topics is given in the following sections TWI " woretuitraiving.com@ eee) otaloua inde eae pemecnteed 44.2 Welding inepection personnal Batre tring work on a parte contac 601767 ses that weling Popecci ore + 90 fatar with strat standin and apetestons fr the feberton wate be uecaton + Botrionod stot th wldng procedure) be ued {ve good isan in scnanc wiN ENTS and Gack every 12 roe 180 17837 dee nt gv of make any rcsrmanatn about «toma {olden for cua posi tals Monevar kh bacon nity Bractca ter apace have patie epueca of way rapectss Leptner ns recognsed gushcaton wl nspeion © sth a ¢ Bene cuttcabon 113 Condon for veual inspection Mminaton ISO" sales hatte minimum Wunnton shal bo 360 hx but recomend ain 280 tx oma soy oes igh Access Actos to he sutace for dexnapecon soit enable the ye tobe: + win ot of esac bang apc 5 ima poston ges vonng ang toes than 30 exon a my wy ven traning. comeyadga tes rt ones Te 1.44 Aids to visual inspection Where access for direct visual inspection is restcted, a mtrored boroscope cor a fore optic Viewing system, may be used ~ usualy by agreement between the contracting partes, It may also be necessary to provide away lighting to ave sutanie Contrast and rele! effect between surface impedectons and the background, Cother items of equipment that may be appropriate to facitate visual examination are + Welding gauges (or checking bevel angles end weld profi filet sizing, measuring undercut depth, + Decicated weld gap gauges and lines misalignment (hil) gauges. 1 ‘Straight edges and measuring tapes. {Magnifying lene (i magnification lens is used it should be X2to XS). 150 17637 shows a range of welding gauges together with details of what they can be used for and the precision ofthe measurements 414.8 Stages when inspection may be required 180 17697 states that examination is normally performed on welds in the ‘aswelded condition. This means that visual inspection of the fished weld | a minimum requirement However, ISO 17637 says thatthe extent of examination and the stages when inspection activity 16 required should be specified by the Application Standard or by agroement between clent and fabricator For fabricate items that must have high integrity, such as pressure vessels and piping of large structures inspection, actly wil usually be required ‘throughout the fabrieaton process: + Bolore welsing + During welsing + Aer welaing, Inspection activities at each ofthese stages of fabrication can be considered the duties of the welding inspector and typical inspection checks that may De requred are described inthe folowing section, . iS wowwtwitaining.com g4 Beak rca neg mc Sete aes ‘ypleal duties of a welding inspector ‘he relevant standards, rules and specifications that 8 welding inspector should be fariliar with atthe slat of @ new contact are all the documenta he wil need to refer to during the fabriation sequence in order to make judgements about parila deals “Typical documents that may need tobe referred to ae: ‘+ The Application Standard (or Code): For visual acceptance criteria Although most of the requirements for the fabricated item should be specified by Nabonal Standards, cent standards of various QC. Procedures, some features are not easy to define precisely and the Fequiremeni may be given as to good workmanship standard ‘+ Quality plans or inspection check lists: For the type and extont of inspection. ‘+ Drawing: For assomblyi-up details and dimensional requirements + QC procedures: Company QCIOA procedures such as those for document control, materisl handing, electrode storage end issue, ‘Welding Procedure Specifications, etc. Examples of requicements difcut to define precisely are some shape tolerances, distortion, surface damage or the amount of weld spt. Good workmanship isthe standard that a competent worker should bo able te achieve without difeuty when using the cortect tools in @ particular working environment In practice the application ofthe fabricated item wil be the main factor that intuences what's judged to be good workmanship or the relevant client ‘specication wil determine what the acceptable level of workmanship i Felerence samples are sometimes needed to give guidance about the ‘s2ceptance standard for deals such as weld surface frsh and toe blend, ‘weld root profile and finish required for welds that need to be dressed, by Binding of Fishing ‘Awelding inspector should algo ensure that any inspection aids that will be needed are: + In good consiton + Calibrated as sppropratsas speciied by QC procedures. WI 7 7 nu uitralnng comempes Tae ‘Sfety consciousness is a duty of all employees and a welding inspector shoul: + Be aware ofall safety regulations forthe workplace. Ensure that safety equipment that wil be needed is avalable and in stable condition Duties before welding In accodanas wih rawagiiPS. Idenbesand canbe wacos to est conteate Insutabiecondton (re fom drape an etait. [nsccardance win WS (andiorerowngs) denfesion of woles quate ose) WPS be ured Atwldar quaieston castes ae vale dt) Wilingconsonatiae Thor ob sed ae as spaced by the WPS. re Sredontolod 2 soe yt QC procedure “ei In acurdance win Warnings tack walls aro good etomaneh andr ado cadens Wai ose Free rom does, cortminaton and arage Brahat agua) | Winmur temperature isn acerca win WEE) Duties during welding rae ‘eter ‘Satie wang naire wesar canon are nubian wih Code {candton wie ee wang, Waking poco In seoranos win WS. rates (required) Mama torprahie is bag mablahednaccrdance wih wee Tniass ampere | waa praise inassrdaos wil WPS. ‘Wing consmatiee [I acoréanoe wih WPS ane beng cools pro2edue ‘wating paametes | Curent ois. al poed aren aeons wih WS. oat ‘Visual acelin Code ef ng jon fr sae Bid wl). ‘Geagngiining | By an sorvedehedapdo good workraraip Handa ineruneteaning | Togo wont stand Wer ‘On be approval etrqualie otha WS bang sed TWI ae CM see “wow twitraning.come 447 Beytpe mis ees oumawesiy eae ‘Serevent Duties after welding ‘ask etn Wild deriaton | Ean wold mard wh he wodersWenifatonandie Igbo arconsnce wit owigvel map Wo appearance | Ear wold re autble fr all NOT (rofie coaoas Vitaly spect wll and serena in accordance wy Code. Dinendenaeuvey | Chex enon rei aczoranes win cawigiode Deswings Ensue ary meine afe need on a bl Janos NOT Engrs al NOT is comple and repr val for 0 Reps enor in accordance win he procedure. PT frequved) | Wonor x comptane win precoure eek cha eco) Presauatand esl [Enaue el equi arate. (require) nitr eto rere complance wih procedieCode Enaurrpotafecoas ae ovale, ‘Desmalon eco Enaue a eprseers are complied an ted ab reaured Examination records ‘The requirement for examination recordsinspection reports varies according tothe contract and ype of fabrication and there is frequently no requirement ora formal recor, When an inspection record is required it may be necessary to show that items have been checked at the specified stages and have satisfied the ‘acceptance citeria, “The form ofthis record will vary, possibly a signature against an actviy on {an ingpection checklist or quality plan, oft may be an individual inspection ‘epott for each item For individual ‘uch a: peston reports, ISO 17637 lists typical details for inclusion Name of manufecturerfabricator. Identfcation of fem examined, Material type and thickness. ‘Type of joint. Welding process. ‘Accoptance standarderiteria, Locations and tyes of all imperfections not acceptable (when specified, itmay be necessary to include an accurate sketch or photograph). ‘+ Name of examinerinspector and date of examination, Wy : aesSection 2 Terms and Definitions@ Senne TW 23 2. Terms and Definitions ‘The folowing definitions are taken from BS 490-1: Welding terms and symbols ~ glossary for welding, brazing and thermal euting Bran [prose of joing ganerlyapled to metals in which, dxing or ater eating, maton fer metal Saw into of retained the space beeen evel ) || rector | (One of the most common preparations used in welding and can be reduced using flame or plasma cutting (cheap and fast. For thicker platos 2 double V preparation is prefered since it requires less filer material to ‘Complete the joint and the residual stresses can be balanced on both sides ofthe joint resulting n lower angur distortion, oe Double V preparation tL >< | ‘The depth of preparation can be the same on both sides (symmetic double \V preparation) deaper on one side (asymmestc cauble V preparation) Usually inthis stuation the depth of preparation is dstibuted as 29 of the thickness of the plate on the fist side with fe remaining 1/3 on the backside. Ths asymmetic preparation allows for a balanced welding, TWI 7 wow twitralning.com e@‘sequence wit root back gouging, giving lower angular distorons. Whlst a single V preparation allows welding from one side, double V preparation Fequires access to both sides (the same applies for all double aded reparations). ‘Single U preparation Inoue angle ‘age of Root pay ‘ue Roop Re U preparations can be produced only by machining (slow and expensive), however, tighter tolerances give a better fitup than win V preparations, scaly applied to thicker plates compared with singe V prepara i ‘requires less filer material fo compete the joint, lower residual svesses and dlstonons. Like for V preparations, with very thick sections @ double U preparation can be used. Double U preparation f=] Usualy this type of preparation does not require @ land, (except for _aluninim aye) ‘www twitraining.comeos tles ‘Single V preparation with backing strip Backing stips allow production of full penetration welds with increased ceurrent and. hence increased depositon ratesiproductviy without the danger of burnthrough. Backing strips can be permanent or temporary. Permanent types are made of the same material at being joined and are tack welded In place. The main problems with tis type of weld are poor fatigue resistance and the probably of crevice corrosion between the parent metal and the backing strip. I's also dificult to examine by NOT due {othe builtin crevice at the rot ofthe joint. Temporary types include copper sires, ceramic tes and faxes. Single bevel proparaton Double novel preparation a - wor twitraining.com @25 { | 3 Sine J prearation. E62 ‘All these preparations (singleldouble bevel and J) can be used on T joints ‘a8 wel. Double preparations are recommended for thick sections, The main, ‘advantage of these preparations is that only one component is prepared (cheap, can alow fer small misalignments). Doub J preparation For further detais regarding weld preparations, please refer to Standard BS EN ISO 9692, Size of butt welds Full penetration butt wold ‘womtwitaining.comPartial penetration butt weld Acts tvout, Deson vast, ‘einese thaese ‘As a general ule ‘Actual host thickness = design throat thickness + excess weld meta Wy kn rome Fu penetration butt weld ground fush ‘eta oat loess. Design reat Shania tcc Ieknass = ckness ‘brug to tne heme pate Butt wot botween to pats of aferent thickness. Run (pass) ‘eta pte dig one pf nce oa [Wy ‘Single run wot Layer [A Stratum of weld metal consisting of one or more runs. : _wwnw.twitraining.come ‘Types of butt wold (from accessibily point of view) (Wa Singie ste ete oe side wok. 26 Fillet wold ‘A fusion weld, other than a but, edge o fusion spot weld, which is ‘pproximately triangular in transverse cross-section, 261 Ske of filet wolds Unike butt weld, filet welds can be defined using several dimensions, ‘Actual throat thickness Perpendicular distance between two ines, each paral toa line joining the ‘outer toes, one being a tangent atthe wel face andthe oer being through the furthermost point of fusion penetration Design throat thickness “The minimum dimension of throat thickness used for design purposes, also known as effective throat thickness. (a on srawings). ‘Leg length Distance from the actual o projected intersection ofthe fusion faces an the {08 of a filet weld, measured across the fusion face (2 on d'awings) ‘Actua treat ‘hexnese 7, wre.twitraining.comseomnd Oars 2462 Shape of flat wolds Mitre filet wold ‘A fat fae filet weld in which the leg lengths are equal within the agreed {olerence, The cross-section area of is type of weld can be considered t» be a right angle isosceles tnangle with design that thickness a and leg length 2 The telation between desig tvoat thickness and lea lena is: Convex filet weld ‘A filet weld ia whica the weld face is convex. The above relation between leg length and dasign throat thickness for mite filet welds fs also valid for this pe of weld, Since there is excess weld metal presen, the actual throat thickness is bigger han the design throat thickness. A Se sign "rook Concave filet weld Alt weld in which the weld face is concave. The relation between leg length and design Bvoat tickness specified for mite filet weld isnot valid for this type of weld. Aso, the desigh throat thickness is equal fo the actual throat tiekness, Dus tothe smooth Blending between the weld face andthe ‘surrounding parent materi, the sess concentration effect atthe toes of the wel is reduced compared with the previous type. This is why this type ‘of weld is highly desred in applications subjected to cycle loads where {fatigue phenomena might be a major cause for fare FB, ceson ie ‘www switraining.comTern ndSnio cert ‘Asymmetrical filet wold A let weld in which the vertical le length isnot equa tothe horizontal log length. The relation between leg length and design thro thickness is not Val for this ype of wold because the cross-sation is not an isosceles ‘rangle Horizontal log diese Vertes ag sie S “Throat te Deep penetration filet wold A filet weld wth a deeper than normal penetration. I's prauced using high hheat input welding processes (e SAW or MAG with spray transfer) This, ‘ype of weld uses the benefs of greater arc penetration to obtain the Fequiced throat thickness whist ceducina the amount of denostad metal needed thus leading to a reduction in residual sress level To. produce Consistent and constant penetration, the travel speed must be kept constant ‘at a high value. Consequenty this type of weld is usual produced using mechanised or auiomtic welding processes. Also, the high depth-to-wrdth ‘ato increases the probabilty of soliiication cantreine cracking, To iffereniate ths type of weld from the previous types, the roa thickness is ‘symbolised with s instead ofa, Twi ™ MT zsec2igg 2 263. Compound a ut and file wale ‘combination of tat and et weds used fr js with or pr penevoton st but ee betes le wih erent hsknese Flt Tels nd on ep cf nepoore welsemprove he sending ofthe weld ects Go Snes sure and eau he sas concentration Mites ofthe we = oe | Dos bove carpaund wel 2.7 Welding position, slope and rotation Welding pesitin ernst aon oxrssed in tems of working poten, wet spe and estrous tre ease 50.5007, Wold slope Jig beteen root ne and he postive X as of he orzo efrence pie, mewurediemebenatsly postive decion e counters) Wjeettocn te canroine fhe weld and he pose Z ais o ane parte! ¥ ans eased ini mataraaly poste drecton (2 ara ee ce ana oie vaavece contenston oe me seston Ky 4 y TWI ‘wow titraining.conetn poston Delton and obl soaring teiso euer Weidag pasion awh he lg rrr wi a eveie tie wade ‘Vili poataninwnich be ‘wlsratenorsons epee Incase of it wl) BB ‘Vilang poitonin wich \tlsng i hraoras wih ln of he weld ozo PC Verran Version ‘Wali poaten whieh ie welding wpearas. PF Wain poston nich he welcg i dowrarse PC TR weting paaionn wish ‘lings hraoral ana ‘rete opal lt wes) Pe ‘eld postion in wien ne stlcng horn ond ‘raaed wie conte of ‘towels verte! PO TWI eur titaining.2omsentido copies Tolerances forthe wating postions. 2.8 Weaving ‘Transverse oscltion of an electrode or blowpipe nozzle during the deposition of weld metal, gonerally used in vertcal-up welds. om). <—— Stringer bead ‘Arun of weld metal made wit tle or no weaving maton KG ee6 Section 3 Welding Imperfections and Materials Inspection32 TWI Welding Imperfections and Materi Definitions (see BS ENISO 6520-1) Imporfection Any devon from the ideal weld Defect ‘An unacceptable impertecton. Is Inspection Classification of imperfections according to BS EN ISO 6520-1 ‘This standard classes the geometric imperfections in fusion welding ving them into six groups cracks. {Lack of fusion and penetration Imperfect shape and dimensions. Miscallaneous imperfections. Itis important that an impertacton is correctly identified so the cause can be established and actions taken to prevent futher occurrence Cracks Definition Imperfection produced by alocal rupture in the solid state, which may arise from the effect of cooing or stresses. Cracks are more significant than other typos of imperfecton as chew geometry produces a vely large stess ‘concentration a the cack ip making them more likely to cause fracture. ‘Typos of erack: + Longitudinal 2 Traneverse, 1 Radatng cracks radiating from a commen point) + Crater. 1 Branching (group of connected cracks originating fom a common crack) ‘These cracks can be situated inthe = Weld metal HAZ + Parent meta Exception: Crater cracks ate found only inthe wold metal fares wor.titeaining.come 324 22 TWI Seen Depending on their nature, these racks can be: Hot (i solication or iquation cracks). Precipitation induced (le eet cracks present in creep resiing steal). Cold (ie hydrogen induced cracks). ‘Camelia tearing, Hot eracks Depending on thei location and mode of cccurrence, ht cracks can be: ‘+ Soldifcation cracks: Occur in the weld metal (ueually along the Centreline ofthe weld) as a result of the seleiication process ‘+ Liguation cracks: Occur in the coarse grain HAZ, inthe near vicnty of the fusion ine as a resut of heating. the material to an elevated temperature, high enough to produce lquation of the low melting point constituents placed on grain Boundaries. Solidification cracks Generally, soliification cracking can occur when: ‘+ Weld metal has igh carbon or impurity (sulphur, ee) content +The depth-o-width rato ofthe sollitying weld bead ls lage (deep and arrow. + Disuptin ofthe heat ow condi accurs, ag stopisart colton, ‘The cracks can be wide and open to the surface ike shrinkage voids or sub- surface and possibly narrow. Soliiction cracking is mest likely to occur in composition and result in \wide freezing temperature range. In stols this is commonly created by a: higher than normal content of earbon and impurty elements such a sulphur ‘and phosphorus. These elements segregate during soliicaton, so that intergranular liquid fms remain afer the uk of the Weld has soled. Tre. ie ww twitralning.comthermal svinkage ofthe cooing weld bead can caus form a crack these to rupture and Its important thatthe welding fabricator does not weld or or near metal ‘urfacas covered wih scale oF contaminated with olor gresse, Scale cant have a high sulphur content and ol and grease can supply both carbon and ‘sulphur, Contamination with low meting point metals such as copper, tin, lead and zine shoud also be avoided Hydrogen induced cracks Root (underbeag) rack, Hydrogen induced cracking occurs prima in the grain coarsened region of, the HAZ and is algo known a cold, delayed or underbeaditoe cracking. I les paral tothe fusion boundary and its path is usually a combinaten of ier and teanagranular crecking, The direction of te. prinspal resiual tensile evoss can in ts cracks cause the crack path fo row progressively ‘away from the fusion boundary towards a region of lower sensitivity 10 hydrogen racking. When this happens, te crack grown rate decreases, ‘and eventualyarests. won twitraining.comaes 2hoaatts Fur factors are necessary to cause HAZ hydroger cracking: Hydrogen level > 15mi/100g of weld metal deposited ‘stress > 05 of the yield stess Temperature anne Susceptible microstructure > 400HV hardness, any one factor is not sisted, cracking is prevented, so can be avoided {through contol of one or more factors: ‘+ Apply preheat siow down the cooing rate and thus avoid the formation of ‘suscepible micostuctures. ‘+ Maintain a spectc interpass temperature (same efet a preheat. + Postheat on completion of welding to reduce fe hydrogen content by allowing hydrogen to diffuse from the weld area + Apply PWHT to reduce residual stress and sliminate susceptible miastuctures, + Reduce wold metal hydrogen by proper selection of welding process/consumable (eg use TIG welding istead of MMA. basic covered electrodes instead ofcallose), + Use a mutieun instead of @ single run technique and efminate susceptible microstructures by the selftenpeing effect, reduce hydrogen contant by allowing hydrogen to dif ie from the weld area + Use a temper bead or hot pass technique (eameefect as above) + Use austenitic or nickel flor to avoid susceptible microsbucture formation and allow hyarogen to iffuse out of erica areas). ‘+ Use dy shielding gases to reduce hydrogen content * lean rust from joint t0 avoid hysrogen contamination from moisture presentin the rust ‘+ Reduce residual tress, ‘+ Blend the weld profile to reduce stress concentaton atthe oes of the 7 Wy ceeethos ira iewteoaane nad men TWI Lomeli tearing e@ [Lamelar tearing occurs only in rolled steel products (primary plats) and its ‘main distinguishing feature ls that the cracking has ateraced appearance. Cceing ecu nt ae ® ‘= A thermal contraction strain occurs in the through-thickness alrection of Stee plat. 1+ Nonmetalic Icusions are present as very thin plselets, with their principal planes paral! to the plate surface. $ a eee cee CCorraction stain imposed on the planar non-metal inclusions resus in progressive decohesion to frm the roughly rectangular holes which are the Frontontal parts ofthe cracking, paralol 10 the plate surface. With furter ‘tran the vereal parts of the cracking are produce, generaly by ductile Shear cracking. These two stages create the tereced appearance ofthese cracks. oe rwctwitraning.com Deer @\weong meron i ‘Sons Hwee “Two main options are available to control the problem in weld joints liable tolamelir tring + Use (Zorade, clean teal with guorantecd through thickness. proportion ‘+ A combination of joint design restraint control and welding sequence to ‘minimise the rlek of cracking. Ganiy ‘Gav caviy Tormed ‘Senkaga coy by envapped gas Caused by shrinkage uring sotcaton [Ges pore] Taiorniy ittuted porosity Gusierad Located) porosity | [esr poroaty_] ‘lonyated caviy are TWI ‘wwr.twittaining.comseen watt 33° Cavitios 331 Gao pore Ae ‘A gas cavily of essentily spherical shape trapped within the weld metal Gos cavities can be present in various forms: Isolated Uniformly cistrinuted porosity Clustered (ocatisec) porosity Linear porosty. Elongated cavity Surface pore. cases Praventon ‘Dap taeuconadedelocage [Use ry sachouea mgood coon ‘at ‘Gassohyaocaibnhalee Cian prepare atone Srramnon of roared sxfose ‘Arentapment ingest ‘Beare comesions fancni n) Tnsnrecintisan deen [Use Sacrode win atiel denon avy aoe, a pare al “eo great arcvotae orang | Reduce wotape and arch “Gu eon kom ping Tae kf reecn before aiace Veabnon antloutcoteatrert Ibapoled “oo highs sles ox la—| ptmise gaa fo ale ‘aula ubdence MGWAG.T) Comment Porosty can be localised or finely depersed voids throughout the wold metal TWI os www twitralning.com23.2 Worm holes Elongated or tubular caves formed by trapped gas during the soliton ‘ofthe weld metal which ean occur singly orn groups. Cae Provertn ‘rows covariation eT pepaaion | leeds rowel deanna oma furore aniatod wan wae place paren nara wih ar uramgiod ‘raves n won saace ds onl | Eimialo jon shapes wich poaice evens eon Comments Worm holes are caused by the progressive entrapment of gts between the solving rretal crystals (dendrites) producing characterstic elongated Pores of circular cross-section. These can appear asa herringbone ary on radiograph and some may break the surface of the weld. 33.3 Surface poresity CC vv tsning.comuy 2 det 2003 ein nears nue ews Cues Preveron apo” Gaminalad sures ar | Gan sure and ey aos Tow fang ay UGG Dee igh acy tae Excess sulphur (ariel es ie Stet) producing supra oie Use figh manganese slncodes io proaica Ning Note fe-oatingsel (igh SUD) thouig nat real be wed Toes of oking gas diet long wear | Improve screen aaa daupts snd Fgh bees (WISMAG) reduce ge 7 shi gas fom aa hala ea Pah Opie gas tow ae fenil nutlence QUGMAGTIO “The origins of surface porosity ar similar to those for uniform porosity. crater pipe ‘A shrinkage cavity atthe end of a during sotifcation. weld run usually caused by shrinkage Gaur Prevenion ‘ack wae i on owing procanees vithioohigh a curont Tneprave eater elope 0) (76) Tae eva eater ing nou Crater ting is @ particular problem in TIG welding due tots low heat input ‘Toil he crater for this process iis necessary to reduce the weld current (elope out) ina series of descending stops untl the arcs extinguished, TwI ~ wen taltraining.coma Congres Tw was 34 Solid inclusions @ Definition Sth foregn svstances rappedin the wad metal Sa indenone 1 1 Seq] [Rx] [ona] [esac indie [inivsen | [reton | [iRtinen Taga 3.41 Slag inclusions Sig tapped dng welding wich is an iregulr shape so dirs in sppvararce om ages Poe @ oo rion ‘esl ig opal fom ong | oor ran sg ow iam aan sere Sos og seo Sasi won open clots ‘errno oe ose ge ‘A fine dispersion of inclusions may be present within the weld metal, Particularly ithe MMA process fs Used. These only become a problem when large or sharp-edged incusions are produced. ny : Leateraiconaeemnenerterenat 342 Flax incisions Fux tapped, ung weldrg which = an egiar shop o_o in pearance tom a, ge pote Aepear ly h Nx associated Weling proceses (2 MA, SAW and FCA) casas Fae User ca ogee | Us eos nga Finer entices tose | Caron re ae, At eg ‘eel Steere Sees ere ere ace iy wang cine 343 Oxldeictusons des vapped cng wating wrch isan nepuar shape 80 in Spresranes rom gn pore. cao Feo a RGR STO | Gree ‘speck 90 ona neuen pucnng cr oz ep ne Case of auriit sje rosa oe fim tnaamert canoer te Yo 2 Conbnaon ef sacor pecan tom amarphte cntmnaon fa bere inte wel Po 344 Tungston icustons Pails of tungsten can becone embeded ding TIG eldna appears a3, gt sree rodopephs ce trgson 8 doe fan te auourdng mel nd abso ger rants of kigorme aon, Twi a ee ‘worw.titraning.comorcroeicerg as pen ee ST Cases Pravin ‘Contact of cede ip wh wel oe Kee unset wal poo se HF oat Contac of ferrell wih ot tp of Avoid eontac tees elector ‘Sleods rata ‘Contamination fhe acvode poy | Radce wold aaTet an slang ane Sater fern the wo bel Sowrate Exceeding be cen! rior oven | Reo welding caren replace Seaiede ‘eatode te orp ‘iva lege defor one ‘Eersionofelestode bend he somal | Reduce elatode exansian andlor wal ‘saree tom te cat resign | eae bromestngo be eacioge inadeqieigvning ofthe cola | Tahen te cole Insdequse sing gs ow ae oe | Ast esl gs aw at: pleat he "cessive taught resting xaon | els sre; ensve hate pot ga fow ahr tte aacooaa tp |Soppng De ecccninos or sleast re eae ‘Sls or eas ihe aoaode ‘Ghange ha sitiode, cour ie are siz tigen slcioa forthe en weldgcistentuses Tradeqiascieng gos (op use of | Change o core as conposton ‘sign onoen or pen anon dex Imire ht re sed fr WAS wel) 3.8 Lack of fusion and penetration 354 Lackof fusion ‘Lack of union between the weld metal and the parent metal or between the ‘successive layers of weld metal, Taakor ‘ston Tak ot sew fusion <3 SS = aLack of sidewall fusion Wee lneer conan TNL Lac of union between the weld and parent metal at one or beth sides of the Prevention ow heat npaiowae Treas a vatage aor wading cent dears vel peed Tieton rial Poong aod oar Improve elecode ange and work ORO increase vael speed ‘ie or znle on wal preparation | merve eogepeparaion noceure Enceasiessinasin HAG dp | Reduce Inder, even Re eeaice taneterweling. pater During welding sufficient het must be aval the edge ofthe weld pool to produce fusion wih the parent mela Lack of inter-run fusion \wewctwitralning.comLack of union along the fusion ne betwoen the weld beads see Proven ‘Low arc een easng nto RUG oT eens cent wet pe Tootigh stavel spend ede vavelspsed Tneccrt bead pacar Retain weer Lack of interrun fusion produces crevices between the weld beads and ‘causes lecal enapmentof sag, Lack of rot fusion Lack a fusion between the weld ana parent metalat the oo ofa wal ‘neta Taare we rear Servtaalecs CamanepaeanentAGde —]Unecxetricon aioe aT ‘roe tee In eos woe Fotis ens Cowart rsh) Us cfvexataom ning | oer Sap OR Taine eis ses Snarestone Ere core eo Tropes | Urner eng rents Ear wae yam necro Crass naire [Emcee TWI ™ oo vw twitaining.comvaries a et ‘sere tase 352 Lack of penetration Ty fe Tncomalate penetation Theories roo entation -complata panatration “The diference between actual and nominal penetration. Ce Proven Exes Bick ool fem auto featgapor aie tc back soured rove back gougag lediigue and ware he ‘oe preparton par sppoved WS fe when Bak 9005 Lowest Tparase wating cart ana ae vale: ecreate ove 9600 ‘save nacanee in WAG dp | prove doce! tgs ad pone Sich To ‘Yartor wei, oot tong ahead | spay arbaneter Tih lode wo ae adic dsads (owcurertdbnsyy sect via down wang ‘Sch a vrieatup ecu wrn.twiteaining.comtte weld joint isnot ofa citi nature, le the requicd strength is low and ‘the area is not prone to fatigue cracking, is possible to produce @ partial Penetration weld. In this case incomplete root penetration is considered part ofthis structure and nat an imperfection This woud normally be determined by the design or code requirement. Incomplete root penetration ‘Both fusion faces ofthe root are not melted. When examined from the root Side, you can clearly see both of the root edges unmted ‘Causes and prevention Same as fr lack of root fusion. fT ‘eon tuitraining.comvk pein as en ‘See ao 3.8 Imperfect shape and dimensions 364° Undercut — es ‘An iragulr groove at the toe of a run in the parent metal or proviously ‘peated wel mea ue to wldng. Characarsd by ts pth, rg nd ‘sharpness. Toninvous Treanfiont Tre rin undereut ‘nsec vndercut or Prevanon ‘in fp edge don gh wang | Reduce power nal pocsly ir epatt tate co) orhn | tepeni fees omiag ‘Aonping 3 Ht wos rtarverial | Wa nef poston ue mun (5) poston wha nh orm tcmaues e@ ‘Beesshancoret weaving Redooe weaving wah & Socom irene aac a Deal awards Ne none Tree shiing ga acon WAG) | Eras covet gastro mati p= sravioase HAD) ‘Care must be taken during weld repairs of undercut to contol the heat input, Ifthe bead of a repair wel is too small, the cooling rate following welding Will be excessive and the parent metal may have ar inceased hardness, ‘ad the weld susceptible to hydrogen cracking. TWI a9 vworw.twteaining.comBe ens stem Excess weld metal isthe esta metal that produces excessive convex in filet welds and a weld thickness greater than the parent metal plate in Dut Welds. tis regarded as an imperection only when the height of the excess, e@ ‘weld metal is greater than @ specified limit Cry Prenton ices fe o07 NAG, SAW) Redvoton othe pik Shataw ee rparton Deepen edge preosaton Fly socrose manpulsion arbuilzup | Inpove welder sll Trent eacoge Fas ache sacrode #38 Travel speed oo sow rou coves ave apodia used Inca cw ang Ensure rect ecw nga ed ‘Won poly used (elecode poy | Ensue covet pale OC-ve ove Naa, SAN) Note Dove mat used for IG “The term reinforcement used to designate this feature of the weld is misleading sine the excess metal does not normaly produce @ stronger Weld in a butt joint in ordinary sleel, This Imperfection can become e problem, asthe angle ofthe weld toe can be sharp leading fo an increased ‘tess concentration atthe toes ofthe weld and faigue cracking, wa tuitalning com36.3 Excess penetration e@ Projection of the root penetration bead beyond a specified mt, local or continuous. @ Cauee Prostar Wealshea realtor Reduce a vlage and welding carer Inrese welding specs Tneareaiwed popaaion ecesave [Improve workpiece peparn ‘Bol gap. tn ee reparation. weet Seckng ‘Use of esl unsuieaiaweldng | Use covet aco Tr poston postion ‘The maintenance of a penetration bead of uniform dimensions requires 2 great deal of sil, paricuarly in pipe but welding. This ean be made more ifcut if here i restricted access to the weld or a narrow preparation. Permanent or temporary backing bars can assist in the control of penetration ye ae@ ona meteorite eae 364 Overlap Imperfection at the toe of a weld caused by metal flowing onto the surface ‘ofthe parent metal without fusing ot aaa Frevetan Pow sia natin WE) | Reta war Cauungnuosfowstsicecis | nonin cogs puse teas Ineoreet osiening of ws Change loan ‘wong ecto oaing Wpe Tending | Chang elected costa Wa oa more Intetiph a hy Sat fat eening ye when se hd For a filet weld overap is often associate with undercut, asi the weld poo! io fd the top ofthe weld wil flow away to produce undercut atthe top ‘and overap atthe basa If the volume of th wel pools to0 large ina filet Weld in horzontal-vetcal (PB) postion, weld metal wil colapse due to tgraviy, producing both defects (undercut at the top and overlap at the base), tis defects called sagging, TWI bee a weractritraning.comwa netics ann enon Vesa 36.5 Linear misalignment ‘Misalignment between two welded pieces such that while their surface planes are paral, they are notin the required same plane, cr Preventon Inala nansoryprosedars or | Adequate chaning fa ~tmm = very tough behaviour 446 Bend testing Objective Bend tests routinely taken from welding procedure quaifcation test pioces and sometimes welder quaifestion test paces. Subjectng specimens to bending is @ simple way of verifying there ars no ‘igacant flaws inthe Joint. Some degree of duct also demonstrated, it [a not measured but shown to be satisfactory F test specimens can \ithtand being bent without fracture or Fssures above a certain length Specimens ‘There are fourtypes of bend specimen: + Face “Taken with axis taneverse to but wolds up to ~12mm thickness and bent so that the face ofthe weld Ison the ouside ofthe bend (face in tension). + Root “Taken with axis transverse to but welds upto ~12mm thidmess and bent so that the root ofthe welds on the outside af the bend (oot in tonson). + Sido ‘Taken as 2 tanaverse slice (10mm) fom the full thickness of butt welds >=12mm and bent so thet the fl joint thickness i tested (id in tension), + Longitudinal bend “Taken with ants parallel tothe longitudinal axis ofa butt weld; specimen thickness {fs 12mm and the face of rot of weld may be tested in tnsion. Twi 7 ‘wr taiteaining cornSees Method Guided bend tests are usually used for welding procedure and welder ‘ualiication. Guided means that the strsin imposed on the specimen is uniformly controlled by being bent around a former with a certain clameter. ‘The dlameter ofthe former used fr a particular testis specified inthe code, having been determined bythe type of material being tested and the ductity that can be expected from kate welaing are any PWHT. ‘The diameter of the former is usually expressed 2s a multiple of the ‘specimen thickness () and fr C-bn steels typically 4t but for materia that have lower tense ductility the radus of the former may be grester than 10 ‘The standard that species the test method wil speci the minimum bend angle the specimen must experience and is typlealy 120-180" TWI ‘ew twitraining.comog ‘Acceptance criteria Bend tests pleces choul! exhibit satstactory soundness by not showing cracks oF any signs of signfcant fissures or caves on the ouside ofthe bene. ‘Small indications les than about 3mm in langth may be allowed by some standards. 44.7 Fracture tests Fillt wold fractures: Objective ‘Tha qualtysaundness of a filet weld can be assessed by fracturing test pieces and examining the fracture surfaces, ‘This method for assessing the qually of filet welds may be specified by application standards as an alematve to macroscopic examination. tiga tost method that can be used for welder qualifcation testing accorsing to European Standards but i not used for welding procedure qualification Specimens ‘Attest wel is cut into short (ypicaly 250men) longths and a longitudinal ‘oleh mactined into the specimen as shown below. The natch profile may be square, Vor U shape. aw Mothod Specimens are made to fracture through their throat by dynamic stokes (hammering) or by pressing, as shown below. The welding standard or ‘pplication standard wil specify the number of tests (peal ou. Teas = reecanta cone Wie | Hammer stoke oving press ‘Acceptance crteria ‘The standard for welder qualifaton, or application standard, wil epecty the: ‘acceptance citeria for imperfections such as lack of penetration inate root Of the joint and sold inclusions and porosity that are vibe on the actu. surfaces, ‘Test reports should also give a description of the appearance ofthe fracture and location of sry imperfection, = Butt wold fractures (nick-break tests) Objective ‘The same as for filet racture tests, ‘These tests ars speciied for welder qualification testing to Euopean Standards as an allerative to radiography and are not used for welding procedure quaifaton testing, Specimens “Taken from a butt weld and notched so that the facture path wil bein the contal region ofthe weld. Typieal test piece types are show below. Method Twi a wrwctuitraining.comferret cenngte ne, “Test peces are made to fracture by hammeting or toe paint bonding ‘Acceptance criteria ‘The standard for welder qualfiation or application standard wil spciy the ‘acceptance eiteia for Imperfections such as lack of fusion, soll inclusions ‘and porosity that are visible onthe fracture surfaces. “Test reports should also give a description ofthe appearance ofthe fracture ‘and location of any imperfection. 42 Macroscopic examination “Transverse sections from butt and filet welds are required by the European Standaeds for welding procedure quaifcation teting and may be required for some welder qualification tstng for assessing the qualty ofthe welds. Thi is considered in dotaln a separate section of these course notes. 424 European Standards for destructive test methods ‘The folowing Standards are spaced by the European Welding Standards for deevuetve testing of welding procedure qualification test welds and for some welder qualification tst welds Ene ‘Destine eas on walsh metale aes apacons Tet {Sseninen eat, neehovenason ane, EN ‘Destucive tse on welds metic aes - nove are fet Ena ‘Destnive lesson was meas mast bond a EN 821 | Dest tat on wads n mosaic mass - maroon ‘BSN 10062 | Weta materi Tense sing Par | Netbod ofaa al anbio® toner ‘SEN 10602 | Tense texing otmoaiie aioe: PAIS Matha Tae a aed ompertres, TWI fa 7 sw stralning.comSection 5 Non-destructive Testing5 62 524 Restigt 19 carers in Non-destructive Testing Introduction Radiographic, utrasonic, dye penelrant and magnetic patcle methods are Defy described below, ‘Ther relaive advantages and limitations are clcuszed in terms of thelr appicadlty tothe examination of welds. Radiographic methods In all cases cadlographic methods as applied to welds involve passing a ‘beam ‘of penetratng radiation trough the test object. The transitied radiation js callectes by some form of sensor, capable of measuring the ‘elative intensities of penetrating radiations impinging upon it. In most cases thie sensor is radiographic fim; however the use of various electronic vices fs on the inctease, These devices faciate so-called realtime fadiography and examples may be sean In the security check area at ‘Sports. Dighal technology has enabled the string of radiographs using ‘Computers, The present discussion fs confined to fm radiography since tis {sll the most common method applied to welds, ‘Sources of penetrating radiation Penetrating radiation may be generated from high energy electron beams ‘and (rays), o rom nuclear dsintegratons (atomic fssn), in which case they are termed gamma rays. Otrer forms of penatating ratiation exist DA ‘ar of ite interest in weld rachograpty. Xerays “Xrays used in the industial radiography of welds generally have photon tenergies inthe range 30keV up to 20MeV. Up to 400KeV they are generated by conventional X-ray tubes which, dependent upon output may be sutebie for portable or fixed instalalone, Portabilty fais of rapialy with increasing kelovotage and radiation output. Above 400keV X-rays are produced using na | WB] V o come at So — tae le Esc. | 2 SED gp vnawst sonar fmm, K |IKI A Fe wold wn vie, |e [Note ithe weld symbo! doesnot havea supplementary symbol then the shape of the wold uroce does not ned obo inated precisely CP wz: ‘won twitaining.comSrc 8 Peallonfzymte on ernie Spinone eae agate ee rem eee cee See ee ce Se : oN \ eo ee 3 resi etet Sse aie ee ee orem ove Sessa ae) Ce oe er en Wnt tte ne TWI ‘ww twitralning.comSezai coon SE ‘The gute below itutrates these principles, ise, AOW'ine e Omer se Other side S Arrow sie. prow ine Otherside) Arow se ‘ide [] One 880 row Ine Arc ine “There are some conventions about the arrow ine ‘+ Itmust touch one ond of the jit tine + Itjoins one end ofthe continuous reference ine. ‘+ Incase of @ non-symmotrical joint, such as a single bovel joint, the ‘arrow line must point towards the joint member that will have the weld reparation put on tot (as shown below). ‘An example of how a single bevel but joint shouldbe represented, Ve | Position of the reference line and weld symbol ‘The reference line should, wherever possible, be drawn parallel to the bottom edge ofthe crawing (or perpencicular to) For a non-symmetical weld tis essential that the eow side and other side ‘ofthe weld are distinguished. The convention fr dong this is: ‘+ Symbols for the weld deals required onthe arrow side must be placed ‘on the continuous ne ‘+ Symbols for the weld detalls on the other side must be placed on the ashed tine TWI i. aoe if i | |98 Positions of the continuous and dashed lines EN22563 allows the dashed Ine tobe either above or below the continuous line = shown below, or Iv te welds symmetical tis not necessary to distinguish between the two ‘sides and EN22553 slates thatthe cashed line should be omitted. Thus, a ‘single V butt wold with @ backing run can be shown by ary of the four symbolic representations shown below. Other sido Oar aide “row a row sie Otherside ‘Gherside “ira a LY. Noon ‘This flexibly of the positon of the continuous and dashed lines is. an interim measure thet EN22553 allows so that old drawings (to the obsolete BS 498 Part 2, or example) can be easly converted to show the EN method ‘of representation YT wor twitealning.comayaa Dimensioning of welds Goneral rules Dimensions may need tobe specified for some types of wold and EN 22553, specifies a convention fr this + Dimensions fr the cross-section of the weld are written on the lethand Side ofthe symbol. ‘+ Length dimensions for the weld are writton on the righthand sie ofthe ‘symbol. 1+ Inthe absence of any indeaton tothe contrary, all but welds are ful penetration welds. ‘Symbols for cross-section dimensions ‘The folowing laters are used to indcate dimensions: 2 Filet wold throat thickness Z Filet weld eg length 'S Penetration depth (applicable to parti penetration butt welds and deep penetration filets) ‘Some examples of how these symbols are used are shown below, Paria peetration 10 tom] _ Soe Vato == Fe wl with mag BIN = Filet wel wth em throat yy pe ew ttraning.com9.8.2 Symbols for length dimensions ‘To spocty weld length clmensions and, fr intermittent welds the number of incivdual weld lengths (weld elements), te folowing eter ae used: 1 Length of wel (6) Distance between adjacent weld elements 1 Number of weld elemenis ‘The use ofthese letters is shown forthe intermittent double-sided filet wold shown below, 3180 (100) Ie 0 (00) Note: Dashed line isnot required because itis 2 symmetrical wot TWI wu twitaining.comRerletts carers cron aS ‘The convention for an ntermitent double-sided staggered ot weld is shown below. Poe End vow 9.10 Complimentary indications Complementary indications may be needed to specty ther charactriatics of weds, e9 Field or ste welds are indicated by a fag Pe ‘A peripheral weld to be made all around a partis indicated by acto, = aw “www.twitraining.comges, 9.11 Indication of the welding process 1frequked the welding proces is symbolised by a number wien betwoon the to branches ofa fork al the ere ofthe reference ine. ‘Some welding process designations: ti1=mMta 21 13 135 MAG 8.141 Other information inthe tall ofthe reference lire Infrmation ather than the welding process canbe edd to an open tll Such 9 the NDT acceptance ava, the wong pion and filer mets type tnd EN22559 define the sequence that must be ved forts information, ‘5 coaed tal can alo be used into which reference toa spect insructon canbe adaed ok] 9.42 Weld symbols in accordance with AWS 2.4 Many ofthe symbols and conventions specie by EN22S59 are the same ‘25 thse for ANS, “The moor diferences ar: + Ony one reference ine is used (a continuous Ine) Symbols for wold details onthe arow side gc undemeath the reference: fine + Symbols for weld detais on the other side co ontop of the reference tne TWI a UD wore twitraining.comArrow side te site TWI 7 : ‘nwrtwitraining.comSection 10 Introduction to Welding Processes:panier 10 Introduction to Welding Processes 104 Genera Common carats of he our man are wong proceses, MUA, TI, Wig and SAW ae + An rote wn an lca chars occrs a8 te 90 Sonwaen be actos and pret mata + The decharge csnes pat fm caus the sounding oso + Thane gas enables curento fow acne fw gapbatvoan te siocoto snd bse mots ray est ne + Thao gerwte ator sen fe base nt {ith te ercpton of TG weldng, te hat ante by e ate ao Sausan he erode sutacato mek ana at Solo can farsa fowl posto fom awelsbeed oan + Heat input futen sone open on he vate, re cnt ane wecinghrve spond 102 Productivity tr most wala processes, wing inthe PA ato 10) poston resus Inte ighe wed etl opoton te ana rtepodaty For consumable lcs wong processes thao art often Ita othe wo pola ect ets tha wong cron Svat 0 Otte suanto be ameter ove else) Fox TI wold, th Nghr he cent he movant there oon ‘ota highe rae ih erro can bo aed heel poo 103 Heat input Ac energy is he snout of het generated in te wong ae pe nit longi wl neu express Ksouee permet anh ot wr (mn Hot pt oe wg cate tom te fonag ‘Sm “emery tmmye-__—_ Deed Arties Travel speed (mm/sec) ©1000 ean he eer) supa by te wold ao he woken ands Croom nee fener homal eee ocr ‘he thrma een fat 8h a otha erry ito he wading ar {oe suction consnady te a Twi . na ‘wonw.toitraning.comHeat input values into the weld for various processes canbe calculated from the are energy by multiplying by th folowing thermal efcency factors: SAW (wire slactrode) 19 IMMA (covered electrode) os MiGMAG. os FCAW (wih or without gas shield) 08 Te 08 Plasma 08 Example ‘A weld i rade using the MAG welding process and the folowing welding conditions were recorded Vots: 24 ‘Amps: 240 ‘Travel speed: 300mm per minute scenery (td mm) =————Vels* Amps Areeney tm) eT ape | see) x1006 2ae240 = 36076047006 5760 %5000 Arcenergy = 1.1820r 1.2kuImm Heatinput = 1.2 x0.8=0.96kslmm Heat inputs mainly influenced bythe travel speed. ‘Welding pestion and the process have a major influence on the travel speed that can be used. For manual and semi-automatic welding the following are genera principles: + Vericalup progression tends to gve the highest heat input because there isa noed fo weave to get a suitable profle andthe forward travel speed i relatively slow. + Vericaldown welding tends to give the lowest heat input because of the {ast aval speed that canbe used. “+ Horizaral-verical welding Is a relatively low heat input welding postion because the welder cannot weave inthis poston. Twi = VLE ‘wur.iteaining.com104 ‘+ Overhead walding onde to give low heat input because ofthe need to Use low curent and relaively fast ave speed. ‘+ Walang inthe fiat posiion (downhand) can be @ low or high heat input position because the welder has more flexbilty about the Yavel speed that can be used. Of he arc welding processes, SAW has the potential o give the highest heat input and depesiion rates and TIG and MIGIMAG can produce Very Tow heat input. ‘+ Typical heat input values for controled heat input welding wil end to be 1103, Salm, Welding paramotors ‘Are volta ‘Ae voltage is related to the arc length. For processes where the arc voltage 's contolled by the power source (SAW, MIGIMAG and FCAW) and can be Vatied independent from the current, the voltage soting wal affect the Profile of the weld. ‘As welding current is raised the voltage also needs to be raised to spread ‘the weld metal and produce @ wider and fatter depost For MIGMAG, are voltage hes @ maior influence on droplet transfer across the arc, Welding current Weiding curert has @ major influence on the depth of fuslonpenetation Into the base metal and adjacent weld runs. ‘As ale, the higher the curentthe greater the penetration depth Penetration depth affects luton of the weld depost by the parent matal ‘and its particularly important to contol this when dissimilar metals are joined, Polarity Polarity determines whether most ofthe arc energy (heat is concentrated at the electrode surface or atte surface ofthe parent materi \wwu-twitaining.comBetietcs vecncn ong ae, ‘The location of the heat with respect to polarity 1s not the same for all processes and the effctsloptions/beneis for each ofthe main are welding prosoeses are summarised below. = ay a ry me est oneaion | Ls partion ager | Noe on Heelies ecto | tors onca SSomateless” | ietaestaw cmon aed elas acer | Renae AA i Midinore ring” | street ba seneise cece cand Faryad Need om tea reece Sep ie eo ior acengesto no, gazetted ‘Sigma e tay ano eed n-ve sede Patan rr bt Serer |e posraancanghe | aes ow Sepeoton rae ueete” | ow prea Siieet ad Sette | rm aectle Sane 10.8 Power source characteristics “To strke an arc, a raativly high voltage is requred to generate 3 spark btieen the electrode and base mata. This is known as the open ceut voltage (OCV) and s typically ~50-~80V. ‘One an arc has been stuck and stabilised there isa relationship between the are vollage end currant flowing through the welding ecut that depends ‘on he electrical characteristics ofthe power source. ‘This relationship Is known 6 the power source static characteristic and ower sources ere manuacured to glve a constant current or votage charactoristc 40.541 Constant current power source “This is the prefered type of power source for manual welding (MMA and ‘anual TIG). “The vot-amp relationship fora constant curent power sour is shown in Figure 101 and shoves the ne current postion (Ihe OCV) and fom this point there ere arc voltagolcurrent curves that depend on the power source forthe vvarous eurentsetings. wowtwitraining.com TWI VILerase twang Ama 100 Votape, V 8 ‘Arcvotans variation rey Ccurent A ye ‘Smal change in curent Figure 10.4 Typical voltamp curves fora constant curentpower source For manual welding (MMA and manual TIG) the welder sets the required ‘current onthe power source but arc voltage is contaled by the arc length the welder uses. ‘A welder has to work within a faity narrow range of are length for a particular current setting iif oo long the arc wil extinguish, too short anc the electrode may stub into the weld pool and the arc sxtingush For the operating principle of this typeof power source see Figure 10.1, ‘The welder ties to hold a faity constant arc length (8 in Figure 101) fr the current (Y) that hes been set. However, he cannat keep the arc length Constant and it wil vary ever a small working range (&-C) dus to normal hand movement curing welding, 77 po nuttin omowls “The power source is designed to ensure that these snall changes in arc voltage during normal welding wil gle only small changes in cutent (x to 2). Thus the eurent can be considered to be essential constant and this ‘eaures that the welder fe able to maintain conto of fusion. ‘The drooping shape of the voltamp curves has led to constant curent power sources sometimes being said to have 0 drooping charactorietc 105.2. Constant voltage power source “This the preferred type of power source for welding processes that have a ire feeder (MIGIMAG, FCAW and SAW), ‘Wire feed speed and current are direction of lotrode travel ‘ Gas shield Mo cnn wnt Soldged sag Wied metal Ma welding Twi 7 ‘wor twitraining.com411 MMA besic equipment requirements {8 Power source wansformerrectiir (constant current type). 410 Holding oven (nlds at temperatures up 9 160°C). 1 Imerter power source (more compact and portabe). 12 Elesrode holder (ofa sulable amperage rating). 418 Power cable (of a suitable amperage rating) +14 Weding visor (with corect rating fr the amperagetprocess) 15 Power return cable (of sutable amperage rating). 16 Elesrodes (fa suitable type and amperage rating). 17 Elesrede oven (bakes electrodes at up to 360°C). 418 Control pane! (onftamperage/poiarty/OCV). 41.2. Power requirements MMA welding can be carried out using either DC or AC current, Wth DC olding current either postive (+ve) oF negate (ve) polanty can be used, ‘2 cuttentis owing n one drecton. AC welding curren ows from negative te postive and is two directional Power sources for MMA welding are transformers (which transform mains C suitable for welding), transformerteciies (which rectly AC-0C), (of petrol riven generators (prefered for ste work) or inverters (a ae : —13 134 toa es Wt er RA ‘more recent ackition to welding power sources). A power source with Constant current (érooping) auiput must be used ‘The power source must provide AnOev. Init the ar. ‘Welding votage between 20 and 40V to maintain the arc during welding, Suitable current range, typically 20-360 amps. Stable are-apid are recovery of ar re-igniton without current surge. Constant welding currrt. The arc length may change during welding, but consistent electrode burmoff rate and weld penetration characteristics must be maintained. Welding variables Other factors or wolding vaables which afect the fl quality ofthe MMA wal, are Current (amperage) Votage Travel speed Affedts haat input Poianty ‘Type of electrode Examples of he MIA welding process Current (amperage) “The flow of electrons through the circuit isthe welding current measured in amperes (). Amperage controls burn-of rate. and depth of penetration. Welding current level is determined by the size of electrode and ‘manufacturers recommend the nomal operating range and current Twr 7 CM wx ven utasngcom1122 Twi fi acre tire sme “Amperage too low Poor fusion or penetration, regular weld bead shape, slag Inclusion Unstable ar, ae stumble, porosity and potential ae stkes. Amperage too high Excessive. panetation, burmthrough, undercut, spater, porosity, deep craters, electrode damage cue to overheating, high deposition making postional welding dificut Voltage ‘The welding potertal or pressure required for curent to flow through the circle the voltage (U). For MMA weding the voltage require to inkiate ‘the arc is OCV, the voltage measured between the output terminals of the Power soures when no curent is lowing through the welding cult. For safely reasons the OCV should not exceed 8OV and is usually SO-00V. ‘Are votage that's required to maintain the ae during welding and is usualy 20-40V ana is a function of ac length. With MMA the welder conzos the are length and therefore the are voltage which in tun controls weld poo ui ‘Are voltage too low Poor penetration, electrode stubbing, lack of fusion defects, potential for are ‘stkes, slag inclusion, unstable ae condition, regular weld bead shape, ‘Are voltage too high Excessive spatter, porsly, arc wander, ireguar weld bead shape, slag inclusions, fid weld pool making poston welding cific, a wwwetwitraining.comezhet209 toa a anna de i a ‘Sagrewaasa 1133 134 Noma Noma! a ‘are voltage sa Wielding amperage Constant cuent (crooping) ouput characteristic Large change in arc voltage = small change in welding amperage. Travel speed ‘The rate of wold progression, the thd factor that affects heat input and therefore metallurgical and mechanical conctons Travel speed too fast [Narrow thin weld bead, fest cooling, slag inclusions, undereut, poor fusion, penetration. ‘Travel speed too slow Cold inp, excans wald aposition, iragular baad shape undercut. Polarity (type of current) Play wil determine the dstibuton of heat energy atthe welding ac. The preferred polary of the MMA system depends primary on the electiode Doing used and the desired properties ofthe wold Direct current (OC) Direct current isthe flow of curent in one direction and for MMA welding it refers tothe polarity ofthe electrode, TWr “ TM ‘ww twitaining.comations a ev ‘sues tna'on, 135 Direct currentelectrode positive (DCEP/DC+ve} When the electrode is on the postive pole of the welding circu, the ‘workpiece becomes the negative pole. Election flow direction is from the workpiece to the electrode. When the electrode ie posvely charged (OC#ve) and the workpiece is negatively charged the two thirds ofthe avaliable heat energy isa the tip of the electrode, wih the remaining third being generated in the parent ‘materia, resulting in an increase in weld penetration. Direct currentiolectrode negative (OCEN/DC-ve) When the electrode is on the negative pole of the welding cult, the workpiece becomes the positve pole, electron flow direction is fom the ‘lecrode to the workpieca. The stibuton of energy is now reversed. One third ofthe avalabie heat energy is generated a he tip ofthe electrode, the remaining two tid inthe parent material. Direct current with a negatively charged electrode (OC-ve) causes heat to bull up on the electrode, increasing the electiode meting rate and ‘decreasing the depth a the wed penetration depth ‘When using OC the welding arc can be affected by are blow, the defection ‘ofthe are from its normal path due to magnetic forces, ‘Alternating current (AC) “The current atsmaes in the welding Grout, flowing frst in one direction than the other. With AC, the ection of flow changes 100-120 times per ‘second, 50-50 cycles per second (cps). AC is the flow of curent in wo directions. ‘Therefore, distibuton of heat energy at the arc is equal, §0% at the lactrode, 50% atthe workpiece. ‘Type of consumable electrode For MMA welding there are twee generic types of fux covering Rutile electrodes Contain a high proportion of titanium oxide (nie) in the coating which prometes easy are ignilon, smooth arc operation and low spatter. These lectrodes are general purpose with good welding properties and can be sd wth AC and OC power sources andi al postions. The elecvodes are ‘especialy suitable for welding filet joints in the horzontalvertcal (HV) postion TWI hee ww.titraining.comFeatures: ‘+ Moderato weld metal mecherical properties. ‘+ Good bead profile produces trough the viecaus slag + Positional welding possible with a ld slag (containing fuorde), + Easily removable sag, Batic electrodes Contain a high proportion of calcium carbonets (lmestone) and calcium ‘iuorde (Huorspar) in the coating, making the slag coating more fd than ‘ule coatings. This is also fast freezing which assists welding inthe verical ‘and overhead posiions. These electrodes ae used for welding medium an hheavy section fabrications where higher weld qualty. good mechanical Properties and resistance to cracking due to high estan are required, Features + Low hydrogen weld meta ‘+ Requires high welding currents/pseds ‘+ Poor bead profile (convex and coarse surface profile) + Slag removal dificult, Coltulosic electrodes. Contain high proportion of cals in the coating and are characterised by a deeply penetrating arc and rapid burn-fl rate giving high welding speeds. Weld deposit can be coarse and with fuid slag, destagaing can be Aiffcut. These electrodes are easy fo use in any positon and are noted for their use inthe stovepipe welding technique. Features ‘+ Deep penetration in all postions ‘Suitable fr verest-down welding, + Reasonably good mechanical properties. + High level of hydrogen generated, risk of cracking inthe HAZ. \Witin these three generic groups sub-groups of covered electrodes provide 8 wide range of electrode choice. IMMA electrodes are designed to operate with AC and DC power source, Although AC electrodes can be used on DC, net all DC electrodes can be ‘used vith AC power sources. ‘Operating factor: (OIF) The percentage of are on time in a given time. When compared with semi-automatic welding processes MMA has @ fow (OFF of approximataly 30%. Manual semi-automatte MIGIMAG OFF fe about {60% with fully automated in the region of 80%. A welding process OIF can be doc linked to productivity. TWI care ee ‘aww twitraining.comaeons Operating factor should not be confused with the tem duty eyete whichis a safely value given asthe % of time a conductor can carry a current and is ‘ven ae a speci current at 60 and 100% of 10 minutes, ie 350A 80% and 500A 100% 14.4 Summary of MMA/SMAW Equipment requirement: + Transformerftesfer, generator, inverter (constant amperage type). * Power and power relum cable (of a suitable amperage rating). 1 Electrode holder (ofa sutable amperage rating). 1 Electrodes (of suitable type and amperage rating). * Correct visr/gss, safety clothing and good extraction Parameters and Inspection points: “Amperage, ‘cv. [ACIDC and posit. Speed of travel Electrode type and diameter. Duty cycles. Electrode condton. ‘Connections. Insuiation/edtection. ‘Any special electrode treatment Topeal wong imperetions ‘Slag inclusions caused by poor welding technique or insufficient intor-run cleaning + Porosity fom using damp or damaged electrodes or when welding ‘contamina or unclean materia. + Lack of root fsion or penetration caused by incorect settings of the ‘amps, root gap or face with + Undercut caused by amperage too high for the postion or by 8 poor ‘walaing technique. 09 Yavel speed too fast or siow, arc length (Herefore Voltage) variations particularly during excessive weaving + Are stikes caused by Incorrect arc striking procedure or lack of ski ‘These may also be caused by Incorrectly flted/secured power return lead clamps. “+ Hydrogen eracts caused by the use of incorrect electrode type or baking procedure andor contol of basic coated electrodes. Successful welding with the MMA process is rliant on a numberof factors, ot least of whichis the skill required to produce a sound weld. This is ‘dependent on the welde’s ably Yo match the arc length (stance from th tip of the electrode tothe workpiece), tothe burn-of rate (ate at which the eectroge is consumed). Twi 7TWI Advantages ‘Field oF shep use, + Range of consumables. + Allpostona ‘Very portatie. ‘Simple equpment Disadvantages: igh sil factor required ‘Ae srikessig inclusions. ‘+ Low operating factor. ‘+ High level cf generated fumes. ‘+ Hydrogen contol a www twitraning.comSection 12 TIG WeldingurB ea 09| congo 12 wea 12.2 TIG Welding Process characteristics In the US the TIG process is also called gas tungsten arc welding (GTAM), Meling is produced by heating with an fe stuck between a. ron: ‘consumable tungsten elecage and the workpiece, An inert gas shields the ‘electrode and weld zone fo prevent oxidation ofthe tungsten electrode and ‘stmospherie contamination ofthe weld and hot filer wre (as shown below). ins ct oS Manual T16 welding. ‘Tungsten is used because it has a malting point of 3370°C, wall above any ‘other commen metal. Process variables “The main variables in TIG wosing are ‘+ Welding current. Current ype and potariy ‘Travel speed, {Shape of tungsten electrode tip and vertex angle. ‘Shielding gas flow rate 1 Electrode extension Each oftheee is considered in more detain the following subsections. Twi 2 a ‘wonwwitaining.comraza 1222 223 Twi co Welding current ‘+ Weld penetrations directly related to welding current. + Ifthe welding current is to0 low, the electrode tp wil not be propery heated and an unstable are may rest. ‘+ Ifthe welding curent is too high the electrode tip might overheat and net leaing fo tungsten inclusions. Current type and polarity + est welding resus are usualy oblained with DC-ve. ‘Refractory oxides such as those of aluminium of magnesium can hinder fusion but can be removed by using AC or DC elatrode postive ‘+ With a DC postvely comected electrode, neat is concentrated at the dectrode tip so the electrode needs to be of greater clamter than when Using DCve If overheating of the tungsten is to be avoided. A water ‘odled torch is recommended if DC postive is uso. ‘The current carying capacity of a DC positive electrode is about one tenth tat ofa negative one $0 itis limited to welding sections. yal Se ‘rer = ‘ypeolty ca Hest Soialwo balance | ox ataecvede | s0% aelectrade Tots aelecrode Wei prae_[ Deep rarew [Medium Shatw. wee ‘eanng [No Yes= evan race | Yos Scion ‘Encrede | Exalet Goad Poor capacity | samewony | 6. 2nava2ssy (anmi204) Ge Travel speed + atfects botn weld width and panetraton but tne effect on wish ¢ more pronounced + Increasing the travel speed reduces the penetration and with + Reducing the rave speed increases the penetration and width. ww twitraining.comaaa nea 1228 iT Tungsten electrode types Diferent types of tungsten electrodes suit citferent applications: + Pure tungsten electrodes are used when welding ight metals with AC because they maintain a clean balled end, bul possess poor arc ination ‘and stability In AC mode compared with other types. + Thotiated electrodes are alloyed with thorium oxide (hora) to improve ‘are inition and have higher current carying capacity than’ pure tungsten electrodes and maintain a sharp tip for longer. Unfortunatly, ‘thoi i sighty radioactive (emitting «radation) and the dust generated ‘during tip grinding should not be inhaled. Elecvode grinding machines. Used. for thorialed tungsten grining should be fled with a dust ‘extraction system. + Ceriated’ and lanthanited electrodes are alloyed with corium and lanthanum oxides, for the same reason 29 thoriaied electrodes and ‘operate successtuly with DC or AC and as cefum and lanthanum sre rot radioactive, they have been used as replacements for thoiatod lctrodes, + Zrconated electrodes are aloyed with zirconium oxide with operating ‘characteristics betwoon the thorated types and pure tungsten, They sre able to retain a baled end during welding, so are recommended for AC. ‘Walding, They have a high resistance to contamination so are used for bigh integrity welds where tungsten incusions must be avoided. Shape of tungsten electrode tip + With DC.ve,thorate, cetiated or lanthanated tungsten electrodes sre ‘used withthe end ground to a specific angle (the electrode tip or vertex ‘angle, shown below), + AS.a general rue the length of the ground portion ofthe electrode tip ‘aro hava langlh equal to approximately 2-25 times the electode diameter. + When using AC the electrode tp is ground flat to minimise the risk oft breaking off when the are is Inlated or during welding (shown on the nest page). the vertex angle is increased, the penetration increases. the vertex ange is decreased, bead wicthincroases. Pure or zrconiated tungsten electrodes are used for AC welding with a hemispherical (baled) end (as shown below). To produce a balled end the electrode Is ground, an ar inated and the current incrased unt it mals the tip ofthe elecrode ia woructwtraining.comsears ass ernie Tas, Eloctode to Electrode tp tect tp with (orverexengle) witvfatend ——_ allod end 1226 Shielding gases ‘Tho following ner gases can be used as shielding gases for 1G welding: + Argon. @ + Halu, {Matures of argon and hela, Note: For austen staniess steels and some cuprosnickel alloys, argon with up to~5% hydrogan improves penetration and reduces peosity ‘Choraterites of argon and alum sheng gates for IG walding en eemanee te Helo Tome fanyaaion which | Nevetage | Hite tan wih aan, Ae hoe Senbe heb whenwedry ‘ticki bela wetdg ek {Re sectors Lose cage Sesion on wacoce met 3 chsags wi vereioin el Sclonah ‘ower an wchlun wich | Faaingpover | igh svarngou when wala Shosredvndpeneaion | these ines tog trl crayon rr ‘gens pai Rana | Prtaion eign gerne ang feeireslargeetosnsn | ofwed tecresroreansb reren sed | @ ie ta an bro {rea xcept: Oven ton Bote apt eaog fesares ‘anes ton Be aay ‘handy separ Far nr Srrosmert te snaraon | Sa cow Selo! aya er {XTaoetes a owen i Secretar tay yi ==Shiolding gas flow rato + Too low andthe shielding gas cannot remove the ar rom the weld area recuitng in porosity and contamination “+ Too high and turbulence occurs atthe base ofthe shielding gas column, ‘alr tends to be sucked in rom the surrounding almosphere and this may ‘ls lead to porosity and contamination. ‘+ Typicllyin the range ~10~12 tin. 7 1 oo Doe a Beck purging It's necessary to protect the back of the weld trom excessive oxidation ‘ding TIG welding, achiaved by using a purge gas, usualy pure argon Far pipe welding spools it ie relatively easy to purge the pipe bor, but for Dlste/sheet welding I's necessary to use @ purge channel or sometimes frother operator postlons and moves back purge nozzle as the weld progresses. For purging large systems soluble dams or bungs are required fat can itcan be a complex operation, “Th intial stage of back purging isto exclude al the air at the back ofthe Weld and having alowed sufficient time for ths the flow rate should be Feduced prior 10 staring to weld so there is positive flow (typcaly “aun. Beck purging ehould continue until two or more layers of weld have been depose. Fer C and C-4n steals bak purge is possible to make satisfactory welds without 2 422.7 Electrode extension +The distance from the contact tube tothe tungsten tip, Because the conlact tube is recessed inside the gas nozzle this ‘parameter can be checked indirectly by measuring the sickout length 28 Shown below. my = =emoras 123 124 125 TWI ‘+ Ifthe electrode extension is too short, the electrode tip will not be adequately heated leacng to an unstable arc. ‘Ifthe electrode extonsion is to long, the electrode tip might overheat, ‘causing meting and lead to tungsten incisions. + As. 2 general scout lrg shoud be 29 times the elecads ameter. Filler wires. Filler wicot ously have 2 cimilor compotion to tho parent metal but Contain small addiions of elements that wil combine wih any oxygen an rittogen present ‘Tungsten inclusions ‘Small fagments of tungsten that enter a weld will always show up on Fagographs because ofthe relatively high dens ofthis metal and for most ‘2ppicalons wal not be acceptable, ‘Thermal shock fo the tungsten causing small fragments to enter the weld oo! is @ common cause of tungsten inclusions and is why modern power Sources have a current slope-up device to minimise tis risk ‘This device allows the current torte tothe set value over a short period s> the tungsten is heated more sly and gent. Crater cracking ‘One fom of soliton cracking which some filer metals are sensitive to Modern power sources have a current slope-out device so that at the and cf ‘a weld ven the welder switches off the current it reduces gradualy and th Wald pool gels smaller and shallower The wat pal wil have mee. 7 woe titrating com126 127 128 Twi a rernigta9 compte ue favourable shape when it fnaly solidifies and crater cracking can be ‘Common applications Include autogenous welding of longitudinal seams in thin walled ripes and {bes in stainless steel and other alloys on continuous forming mils. Using file wires, TIG is used for making high quality joins in heavier gauge pipe and tubing for the chemical, petroleum and power generating Industries. Its also used in the aerospace industry for itoms such 2s airfames and rocket motor cases, ‘Advantages + Produces superior qualty welds with very low levels of fusible hydrogen so there is ass danger of cold cracking. + No weld spatter or slag inclusions which makes t particularly stable for applications that require high degree of cleanliness, eg pipework for {he food and drinks industy, manufacturing semiconductors, ete “+ Can be used with flee mata and on thin sections without filler and can produces welds at relatvely high speed ‘+ Enables welding variables to be accurately controled and is particularly {good fr controling weld root penetration in ll welding + Con weld almost al weldable metals incuding dissimilar joints but ‘welding in poston isnot generally used for those wth low meting points ‘such as lead and tin. Especial useful in welding reactive metals wih Very stable oxides such as aluminium, magnesium, ttanum snd ‘+The host source and filer metal addons are controled independenty {30 It's very good fr joining thin base metal, Disadvantages + Gives low depositon rates compared with other arc welding processes. ‘+ Neod tigher dextety and welder co-ordination than with MIGIMAG or MMA welding ‘Less economical than MMA or MIGIMAG for sections thicker than 40mm, + Difficult to fly ehield the weld zone in draughty conditions so may not be suitable for stfTeld welding, ‘Tungsten Inclusions can occu the electrode contacts the weld poo. + No clearing action s0 low tolerance for contaminants on filer or base F ‘wonwtwitralning.comSection 13 MIGIMAG Weldingserie nding cx 13 134 MIG/MAG Welding Process Known in the US as gas metal arc welding (GMAW), the MIGIMAG welding process (Figure 13.1) is @ versatile technique sutable for both thin sheet fad thick section components in most metalic materials. An arc is stuck Between the and of wie electrode and the workpiece, melting Boh to frm ‘8 weld pool. The wire serves as the source of heat (via the arc atthe wire tip) end filer metal forth joint and is fed trough a copper cortac tube (also called a contact fp) hen conducts welding current nto the wie. The ‘wad pool is protected from the surounding atmosphere by a shieding gas {ed through @ nozzle surrounding the wire. Shielding gas selection depends ‘onthe material being welded and the application. The wire is fe frem areal by # motor drive and the welder or machine moves the welding gun or torch ‘along the joint line. The process offers high productivity and is economical Because the consumable wire is continuously fod WorGiece Wid poo! Wold eta Figure 13.4 MIGMAG welaing. ‘The MIGIMAG process uses semi-automatic, mechanised or automatic fequpment. In semi-automatic welding, the wire feed rate and arc length are Controlled automatically, but the travel speed and wire position are under ‘manual conto. In mechanised welding, all parameters are under automatic Control but can be varied manualy during welding, 9 steering of the ‘welding head and adjustment of wire feed speed and arc voltage. Win Automatic equipment thee is no manual intervention during welding. Figure 1182 shows equipment required for the MIGIMAG process. Wy. = _wwnw.twitraining.com “ATwi 7 “aor i Eteinpacermarana Gon LSsdigsa tees Figure 13.2MIGAMAG wali equemont ‘Advantages: + Continuous wie food + Automate seltreguation of the arc length. High desostion rate and minimal number of stopstartlocatiens High consumable efficiency. Heat inputs in the range 0.1-2ks/men Low nyerogen potential process, ‘Walder xas good visit of weld pool and jin tine, Litle orno postweld cleaning ‘Gan be used in all postions (cp transfer Good process conta porsbilties. Wide range of applications. Disadvantages: + Noindesendent contol of file aditon. Dificutto sat up optimum parameters to minimise spatter levels Fisk of lack of fusion when using dp transfer on thicker weldments. High lew! of equipment maintenance. Lower reat input can lead to high hardness values. Higher equipment cost than MMA welding Sit welding requires special precautions to exclude draughts which may cisturb he gas shield ‘Joint ard part access isnot as goed as MMA or TIG welding + Cleaniness of base metal, slag processes tolerate greater contamination. aoe wwetwitaining.com13.2 1324 1322 sroundneane Primary variables Welding currentwire feed speed, Vottage Gases. ‘Travel speed and electrode orientation. Inductance, Contact tip to work distance (CTWO). Nozzle to work eistance, ‘Shielding gas nozzie. ‘Type of metal transfer. Wire food speed Increasing wiro feed speed automaticaly increases the current in the wire. Wes are generally produced in 0.8, 0.8, 1, 1.2, 1.4 and 1.6mm dameler Voltage ‘The most important seting in spray transfer as it controls the arc length. In ip transfer ital affects the ise of current and the overall heat input into the wold Increase both wire feed speedicurent and votage wil increase heat input, Welding connections naed to be checked for soundness 8 any loose ones wil result in resistance and cause a votage drop inthe cut nd wil affect the characteristic of the welding ac. The voltage wil affect the typeof transfer achievable but ths is also highly dependent on the type of gas being used, Oe a av » 23v Q pay Figure 13.3 The effec of ac voltage: 2 Increasing arc wigs. Reduced penetration, increased wish © Brevstve wate can cause porosity, spatter and undercut Twi = tm Boaan www twitraining.comerica santas cael SSE 1323 Gases e@ hy AcHe He 60; Figure 124 Gas composton effet on wea Bosd prof. For non-ferrous metals and ther alloys (such as Al, Ni and Cu) an inert shielding gas must be used, usually pure argon or an argon rch gas with 2 helm adstion. The use of afuly inet gas is why the process is also called ‘etal inert gas (MIG) welding and for precise use of terminology this should nly be used wien refering to the welding of nonferrous metals. ‘The addon of some lum to argon glves a more uniform est concentraton within the are plasma which affects the shape of the weld bead prof. Argon-heium miures give a hotter arc so are beneficial for @) ‘welding thicker base materials, those with higher, thermal conductivity, eg {copper or aluminium, For welding all grades of steels, including stainless steels, @ controed {addition of oxygen or carbon died (CO) to generals a stable arc and give {good droplet weting. Because these addins react withthe molten matal ‘hey ae rterred to as active gasas, hence metal active gas (MAG) welsing isthe technical term when refering to welding steels 100% C05 CO; 9a cannot sustain spray transfer as the jonisaton potential ofthe ges is too high it ives very good panetation but promotes globular droplet transfer also avery unstable are and lis of spate, Argon 18-2070 Se pacenape a CO: oon ge rtd and te mode of ral wae used. Agen hes ‘Shean poll and car sun spay aster sve 24 woang vows, @) fons nae at oe ae et, began and 20664 ga mites ve he Senet tbo pees god petetabon wins sao oe ond vary ile spat. GOn pan uch Froager nan argon ors mares and wh ened for crbon an se iow aoy sot Twi ic rw twitraining.comeerie canes TN Argon +4.5%C0: \Wolely used fo sizinless stools and some lw alloy stools. ancy aang | poy mare ‘Figure 12.5 Active siokng gas mixtires fr MAG woldng of carbon, Mn and low ally stots, Bie ls cooer and red hot miure gos ‘Gas mixtures with helium instead of argon give a hotter are, more uid weld pool and better weld profie. These. quaternary matures permit higher ‘Welding speeds but may net be suitable for hin sections. ‘Stainless stools ‘Austenitic stainless steels are typically welded with argon-CO3/O; mistures for spray transfer of argon-helum-COp mixtures forall modes of transfer. ‘The oxdising potential of the mixtures is kept to a minimum (22.5% maximum CO2 conten) to stablise the arc but with minimum effect on Corrosion performance. Because austen steels have a low thermal ‘conductivity, the adalton of helum helps to avoid lack of fusion defects and ‘overcome the Pigh heat dissipation inte the matefal. Helum adttons are ‘Upto 85%, compared with ~25% for mixtures used for carbon and low alloy Steels, CO;cantaring mistures are sometimes avoided to eliminate potential carbon pick-up. my Sesnare oneal (Ory wate on ae ‘Figure 13.8 Active shiling gas mitures for MAG welding of stainless stets. Bue Isa cooler and oda hot gas mtr For martensite and duplex stainless stools, speciaat advice should be sought. Some Ar-He mixtures containing up to 2.5%Ny are avaiable for welding duplex stainless steels loys (aluminium magnesium, tanlum, copper and nickel and toys) Inert gases are used for ght alloys and those sensiive to oxidation. Wielding grade inert gases should be purchased rather than commercial e putty to ensure good weld quai. Light th ‘Argon Can be used for aluminium because there is sufficient surface oxide ‘avaliable to stablise the are. For materals eensive to oxygen, such at ‘tanium and rick alloys, arc stabilty may be dificult to achieve with inert ‘gases in some applications. The density of argon is approximately 1.4 times {hat of air so in the cownhand postion, the relatively heavy argon is very fective at displacing air. disadvantage is when working in confined ‘spaces there Is a risk of argon buldiag up to dangerous levels and ‘asphyriating the welder, ‘Argon-holium mixtures ‘Argon Is most commonly used for MIG welding of ght alloys but an ‘advantage can be gained by use of helium and argon/helium mixtures. Halim possesses a higher thermal conductivity than argon and the hotter weld pool produces improved penetration andior an inerease In welding ‘speed. High helum contents give a deep broad penetration profile Dut e@ Droduce high spatter levels. With less than 60% argon a tue spray Wansfer [5 not possible. With globular-type transfer the welder should use a buried arc to minimise spate. Arc stability can be problematic in helum and argon-halium modures, since holm raises the arc voliage so thoro is @ larger change in arc voltage with respect to arc length. Helium mintures require higher flow rates than argon shielding to provide the same gas protection, ‘There is a reduced risk of lack of fusion defects when using argon-halium ‘matures particulary on thick secon aluminium. Arse gas mixtures val ‘feel the high heat disipaion in maternal ver about Senn theese, Twi ae ww:twitaining.comethSniee eget [ro ae ; a ‘son eium anes | Fe Baer Figure 12.7 net shildng gas miures for MIG welding of euminim, gas Hn, tl ede. cern rho Twr wwwstwitraining.com: OM exescoi ‘Summary of sheng gases and minutes used for diferent base materi @ for MIGMWAG weldrg ear | Sra | ResstonT cperacaraton gar _| bonvour Carton | Aner [Signy | iaeatng CO, caion gre ter as, Stet ‘nang | Inproved are sally, dene’ peneatin {natn tm ge yp obo shape neva ofa mre hd wal eal org Fater wei bead wh good wang. ested Spates, btornugness than CO, Hamm % argon a spay vant ‘Gora pupece acre Argon 10 13400, TeaorO; | Sigiy | Ste ren v0, mires mnises| ‘et | undorcting, sue pay tantr mos, ever peneaian tan AC, miro, fret ‘ype woisbead penton sf high cure Tet General purpose mete’ Agen 3% So FEE, | Sipiy | svslng onan aap are ores seatra | haber atevtae, eve ewnteoa tar | — @ obs pei, mare owt sapad and Seer oreo ofl ar igh waaing sree, agate wit W.CO, mare, Hoh coe GO; | Orden | Are votoges 23 igh han A-00, aes, ‘eatporarson, hota weldng speed, 9 {andar bed ae engin any. ao wating ge igh sat ves cos Saaniess | HeA-C0, | Sighiy | Good ae silty wih minimum elec on Bee ‘encnp | coro etance ator pou), ghee hetum contre casioned dp vans, mer fet covers desi plea sray Ware, Goer putose gat HoAr23CO. 7rager0; | Sigh | Spry ansaony, mises uncereting on nding _| healer actos goed bod rte ‘Ain, [Aigon [inst | Good a stay, ow spar ae genera ‘ie tana eosarition a a @ ‘rick sactone wo: kf kf ton efct.Nghe paar and Meher ou nan TWI a www twitaining.com A aeparas 1324 Travel speed and electrode orientation 1325 “The faster the travel speed the less penetration, narrower beed width and Ime higher risk of undercut Figure 1.8 The eect of travel speed. As travel speed increases, reducing enetrsion ona with, undercut. Penetration Deep Moderate Shatow Excess weld metal — Mdmum Moderato Minimum Under Severe” Moder Minimim Figure 13.9 Efecto torch ange. Effect of contact tip to workpiece distance CTWO has an influence over the welding curont because of resistive heating in the electrode extension (Figure 13.10). The welding curent required to met the electrode at the require rate to match the wire feed speed reduces as the CTWD is increased. Long electrode extensions can ‘cause lack of penetration, for example, in narrow gap Joins or wth poor Tanipulation ofthe welding gun. Conversely, the welding curet increases. ‘when the CTWD is reduced. This provides the experienced welder with a ‘means of convoing the curent during welding but can result invariable Penetration in manval welding wih a constant voltage power source. [As the electrode extension is increased the bur rate increases for a fiven welding current due to increased resisve heating. Increasing the leirode extension, eg in mechanised appicatons Is therefore one way of Twi oe 7 rw: twitaning.comBeziers Increasing deposition rates, asthe wire feed speed is increased to maintain the required welding curent. ‘Gas nozze Contact te tback Noss. work (etna tac wer Figure 13.10 Conte tp to workpece distance; electrode extension and nozle to wermpieco distance Resistive heating depends on the resistivity ofthe electrode, the electrode ‘extension length and wire diameter 20 is more pronounced for welding materials which have high resisviy, such as steels. The electrode ‘extension shouldbe kept small when small ameter wies are being used to Prevent excessive heating in the wire end avoid the resuling poor bead ‘shape. Stable condition ‘Sudden change in gun position Arc lngth remains the same, but wet cet Figure 13.44 Effect of ncreasing the contact toto workpiece dtane, Are length ‘opains same length Wr a wuew.twitraining.comexpt ena —— Inctased eenson Figure 13.12 Efecto increasing ooctrodeextonsion {At short CTWDs, radiated heat from the weld pool can cause overheating of the contact tube and welding torch wich ean lead to spatter adherence and Increased wear ofthe contac tube ‘The clectoce extension should be checked when setting-up welding conditions ofiting a new contact tube. Normally measured from the contact {ube to the workpiece (Figure 13.13) suggested CTWDs for the principal etal transi modes ae: Tse waneermode [TWD min Dip 015 sory 2028 Pu 1520 contact i Erectrode Contact ip a feased ‘tension ‘tension lecrode Sm) p25mm B2mp extension STM) xamm iY Figure 13.48 Suagested contac tio o work stance,consists 1826 Effect of nozzle to work distance e Nozzle to work distance (Figure 13.19) has a considerable efect on gas shielding efficiency with a decrease sifening the column. The nazz to work distance is typically 12-15mm. ifthe CTWD is simultaneously reduced, however, the deposition rate at given current is decressed and visibity and accessblty are affected; so in practice a compromise i necessary ‘The following gves suggested settings forthe mode of metal transfer being used. Tawar ode Cova poston ave tram a 2m sie 2 pong Se ‘anmbsie Sora @uranun) — [6-1 ins 182.7 Shielding gas nozzle ‘The purpose of the shielding gas nozzle is to produce @ lamina’ gas fw to protect the weld ec! om atmospheric contamination Nozzle dames @ Fange from 13-22mm and should be increased in relation tothe ie of the wold pool Therefore, larger diamator nozzles are used for figh curent, Spray Wansfer application and smaller clameter for ap transfer. The Now Fate must algo be tuned to the nozzle diameter and shielding gas {ype To {ive sufficient weld poo! coverage, Gas nozzles fr dip transfer welding tend tobe tapered atthe ute of the nozzle Joint access and type should also be considered when stlectng the Tequired gas nozzle ‘and flow rate. Too small a nozzle may causa it 10 become obstructed by spatter more quickly andi the wire bends on leaving the contact tube, the shielding envelope and arc location may nat coincide. 182.8. Typos of metal transfor ‘Wielding Cure A Figure 13.14 Arc charactors cure oy. =. vw ttraning.comey charntartion of ip trator ‘Metal rarsfer by wie dipping oF short-creulting Into the weld pool Relatively ow heat input procass. {Low weld poo! fd. Used for thin sheet metal above 0.8mm and typically less than 3.2mm, positional welding of thicker section and root runs in open but its Process sabilty and spatter can be a problem if poorly tuned ‘+ Lack of ison of poorly set-up and appfed. + Not used for non-ferrous metals and ays. Flgure 13.45 Di transl. In dip tranaer te wre shortcuts the arc 80-200 tmesrsecond ana tis ‘ype of transfer is normally achieved with CO, or mixtures of COz and argon ‘985 + low amps and welding volts <24V. Key characte of pray wanaer Free-fight metal ransfer. ‘+ High heat input. ‘+ High deposition rate ‘Smooth stable are. ‘Used on eteels above Smm and aluminium alloys above 3mm thickness. Flgure 13.48 Spay vanstor. ‘Spray transfer occurs at high currents and vottages. Above the transton current, metal ansfer is a fne spray of smal cropets projected across the icompte mui st, ‘are with Jow spater levels. The high welding current produces strong lectomagnetc forces (pinch effec) that cause the ‘molten flament ‘supporting the droplet to neck down. Droplets detach from the tp ofthe wire and accelerate actoss the arc gap. The frequency with which the droplets ‘detach increases with the current. The droplet size equates to the wire Smm but nas limited use for poston welding due to the Polental large weld pootiavalved. Key characteristics pulsed transfer: + Free-fightéroplet ranter without shor-crcuiting over the entire working range. Very low spate. ‘Lower heat input than spay transfer. Reduced risk of ack of fusion compared with dp transfer. Control of weld bead profile for dynamical loaded parts, Process contoifiesbiy. Enables use of larger diameter, loss expensive wires with thinner plates ‘= more easily fed (paricular advantage fr aluminium welding), using the welding curmnt extends the range of spray transfer operation well below the natural ransiton from dip to spray transfer. This allows ‘smooth, spatte-tree spray transfer at mean currents below the tansiton level, 03 50-1504 and atlower heat inputs. Pusing was introduces orginally to contol metal transfer by impesing atfcal cycic operation on the are system by applying ater ately high and low currents. ‘Atypical pulsed wavetorm and the main pulse welding variables are shown in Figure 13.17. A low background curent(ypially 20-908) Ie supplied to maintain the arc, keep the wire tp motfen, give stable anode and cathode Fools and maintain average current during the cycle. Droplet detachment ‘ccurs during a high cutent pulse at curentlovels above the transition current lovol. The pulse of current generates very high electromagnetic {ross which cause a stiong pinch effect onthe metal flament supporting the droplet the droplet is detached and projected across the arc gap. Pulse ‘eurtent and current densiy must be suffceny high to ensure that spray ‘transfer (not globular) always occurs 80 that postonal welding can be used, Pulse transfer uses pulses of current to fie a single globule of metal across the arc gap at a requeney of §0-300 pulsesisecond tis @ development of Twr 7 wr twitraining.comfevzseamis ‘spray transfer that gives postonal welding capabily for steels, combined ‘with controled heat input good fusion and high productivity and may be Used for all sheat ate! thiknese >tmm, but lo mainly ueed fer positional ‘Welding of steels >Smm. Figure 12.17 Pulsed walding waveform and parameters Koy characteristics of globular transfer: + Irregular metal ranser. + Medium heat input + Medium deposition rate + Risk of spate. Not widely used in the UK can be used for mechanised welding of medium thickness (ypealy 36mm) steel inthe flat (PA) positon ‘The globular transfer range occupies the transitional range of arc voltage between freefight and fulyshor-creuling.vansfer. Ireguar droplet transfer and are stability are inherent, particularly when operating near the transiton teshald. In lobular Vansfer'@ molten croplet several times the electrode clameter forms on the wire tip, gravy eventually detaches it when its weight overcomes surface tension forces and transfer takes place often with excessive spatter. Before transfer the are wanders and its cone covers 2 large area, dissipating energy. ‘There is a short duration short-circuit when the droplet contacts with the ‘matten poo! but rather than causing droplet transfer it occurs asa result of. ‘Although the shor-creut is of very short duration, some inductance is ‘necessary fo reduce spatter, although tothe operator the shor-crculs are ‘ot discernible and the arches the appearance ofa ree-fight ype. ‘To further minimise spatter loves, tis common to operate witha very short are langth and in some cases a buried arc technique is adopted, Globular transfer can only be used in the fat postion and ls often associsted with lack of penetration, fusion defecis and uneven weld beads because of the legular transfer and tendency for are wander. Twi ae \wweuctwttraining.com1329 Twi we coon Inductance \When MIGIMAG welding in the ap transfer mode, the welding electrode touches the weld pool causing a short-cut during which the are voage is nearly zero. If the constant voltage power supply responded instantly, very high curent would immediately begin to flow through the welding crcut and the rapid rise in current to a high value would met the shor-creulted electrode free with explosive force, dispeing the weld metal and causing considerable spate. Inductance Is the propery in an electrical crcut that slows down the rate of ‘curent rise (Figure 12.18). The current traveling through an inductance col creates a magnetic fld which creates a current in the welding circu in ‘ppastion to the welding curent. Increasing inductance wil also incase thearc time and decrease the trequoncy of shor-crcuting Noinductance Inductance asses Curent Te Figure 13.48 Relatonshio between inductance and curt rise ‘There is an optimum value of inductance for each electrode feed rat. Too litle results In excessive spatter, oo much and current wil not rise fast enough and the malten tip of the electrode isnot heated sufcenty causing ‘the electrode to lub into the base metal, Medern electronic power sources ‘automaticaly set inductance to give a smooth arc and metal ranser. ee wctwitrafning.companes connie sed 43.3 MIG basic equipment requirements 18 Power source:transformerrecifr (constant voage type), 20 Inverter pomer source 21 Power hose assembly (liner, power cable, water hose, gas hose). 22 Liner. 28 Spare contact tps. 24 Torch head assembly. 2 Pomer-retum cable and clamp, 26 15kg wire spool (copper coated and uncoated wires). 21 Power contol panel, 28 External wire food unit ay. 7 meascoon tars ‘The MIGIMAG wire drive assembly Internal wir ive system. we Groove aif borom ave rote. ‘Wre guide 7 \ructwitraining comeats cage te ‘The MIG torch head assembly Torch body. nla o aiching ste. ‘Spot welding spacer attachment. jatgtt ¥. “Torch head secembly (minus the ehvoud) 13.4 Inspection when MIG/MAG welding 13.44 Welding equipment Visual check to ensure the welding equipments in god coniton. 1342 Electrode wire ‘The diameter, specifestion and qualty of wire are the main inspection headings. The lavel of de-oxdation ofthe wie isan important factor with ‘ingle, double and triple de-oxiised wires being vallable, Twi ae he wo traning comcanis TSS 13.43 1344 13.45 1346 1347 The higher the level of de-oxidants in the wire, the lower the chance of porosty in the weld. The qualty of the wice winding, copper coating and temper are also important factors in minimising wie feed problems, Quaity ofwire windings and increasing costs {Random wound. b) Layer wound 6) Precision layer wound” Drive rlis and tiner Check the chive ros are the core size forthe wire and that the pressure is hand ight o just sufficient to erive the wie, Excess pressure wil deform the Wwite to an ovuler shape making it very dificult to drive through the liner, ‘eautng In arcing n the contac fp and excessive weer of the contact Hp and liner. (Check that the liner is the corset ype and size for he wie. One sizeof ner generally fits two sizes of wire, ie 06 and 0.8, 1 and 1.2, 1.4 and 1.8mm Giameter. Stoel ners are used for steel wires and Teflon fr aluminium wees. Contact tip ‘Check the contact tip is the right size for the wire being driven and the ‘mount of wear frequently. Any loss of contact between the wie and contact tip wil reduce the efcency of ourrent pick Most eloel wires are copper costed to maximise the vanster of curent by contact between two Copper surfaces atthe contact tip But this also inhibits corrosion. The conta! Hp should be replaced regu. Connections ‘The electric arc length In MIGIMAG welding is contralled by the votage ‘settings, achieved by using a constant voltage volVamp characteristic inside the equipment. Any’ poor connection in the welding cuit wit affect the ‘ature and stabi ofthe electric arc so is 2 major inspection point. Gas and gas low rate ‘The type of gas used is extremely important to MIGIMAG welding, a8 is the flow rate ftom the cylinder which must be adequate to give good coverage ‘over the solving and molten metal to avoid oxdaton and porosity. Other variable welding parameters CChects should be made for corect wie feed speed, voltage, speed of travel ‘and all other essential variables of the process given on the approved Welding procedure, Twr == fans wwtitraining.comReza ctedinaarg peesinteand 19.48. Safety checks 138 TwWI = Checks should be made on the curent carving capacity or duty cycle of equipment and elacical insulation. Corect extraction aysteme should be sed to avoid exposure to azone and fumes. {A check should always be made to ensure thatthe welder Is qualified to wold the procedure boing used. ‘Typical wolding imperfections «ica inclusions on fettc stools only caused by poor iter-run clearing. Lack of sidewall fusion during dip wansfer weliing of thick section vericaly down. ‘+ Porosity caused by loss of gas shield and low tolerance to contaminants, ‘+ Burm-through from using the incorect metal transfer mode on sheet metal Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) Inthe mid-1980s the development of seliand gas-shielded FCAW was ‘major step in the successful application of onsite semiautomatic welding and has enabled a much wider range of materials to be welded, ‘The cored wire consists of a metal sheath containing a granular fx which can contain elements normally used in MIA elecrodes 60 the process has. 28 very wide range of applications, In adelton, gas producing elements and compounds can be added to the flux s0 the process can be Independent of a separate gas shield, wtich Feskicts the use of conventional MIGIMAG welding. in many feld appliatons. Most wires are sealod mechanically and hermeticaly with various forms of jint The eectveness of tha wore jain ia an inspection point of cored wire ‘welding as moisture can easly be absorbed into @ damaged or por seam, Wire types commonly used are ‘+ Rutile which give good positional capabitis. ‘Basic also postonal but good on dirty material ‘+ Meta-cored higher productivity, some having excelent rot run capabilites. ‘+ Sel-shioided no external gas needed. Baking of cored wires is ineffective and will not restore the condition of a ‘contaminated fax within a wire, eas ‘www twitraining.comcompress Note: Unike MMA electrodes the potential hydogen levels and mechanical Propet of wolds with rte wires can equal those ofthe basic types, 136 TWI ‘Summary of solid wire MIGIMAG Equipment requirements “ransfocmerkctier (constant voltage type), Power and power return cable. Inert, active or mid shieaing gas (argon or CO) Gas hose, fow meter and gas regulator. ‘Wire feed unit with correct tive rol Electrode wie to corect specication and dlaete. Correct visorilass, safety cothing and good extraction + MIG torch with hose, ner fuser, contact and nozzle. rameters and inspection points Wire feed speediamperage. ‘Open circu and welding votage. We type and diameter. Gas type and fow rate. Contact tp size and consiton. Roller type, size and pressure, Liner size. Inductance settings. Insulation/edracton. Connections (voltage drops). Travel speed, crecon and angles. ‘Typical welding imperfections ‘Sle inclusions. + Lack of fusion (ap transfer. + Surface porosty ‘Advantages and disadvantages Tariges ‘Disaarngse Hin roast Lack of sien pranwoy aay orated| ‘Sat gs of crsunaoie ‘Alpena (pus md FEAW_| Protection or te nrg ateal mekness range Complex quent ‘Coninuous code Hit zone ol vwww.titraining.comSection 14 ‘Submerged Arc Weldinge200 14 Submerged Arc Welding @ 144 Proc In submerged arc welding (SAW) an ae Is struck between a continuous Dare wire and the parent pate. The are, electrode enc molten pool are submerged in an agglomerated or fused powdered fux, which tums ino & {928 and slag nits ower layers when subjected tothe heat of tho arc thus Protecing the weld. from contamination. The wire electrode is fed Eontinuounly bya feed unt of motor even rllers which af usualy voage- Contrlledto ensure an arc of constant length. hopper fied o the welling head has. tube which spreads the ux ina continuous elongated mound in front ofthe are along the line ofthe intended weld and of sufclent depth to ‘submerge the arc completely so there Is no spater. The weld is shielded {om the atmosphere and there are no ultavioltor infrared radiation effects {(se2 belon). Unmelted fux is reclaimed for use. The use of powdered fix ‘osrcs re process to the at and hovzontal-vetel welding postions. Slog ‘Submerged are welting is eble to use where Nigh wel currents (ning to the properties and functions ofthe fux) which give deep penetration and high deposin rates. Generally DC¥ve ls used up to about T0O0A becatse Itprodices deop penetration. On some applications ( cladding operators) «= @ De-ve is needed fo reduce penetration and dubon. At higher crents vith multiple electrode systems, AC is often prefered fo. avoid are Bow {wnen used with mutiple slerede systoms, DGrve Is used forthe load ae And AC forthe tala), er142 ey : Dificuties sometimes arise in ensuing conformity ofthe weld with a pre- termined Ine owing tothe obscuring effect ofthe flux. Where possibo, 2 {uide wheal to run in the joint preparation is positoned in front of the Welding heed and fax hoppers. ‘Submerged are welding is widely used inthe fabrication of shps, pressure: vessels, linepipe, ralay carrages and where long welds are required. It ‘can be se to weld thicknesses from Smm upwards. Materials joined ‘Welding of carbon steels ‘Welding low alcy steos (og fine grained and creep resisting. Welding stainless stools. Welding rick alloys. Cladcing to base metas to improve wear and cortosion resistance. Fluxes Flux is graruar mineral compounds mixed to various formulations. Wilding charaterstes: More stable ar, improved weld appearance, ease sig removal, higher welling speeds. ‘Wield metal mechanical properties (S, UTS and CEN) ‘srountof Mn and S Tees] Lene] Ler] “Type of fas | Fused ‘Agalomerated| Twi va wor twitaining.comania 0 ie ocean 143 Twr a Fused fluxes are produced by the constituents being dry mixed, melted in an ‘electric furnace then granuiated by pouring te molten mixture into water or ‘onto an ice block. Subsequent these patices are cushed and screened to yield a uniform gases product ‘Advantages of fused fluxes ‘Good chemical homogeneity. + Less hygroscopic 0 handling an storage are easier. ‘+ Fines (ne powders) can be removed wihout changes in composition. + Eaciy recited tough the eytem witout sgicant charge in pale size or compostion Disadvantages of fused faxes ‘© Limitations in composition as some components, such as. basic carbonates unable o withstand the meting process. + Dificut to ada deoxicisers and ferealoys (due to segregation or ‘extremely high los). In agglomerated fluxes constituents may be bonded by mixing the dry Contents with potassium or sodium slate and the wet mature is then pelted, cried, crushed and screened to size. ‘Advantages of agglomerated fuxes ‘+ Deoxidisers and alloying elements can easily be added to the fx to ‘agust the weld metal composition, ‘+ Allow a thicker fux ayer when welding ‘+ Can be identified by colour and shape Disadvantages of agglomerated fluxes ‘Generally more hygroscopic (baking hardly practical. ‘+ Gas may evolve fom the slag as itis meted, leading to porosy + May be changes in weld metal chemical compositon from the segregation of fine particles produced bythe mechanical handing of the sranuiated fx. Process variables Several variables when changed can have an effect on the weld ‘appearance and mechanical properties: Welding curent ‘Type of fax and particle aistributon. Are voltage. ‘Travel speed. Elecrode 2a, Electrode extension. ‘Type of electrode, With and depth ofthe layer of flux. www twitaining.comRecpet209 Pesan ‘+ Electrode angle easing, trang) + Pala, + Single, double or muit-wir systom, 1434 Welding current Increasing current increases penetration and wire met rate, a 3508 ‘008 ‘508 Welding cures ect on wold profi 2.4nm eecrose camer, Var vetage and onimintavel peed). + Excessively high curent produces @ deep penetrating arc with Tendency to burn-through, undercut or a high, narrow Bead prone to: soliicaton racking, + Excessively low curtent produces an unstable ae, lack of penetration and possi lack of fusion, 143.2 Arevoltage ‘Are voltage adjustment varies the length of the arc between the electrode: ‘and the molto weld metal. As it incroases, the arc length Increases and ‘ie versa, Vattage prncpaly determines the shape ofthe weld besdcross- Section and is external appearance. av aaV av ‘Ave voltage effect on weld profile 24mm electrode diameter, 500K welding ‘current and Gtemvnin ave speed, Increasing the are voltage with constant current and travel speed wi Produce a fatter, wider bead. Increase fux consumption. “Tend te reduce porosity caused by rut or scale on sto Hop to bridge excessive root opening when fp is por. Increase pick-up of elloyna elements rom the ux if present Twi ba VV \worwetwitraining.comsaa ay 2Het a sameness cone wun Excessively high arc voltage wi + Produce @ wide bead shape subject to soltication cracking. 1 Make slag removal difcultin groove wets {Produce a concave-shaped flit weld that may be subject to cracking “Increase undercut along the edges) of filet welds. * Overaloy the weld metal va the fux. Reducing the arc volege wth constant current and travel speed wil rotuco ifr are which improves penetration in a deep weld groove and resists ‘are blow. Excessively low are veltage wil: ‘+ Produce a high, narow bead. + Cause cifcult slag removal along the weld toes. ‘Travel epes travel speed is increased: ‘+ Heat input per unitength of weld decreases. ‘Less filer metal is applied per unit length of weld therefore less excess weld metal + Penetration decresses so the weld bead becomes smaller, Smale Onin TaBDmn| Travel sposd affect on wold profile (24mm lectade damalr, 800 welsing ‘hrant and 36V ae vote) ‘+ Wold bead shape and depth of penetration ata given current ‘A nigh current density results in sb arc that penetrates into the base ‘metal. Conversely, a lower current density in the same size electode: resus na soft arc thats les penetrating, ‘+ Depostion rate At any given amperage setting, a smal diameter electrode will have & higher current density and deposition rata of motte metal than @ larger diameter eectnde. However a larger dame elect can cary more current ‘nan a smaller one, so can ulmately produce a higher dopostion rate at higher amperage, oe = ——oerties ie 32mm oom om ‘letroe siz ft on walt ro (6004 wolingcurent, 30V ac voltage snd Teamnin ave! speed. 44.38 Electrode extension ‘The electrode extension is the distance the continuous electrode protrudes byond the contact tip. At high cutent densities resistance heating of the electrode between the contact tip and the are can be to increase the fletrode meting rte (as much a8 25-50%), The longer the extension, the ‘greater the amount of heating and the higher the meting rate’ but ‘Seereases penetiation and wels bead width (see below) ‘0mm ‘nm Om ‘mm 143.6 Type of electrode ‘An electrode with low electrical conductivity, such as stainless ste, can witha normal electrode extension. experiance greater resistance heating, ‘Thus forthe same size electrode and current, the meng rate ofa stainless ‘too electrode wil be higher than that of a carbon steel electrode 143.7 Width and depth of fx “The width and depth of the layer of granular flux influence the appeerance ‘and soundness of the frished weld os well as the welding action. Ifthe {granular layer fs too deep, the are is to confined and a rough weld with = fope-ike appearance i Ikely to result and it may produce local fat areas on the surface offen refered to 2s gas fats. The gases generated during Welding cannot readly escape and the surface of the molten weld metal is Iregularly datos. If the granular layer Ie too shallow the are wil not be tently submerged in fux flashing and spattring wil occur and the wold ‘wil have @ poor appearance and may show porosity. TWI “ snoriteaning.comcome Ws 3 144 148 Twi co Ray 2igt | eames ‘Storage and care of consumables Care must be taken with fuxes supplied for SAW wich, although they may be dy when packaged, may be exposed to high humidity during storage. In such” cases’ they should be cfied” as per the manufacturers ‘ecommendations before use or pores er cracking may result Ferrous wire colls supplied as continuous fessing electrodes are usually ‘copper-coated which provides some corrosion resistance, ensures good flecrcal contacts and helps in smooth feeding. Rust and mecherical ‘damage should be avoided in such products as they interrupt smooth {eoding ofthe electoda, Rusts detrimental to weld quality generally sine it is hygroscopic (may contain or absorb moisture) so can lead to hydrogen Induced eracking, ‘Contamination by carbon-containing materials such a ol grease, paint and drawing lubricants, s especially harmful with ferous mates. Carbon pick-up inthe weld metal can cause a marked and uavaly undesirable change in properties. Such contaminants may also resutn hydrogen being absorbed Inthe weld pool Welders should ahtays follow the manufactures recommendations for consumables storage and handling Power sources In are welding its peincpaly the current which determines the amount of hest generated and this controls the meting ef the electrode and parent metal and also such factors as penetration and bead shape and size Vottage and arc length are also important facors with increasing voltage leading to Increasing arc length and viclversa. Usually in SAW a constant ‘voltage of flat characterise power source is used Power can be supplied from a welding generatcr with alt characteristic or 2 transformerrectier arranged to give output vtages of approximately 14- ‘SOV and current according tothe output ofthe unt, can be in excess of 10004, ee \wuetwitraining.com