WET GAS MEASUREMENT

Class # 1320
Joshua J. Kinney
Wet Gas Test Facility Manager
Colorado Engineering Experiment Station, Inc. (CEESI)
54043 Weld County Road No. 37
Nunn, Colorado 80648 USA
Introduction
In the natural gas industry, proper flow
measurement is one of the key elements in
providing accurate allocation of revenue. Natural gas
may have some liquid content. This liquid may be
water, hydrocarbons, compressor oil or a mixture of
all three. When a flow meter is subjected to wet gas,
large errors in flow measurement may occur with
undesirable results to the bottom line.
The intention of this paper is to introduce the reader
to the difficulties associated with wet gas
measurement and identify some techniques being
used accomplish this. The content presented is not
intended for wet gas measurement error correction.
The first section gives a brief glossary of terms used
when describing wet gas flow followed by a list of
general equations associated with these terms. The
next section gives descriptions wet gas flow regimes
present in a horizontal pipe. Previous research
conducted in a controlled environment is presented
focusing on the effect of entrained liquids on various
flow measurement devices. In addition, methods of
wet gas flow measurement are discussed. Finally,
general ideas about wet gas metering are
discussed.
Wet Gas Measurement Terms
When discussing wet gas measurement, specific
terms are used to describe wet gas flow. The
following terms are some of the most commonly
used. Not all of these terms are used in this paper,
but are presented for general knowledge.
Superficial Gas Velocity
The term superficial gas velocity refers to the gas
velocity that would be present if there were no liquid
present in the gas stream. If liquid is present, the
actual gas velocity will be higher due to the
reduction in pipe area by the liquid present in the
pipe.

Superficial Liquid Velocity

The term superficial liquid velocity refers to the liquid
velocity that would be present if there were no gas
present in the gas stream.
Liquid Load
Liquid load, or mass ratio, is a wet gas correlation
term that is used to describe the amount of liquid
present in the flowing gas stream. This term is
defined as the ratio of the liquid mass flowrate to the
gas mass flowrate and is commonly expressed in
percentage.
GVF
GVF, or gas volume fraction, is defined as the ratio
of the gas volumetric flowrate to the total volumetric
flowrate. The total volumetric flowrate is the sum of
the liquid volumetric rate and the gas volumetric
flowrate. These volumetric flows are expressed in
actual (not standard) volumetric terms.
LVF
LVF, or liquid volume fraction, is defined as the ratio
of the liquid volumetric flowrate to the total
volumetric flowrate. The total volumetric flowrate is
the sum of the liquid volumetric rate and the gas
volumetric flowrate. These volumetric flows are
expressed in actual (not standard) volumetric terms.
Lockhart Martinelli Number
The term Lockhart Martinelli Number (X) is a
dimensionless parameter that is used to correlate
gas and liquid flow in a pipe.
Hold-up
Hold-up is described as being the area occupied by
the liquid in a wet gas stream from a cross-sectional
view, relative to the total cross sectional area of the
pipe at the same location.

Over Measurement Error

Where:
W L = Liquid Mass Flowrate, lbm/sec
W G = Gas Mass Flowrate, lbm/sec

When a flow measurement device reports a higher

flowrate than is actually present, it is considered to
have an over measurement error.

GVF (Gas Volume Fraction)

Under Measurement Error

When a flow measurement device reports a lower
flowrate than is actually present, it is considered to
have an under measurement error.

GVF =

QG
Q G + QL

(4)

Where:

Multiphase Flow

QG = Gas Volumetric Flowrate at flowing

3
conditions, ft /sec
QL = Liquid Volumetric Flowrate at flowing
conditions, ft3/sec

When two or more types of liquid are flowing in a

gas stream at the same time, it is referred to as
multiphase flow. Typical liquids include oil,
condensate and water.
Wet Gas Calculations

LVF (Liquid Volume Fraction)

As with specific terminology, there are specific
calculations used when evaluating wet gas data.
Some common equations are listed below.

QL
= 1- GVF
Q G + QL

(5)

Where:

Superficial Gas Velocity:

VSG =

LVF =

WG
G A

QG = Gas Volumetric Flowrate at flowing

3
conditions, ft /sec
QL = Liquid Volumetric Flowrate at flowing
3
conditions, ft /sec

(1)

Where:
Lockhart Martinelli Number

W G = Gas Mass Flowrate, lbm/sec

G = Density of Gas, lb/ft3
2
A = Area of Pipe, ft

X =

QL
QG

L
G

(6)

Superficial Liquid Velocity:

VSL =

WL
L A

(2)

Where:
QL = Liquid Volumetric Flowrate at Flowing
3
Conditions, ft /sec
QG = Gas Volumetric Flowrate at Flowing
Conditions, ft3/sec
3
L = Density of Liquid, lb/ft
3
G = Density of Gas, lb/ft

Where:
W L = Liquid Mass Flowrate, lbm/sec
3
L = Density of Liquid, lb/ft
2
A = Area of Pipe, ft

Gas and Liquid Behavior

Liquid Load:

LL% =

WL
100
WG

(3)

Wet gas is a term used when liquid is present in the

flowing gas stream. The behavior of the gas and
liquid in a flowing pipe will exhibit various flow
characteristics depending on the gas pressure, gas
velocity and liquid content, as well as orientation of
the piping (horizontal, sloping or vertical). The liquid

may be in the form of tiny droplets or the pipe may

be filled completely with liquid. Despite the
complexity of gas and liquid interaction, attempts
have been made to categorize this behavior. These
gas and liquid interactions are commonly referred to
as flow regimes or flow patterns. Flow regime maps
are used to describe the way the gas and liquid are
interacting based on various parameters. These
maps are also used to predict the performance of a
flow meter based on the regime present (Figure 1).

Annular Mist Flow

Annular mist flow occurs at high gas velocities. A
thin film of liquid is present around the annulus of
the pipe. Typically most of the liquid is entrained in
the form of droplets in the gas core. As a result of
gravity, there is usually a thicker film of liquid on the
bottom of the pipe as opposed to the top of the pipe.
Stratified (Smooth) Flow
Stratified or stratified smooth flow exists when the
gravitational separation is complete. The liquid flows
along the bottom of the pipe as gas flows over the
top. Liquid holdup in this regime can be large but the
gas velocities are low.
Stratified Wave Flow
Stratified wave flow is similar to stratified smooth
flow, but with a higher gas velocity. The higher gas
velocity produces waves on the liquid surface.
These waves may become large enough to break off
liquid droplet at the peaks of the waves and become
entrained in the gas. These droplets are distributed
further down the pipe.
Slug Flow

Figure 1. Typical Horizontal Flow Regime Map

Names for specific flow regimes have been defined
by researchers and a description of each is given
below (Figure 2). These descriptions are for
horizontal piping only.

In the slug flow regime, large frothy waves of liquid

form a slug that can fill the pipe completely. These
slugs may also be in the form of a surge wave that
exists upon a thick film of liquid on the bottom of the
pipe.
Elongated Bubble Flow
Elongated bubble flow consists of a mostly liquid
flow with elongated bubbles present closer to the top
of the pipe.
Dispersed Flow
Assume a pipe is completely filled with liquid with a
small amount of entrained gas. The gas is in the
form of smaller bubbles. These bubbles of gas have
a tendency to reside in the top region of the pipe as
gravity holds the liquid in the bottom of the pipe.
Wet Gas Research

Figure 2. Flow Regimes in a Horizontal Pipe

A considerable amount of research has been

conducted to determine the effect that wet gas flow
exhibits on many flow measurement devices. This
research has been used to develop devices that can
measure the gas and liquid volumes. Discussed in
this paper are a few of those reports.

Typical Wet Gas Testing Facility Piping Setup

14

12

Percent Over-Measurement

When evaluating dry gas flow meters under wet gas

conditions, a typical piping setup is commonly used.
The apparatus consists of a gas flow meter of
reference standards to be positioned in a dry gas
stream. A liquid injection point is positioned
downstream of the dry gas measurement source.
This is the point where liquid is introduced to the dry
gas stream. Injected liquid is also measured under
single phase conditions with a form of liquid
measurement device. The flow meter under test is
positioned downstream of the liquid injection point
(Figure 3). Both the gas and liquid streams are
measured individually before being combined.

through standard type orifice meters. A set of 90 test

points were recorded using wet gas in the form of
steam water, air water natural gas water,
natural gas salt water and natural gas distillate.
Orifice meter tube sizes of 2.5 inch, 3 inch and 4
inch where used with beta ratios ranging from 0.25
to 0.50. Tests were performed at pressures ranging
from atmospheric to 950 psia. Liquid loadings of 2%
to over 80% were varied through the tests. A portion
of the test results are listed in Figure 4.

High Pressure Data

10

Low Pressure Data

8

0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

Liquid Loading

Figure 4.
Portion
Experimental Data

Figure 3. Typical Wet Gas Test Setup

Correlating Gas and Liquid Flows
Researchers have developed correlation parameters
to identify the amount of liquid in a wet gas stream.
Liquid Load incorporates the individual mass
flowrates of the gas and liquid for correlation. Other
parameters such as GVF, LVF and Lockhart
Martinelli utilize the volumetric flows of the gas and
liquid for calculation. Correlation parameters aid in
identifying trends of wet gas measurement error.
These trends may also reveal error trends
associated with pressure.
Testing Results
Many types of flow meters have been tested with
wet gas. Each has their own way of reacting to the
wet gas flow, but all show some form of
measurement error. Presented in this paper are
three different types of flow meters tested under wet
gas conditions. These meter types are an orifice
plate, subsonic Venturi and a V-Cone.
J. W. Murdock performed various tests to find a
practical method for computing two-phase flowrates

of

J.

W.

Murdocks

Murdocks experimental data clearly shows an

increase in over measurement as liquid loading is
increased. Because of the appearance of a clear
trend in the over measurement, the gas and liquid
behavior would seem to be somewhat stable. The
data also shows that with increased line pressure,
the
percent
over
measurement
increases
significantly with liquid loading. Over measurement
appears to correlate with pressure in these tests.
The classical or Herschel style subsonic Venturi is
used in many different fields of dry gas
measurement. Due to its unique qualities some
believe that the Venturi meter is a good meter to
form a foundation of a wet gas metering system.
Test data listed in Figure 5 was generated by
subjecting a 4 inch Venturi meter to liquid loadings
from 1% to 50%. The superficial gas velocity ranged
from 10 to 40 feet per second and three pressures
were selected for the tests.

used as the correlation parameter, an increase of

static pressure causes a decrease in over
registration which is the opposite effect when liquid
loading is used.

Classical Venturi
Pipe Size = 4"

Beta Ratio = 0.40

1.30

1.20

Wet Gas Metering

1.15
1.10

1100 psi

1.05

700 psi

1.00
200 psi

0.95
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Liquid Load %

Figure 5. Over Registration of a Classical Venturi

Please note, the over measurement value on this
graph is not expressed as a percentage. The plot
shows three distinct trends of over measurement
which correlate with pressure. The over
measurement error clearly increases as the liquid
loading increases to a value of over 27%. The
differences of over measurement between the three
line pressures are not as large as Murdocks orifice
plate data. Different types of flowmeters exhibit
different trends of error when subjected to wet gas
flow.
Another type of flow meter that has been tested with
wet gas is the V-Cone. For the presented data, the
flow meter size consisted of a 6 inch V-Cone meter
with a beta of 0.75. Three operating pressures were
selected with a range of superficial gas flow
velocities and liquid injection rates.
The data
presented is correlated with the Lockhart Martinelli
parameter, or X (Figure 6).

0.75 Beta V-Cone Meter

50

% Over-Reading

40
30
15 Bar Uncorrected
30 Bar Uncorrected

20

60 Bar Uncorrected

10
0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

-10
X

Figure 6. Over Registration of a V-Cone

The test results show an over registration similar to
the venturi meter. Errors as much as 45% were seen
at the lowest pressure. A pressure effect on the
amount of over registration was also noted. Please
note that when the Lockhart Martinelli number (X) is

Research conducted in the past has led to greater

understanding of wet gas measurement technology.
One of the developments researchers have studied
is a wet gas correction parameter relative to the type
of meter subjected to wet gas. These parameters
are used to correct the wet gas effects on certain
meter designs (Figure 7). These corrections can be
generated when all variables are known at the time
of testing. Variables such as true gas flowrate,
entrained liquid amounts, and the densities of the
fluids are essential to applying the proper correction
to the meter. All of these variables are seldom
known in the field.

0.75 Beta V-Cone Meter

New Wet Gas Correlation
50
40
% Over-Reading

Over Measurement

1.25

15 Bar Uncorrected
30 Bar Uncorrected

30

60 Bar Uncorrected

20

15 Bar New Correlation

30 Bar New Correlation

10

60 Bar New Correlation

0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

-10
X

Figure 7. Correction Applied to V-Cone

To correct the flow meter that is subjected to wet
gas, a form of liquid detection and/or wet gas density
measurement technology must be used. Some types
of devices being studied include capacitance type
meters,
compact
separation,
gamma
ray
densitometry and various measurement correlations
of meters and instruments. Wet Gas / Multiphase
meters utilize this technology in their designs.
Wet Gas / Multiphase meters have begun to surface
in the industry and offer reasonably accurate flow
measurement of both gas and liquids. Multiphase
flow consists of two or more liquids flowing with the
gas at one time where wet gas flow involves only
one. Other advantages to Wet Gas / Multiphase
meters include smaller footprints than large
separators that would have to be installed to piping
systems and conjoining gas streams for allocation
concerns. Wet Gas / Multiphase meters can be
grouped into different categories. These categories
include separation meters and in-line meters.

Separation Meters

Separation and Drip Legs

Separation type multiphase meters are defined as

an apparatus that fully or partially separates the
different phases of flow and measures each phase
stream independently before re-combining the gas
and liquid(s). This type of multiphase meter typically
has a larger footprint than in-line and other types of
multiphase meters. Typically, some form of compact
separator is utilized to separate the phases.

Where sags and low lying areas exist in piping,

installation of drip leg tanks can remove free flowing
liquid in piping. Separation, although expensive and
cumbersome, will remove free liquid from the flowing
gas stream. Piping systems that incur low gas
velocities can benefit from a form of liquid separation
as liquid hold up may be a concern.

In-Line Meters
In-line meters are defined as a unit that can
measure the complete flowing media as it passes
thru the apparatus without separation of the phases.
Many measuring techniques are used. Some
examples are microwave technology, capacitance
measurement,
gamma
absorption,
neutron
interrogation, differential pressure measurement
from two or more meters in series, radioactive signal
interrogation and the use of static or dynamic
mixers. Proprietary algorithms and processing of the
signals result in independent phase flow metering.
This type of multiphase typically has a smaller
footprint when it comes to installation issues, but
generally are more complex.
The measurement of wet gas and multiphase flow is
a complicated task. Measurements by multiphase
meters do not reach the accuracy of single phase
flow measurement. The task of covering all
conditions of gas and liquid ratios is difficult as well.
Advancement thru technology and continued
research will favorably close the gap on accuracy,
but will probably never reach the accuracy of single
phase flow meter in single phase flow.
General Discussion
Liquids from a wet gas stream may affect the
performance of instrumentation. Liquid levels in the
pipeline and / or condensation may develop
additional liquid which can fill instrumentation lines
and cause measurement errors aside from errors
associated with wet gas. Installing orifice meter
tubes where the pressure ports are positioned on
the top of the pipe will reduce the amount of liquid
buildup in the sense lines. Where piezometer rings
are used around venturi meters, connections to the
top of the pipe only will reduce liquid buildup as well.
Downward sloping sense lines from the instrument
to the pipeline along with the increased diameter of
instrument connection tubing will promote the
draining of collected liquid from condensation. Avoid
low spots on instrumentation lines as well; liquid can
eventually build up causing measurement error.

Hydrates
When water is present in a gas stream, the
formation of hydrates can occur. Hydrates are a
crystalline type structure comprised of water and one
or more components of natural gas. These hydrate
structures can conglomerate and cause restrictions
and possible plugging of pipes reducing or stopping
the movement of product. Hydrates differ from
frozen water by forming above 32F depending on
gas pressure. For example, in a lean gas mixture
with a BTU value of 1050 and a pressure of 1000
psia, hydrates may form as high as 57F.
Hydrates can accumulate virtually anywhere that
water can be present causing measurement error
and safety concerns. Orifice plates can be coated
and
sense
lines
plugged
causing
large
measurement errors. Natural gas pockets between
hydrate plugs in a pipe causes safety concerns. If a
pipeline is believed to be empty of pressure and a
gas pocket is present, safety issues arise. When the
hydrate plug dissociates, the plug can turn into a
high speed bullet driven by the pressure behind it
causing catastrophic results. These moving hydrates
can snap thermowells off and destroy orifice plates.
Care must be taken when actions are implemented
to thaw a hydrate plugged line.
Conclusions
Wet gas flow measurement is a difficult issue and a
problem in many metering systems. Many variables
play a part in the gas and liquid interaction and
actual conditions become complex. Researchers
have invested significant resources to identify the
effects of wet gas on single phase flow meters. This
research has opened opportunities to develop
improved wet gas measurement technology. Not
only can measurement errors be attributed to wet
gas effects on flow meters, but problems with liquid
in sense lines as well. When water is present,
problems
with
hydrate
formations
cause
measurement errors as well as safety concerns.

References
Murdock, J.W., Two-Phase Flow Measurement With
Orifices, ASME Journal of Basic Engineering, Dec.
1962.
Hewitt G.F., Measurement of Two Phase Flow
Parameters, Academic Press, London, New York,
San Francisco, 1978.
Stewart D., Hodges D., Steven R., Peters R., Wet
Gas Metering with V-Cone Meters, North Sea
Measurement Workshop 2002, Oct 2002.
Gas Processors Association, Engineering Data
Book, Volume 1, Sections 1-16, Gas Processors
Suppliers Association, Tulsa, OK, Revised Tenth
Edition, 1994.

th
Kegel, T.M., Wet Gas Measurement, 4 CIATEQ
Seminar on Advanced Flow Measurement, Boca del
Rio, Veracruz, Mexico, July 2003.

John Amdal, Harald Danielson, Eivind Dykesteen,

Dag Fllo, Jens Grendstad, Hans Olav Hide, Hkon
Moestue, Bernt Helge Torkildsen, Handbook of
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Oil and Gas Measurement.
Britton, C., Seidl, W., and Kinney, J.,Experimental
th
Wet Gas Data for a Herschel Style Venturi, 5
International
Symposium
on
Fluid
Flow
Measurement, Arlington, VA, April 7-10, 2002.