Intuitive Guide to Principles of Communications

By Charan Langton
www.complextoreal.com

All About Traveling Wave Tube Amplifiers (TWTA)

Traveling Wave Tube Amplifiers are widely used in satellite applications to provide signal power
amplification at high frequencies. Solid State Amplifiers (SSPA) used mostly at S-band also exhibit
performance characteristics similar to TWTAs. Therefore, this discussion applies to both SSPA and
TWTAs.
TWTAs provide highly efficient power amplification at high microwave frequencies but have
troublesome side effects associated with their performance. Like a bitter but effective medicine, we
live with these side effects because there are no other viable options for signal amplification in space
that offer similar efficiencies.
Who makes TWTAs
There are three main manufacturers of TWTAs. They are
Hughes
AEG/Thomson
NEC
Hughes specializes in the development of C and Ku-band tubes, whereas the French company
Thomson has tended towards Ka band. Thomson and the German company AEG have recently
merged although they still maintain two different foundries and have somewhat different technologies
for their TWTAs. NEC is a much smaller player than the first two. NEC makes TWTAs in S to V
band and their tubes have flown mostly on Japanese programs such as COMET, ETS, and N-Star.
In 1997, Hughes sold app. 620 units, AEG 800 units, and Thomson 500 units of TWTAs. With
the AEG and Thomson merger, they now have about two-thirds of the market.
Each dual-radiation cooled TWTA costs app. $280K and a typical satellite requires approximately $10 million dollars worth of TWTAs.
There is more choice when it comes to linearizers, a device used to mitigate the non-linearity
of TWTAs. Hughes has been working with HFC (their sister company) to develop linearizers. Loral
has used numerous different vendors such as NARDA, Bosch, Alcatel, and NEC, and has also developed in-house linearizers. Linearizer adds app. $25K to $100K per TWTA to the cost of a satellite. It
is estimated that currently app. 40% of the systems use linearized TWTAs as opposed to non-linearized.
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How we specify the power characteristics of a TWTA

The most common methods in which TWTAs are specified are
1. Peak Power
2. Pin vs. Pout or AM/AM Transfer and AM/PM Conversion curves
3. Input Back-off (IBO) vs. Output back-off (OBO)
4. Gain
In addition to the power characteristics of TWTAs, the measure of non-linearity of the TWTAs
is commonly specified by the following Figures of Merit:
1. C/3IM
2. NPR
3. 1 dB Compression Point
1. Peak Power
TWTAs are most often referred by their peak power. The amount of peak power that can be
delivered today are inversely proportional to the frequency band.
Table I - TWTA provide a range of powers in many frequency bands

Fre que ncy

Powe r, watts

S-ba nd

5 0 -1 5 0

C -ba nd

1 5 -1 5 0

Ku-ba nd

1 5 -1 5 0

G r owth to 2 0 0 wa tts

K a -ba nd

2 0 -1 0 0

G r owth to 1 5 0 wa tts

All about TWTAs

Comme nt

2. AM/AM Transfer and AM/PM Conversion curves

In addition to peak power, a range of power-in vs. power-out characteristics are also provided.
The power-in vs. power-out curves for TWTAs are also called AM/AM transfer curves. Fig. 1 shows
a typical power-in vs. power-out characteristic of a Ku band TWTA.

Figure 1 - Typical Input Power vs. Output Power of a TWTA

The Fig. 1 above shows that as input power is increased, beyond a certain region of linearity, the
output power begins to decline. At a point called saturation, any further increase in input power
produces no further increase in output power. Equate this to dialing the volume knob on your stereo
which is really a kind of non-linear amplifier. The volume at first increases but as we get close to the
stop of the knob (you may have to be a teenager to experience this fully), the output does not increase much and a great deal of noise can now be heard in the music. This is saturation.
The peak power is seen at the highest point of the curve. In dBs, 100 watts corresponds to 20
dBw = . Most TWTA data is given in dBm instead of dBw. 20 dBw is 50 dBm (1 dBw is equal to 30
dBm and 0 dBm is equal to 1 milliwatt.)
Similarly for a 200 Watt TWTA, we would compute its power in dBm as
= 10 log(200) + 30 = 53 dBm
We can see that the saturation power for the TWTA in Fig. 1 is 53 dBm. So this TWTA must
have a peak power of 200 Watts. The x-axis in Fig. 1 is the input drive level power. It is also given in
dBms.
Most TWTAs are designed to saturate at an input level of 0 dBm. Channel amplifiers are often
used in front of the TWTA to ensure that the drive level of the TWTA is does not vary a great deal
and is fixed either at 0 dBm or at some other pre-determined back-off.

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Channel Amp

Incoming signal of varying

amplitude from IMUX

Signal amplified
by CAMP
to provide a
constant level
to TWTA

TWT
OP = 0

Figure 2 - TWTA being fed a level-adjusted signal so it can operate at a fixed operating
point (OBO)

The place on the AM/AM transfer curve where the TWTA is nominally being operated is called
its operating point or back-off. We can talk about both Input Back-off (IBO) and Output Back-off
(OBO), although generally satellite operators talk in terms of Output Back-off only. This is because
the operator is concerned about total maximum power being generated out of the transponder.
Ideally we want to operate the TWTA at saturation because here we get the most power out of
the TWTA. But we find that the non-linear behavior of the tube causes significant signal distortion at
saturation, so we back off from this desired optimum. The real optimum which is a function of number of carriers, data type, access method, etc. is determined individually for each transponder. The
determination of a back-off point for a transponder is not an exact science and requires the balancing
of many of these conflicting needs.
Individual carriers must be coordinated so they do not swamp each other and a fixed output
power is being delivered out of the satellite. Typically because of this, stringent limits are placed on
the signal variability of each carrier going into a transponder.
A particular OBO applies only to one particular transponder. A transponder on the satellite may
be carrying many carriers and hence will have a different OBO than another transponder on the same
satellite carrying just one carrier. Traffic changes on a transponder would also necessitate changing
the OBO. The range of OBO values however, does not vary a great deal, say from .5 dB for a single
carrier, to about 5 dB for a multi-carrier system.

All about TWTAs

3rd Order Intercept Point , dBm

(App. 10 dBm greater than 1 dB Comp. Point)
1 dB Compression Point
(where the output is 1 dB less
than it would be for linear behavior)

10 dB

Saturation

1 dB

Linear Region

Input Back Off

Output Back Off

Overdrive region

Single Carrier Output

(also called Fundamental Signal)

1 dB

Overdrive region for

2 Carriers

1 dB

Two Carrier Output

2f1 - f2 type
3rd Order IM Products
C/3 IM

3 dB

1 dB

Input BackOff, dB
Input Power, dBm

Figure 3 - Common TWTA Operating Parameters

Lets look at some of the other parameters of a TWTA. These are shown in complicated looking
Fig. of 3. The linear range is called the small signal region, and the region beyond the saturation point
is called the overdrive region. The overdrive capability of a tube is a region over which most (although not all) of the saturation power can be maintained with increasing input power. Satellite
applications, however, rarely operate in the overdrive region.
The characteristic response curves in Fig. 1 and Fig. 3 are always for a single carrier going
through the TWTA. The top-most curve of Fig. 3 is obtained by putting a single tone of known
amplitude through the tube and measuring the amplitude of the output. Since the data is given for
carriers which are tones of single frequency, it does not reflect the behavior of a modulated signal. A
100 Watt TWTA will not always produce 100 Watts at saturation if a modulated signal is put through
it. A realistic number is about .5 dB less or about 90 Watts.
To complicate matters further, very often there is more than one carrier present. The AM/AM
transfer curve tells us nothing of what will happen for a case with more then one carrier. How much
power would we get out of the tube then? Is it more or is it less, and if so how much less than the
single carrier case.
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The knowledge of how a tube will behave in the presence of more than one carrier is very
important, and the manufacturers provide us with two carrier power-in vs. power-out curves. In Fig.
3, you can see this curve just below the one carrier case. We can see that at saturation the two-carrier
case does not provide the full output power but something about 1.5 dB less or for a 100 Watt
TWTA, delivering only about 70 Watts. What a huge loss! What happened to the rest of the energy?
We will attempt to answer this question later.

AM/PM Conversion or the Phase performance

In addition to the AM/AM transfer curves, manufacturers also provide phase shift properties. A
phase shift is imparted to the signal depending on the drive level. In the small signal region, the phase
shift is so small as to be negligible. As we increase the level, the phase shift increases up to about 50
degrees. A typical phase shift vs. Input Back Off curve is shown below.

Phase Shift vs. Input Power Back Off

Phase Shift, Degrees

55
45
35
25
15
5
-5-40

-30

-20

-10

10

IBO (dB)

Figure 4 - Phase Shift, Degrees vs. IBO, dB

The phase shift curve is also called the AM/PM conversion curve. This phase shift is an additional cause of degradation. The phase shift that occurs as a result of the amplitude non-linearity has
smaller effect on the over all link. The impact of this phase shift is about .6 dB degradation vs. as
much as 2.5 dB degradation of the Eb/N0 due to the amplitude effects.
A TWTA that had a smaller phase shift at saturation by 10 degrees would provide us with app.
0.1 dB better performance.
Why worry about phase?
Why is phase important anyway? Here is a brief demonstration of how phase shift distorts the
signal. In Fig. 5 we show an almost-square wave made from just three frequencies. The phase values
All about TWTAs

are all assumed to be zero.

Figure 5 - A fairly decent looking square wave consisting of just 3 frequencies

Now lets change the phase slightly for each frequency, representing the frequency-selective
phase shift property of a TWTA and we see how distorted the output signal in Fig. 6 has become.
And this without any noise or amplitude distortion at all!

Figure 6 - Effect of phase shift on the simple square wave, not so decent anymore.
Although the above example is instructive as to the effects of phase distortion, we have to
recognize that phase shift caused by the TWTA is lesser of the two evils. Most of the degradation
comes from the amplitude non-linearity effects of the TWTA. If the envelope of the signal (its outline)
is fairly constant, then the TWTA amplitude gremlins are likely to go hungry but if the envelope
fluctuates, they have a feast.
To get around this envelope effect, phase modulation is used to some advantage in satellite
communications. But even phase modulated signals such as QPSK have some amplitude variation and
suffer degradation. A QPSK signal goes through 180 degree phase shift at each bit change and this
sudden collapsing of the signal to zero, stresses the dynamic range of the TWTA and results in
signal distortion. The offset QPSK signal has less envelope fluctuation because the phase shifts are
limited to 90 degrees and because of this we conclude that offset QPSK signal suffers less distortion.
And this is indeed so. We would always prefer O-QPSK if it were not for the cost of the receivers.

2. IBO/OBO
The Power-in vs. Power-out curve of a TWTA is often normalized to output power. Instead of
talking of actual power-out in Watts or dBms (as we did in Fig. 1 with Pout = 200 watts), we normalize the curve so that it produces 0 dB at saturation. This type of curve is called the Input Back-off
(IBO) vs. Output Back-off (OBO) curve.
We convert the AM/AM transfer curve to IBO/OBO by the following relationships.
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IBO/OBO curve shape is exactly the same as the original AM/AM transfer curve given to us by
the manufacturer except for the scaling. Now we interpret the x-axis not as a power-in reading but as
dBs less than what it would take to cause saturation. The y-axis is read as dBs less than output
power that could be obtained at saturation. A 3 dB OBO would mean that a 100 Watt TWTA is
producing only 50 Watts.
The IBO vs. OBO format is often used instead for specification of non-linear performance such
as for C/3IM, NPR etc. and is also used in analysis and simulation. The normalization makes it
possible to compare various tubes even though they may have different output powers.

IBO vs. OBO

Output Power Back-Off, dB

0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40

-30

-20

-10

10

Input Power Back-Off, dB

Figure 7 - Typical IBO vs. OBO curve for a TWTA

OBO is also used to specify the operating point of a transponder.
The specific relationship between IBO and OBO varies somewhat for each TWT. The following
table gives a typical set of values. Note for example that it takes 10 dB Input Back-off to get a 4 dB
Output Back-off.
IBO
-20.00
-18.00
-15.00
-12.00
-9
-6
-3
0
All about TWTAs

OBO
-13.3
-11.1
-8.2
-5.6
-2.6
-1.2
-.3
0
8

In the following Figure, we show several tubes on one chart.

Figure 8 - Comparing TWTAs

3. Gain
When talking about Gain of a TWTA, it is the small signal or the linear gain that we are referring
to. The linear gain of the tube is given by
A typical TWTA has a gain of 50 dB. The Fig. 9 below shows a typical gain curve.

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Power in (dBm) vs. TWT Gain (dB)

65.00

Gain (dB)

Linear Small Signal region

55.00

45.00

35.00
-40

-30

-20

-10

10

Power In (dBm)

Figure 9 - Typical Gain Curve of a TWTA

The gain of this tube is constant up to a drive level of -17 dBm. From -40 dBm to -17 dBm input
drive level, the gain is 58 dB independent of the input power. We can calculate the output power by
just adding this gain to the input power. In this constant- gain region, the TWTA acts like a linear gain
amplifier.
The maximum power output at -17 dBm input power is only 11 dBw (or 12.5 watts). This is not
acceptable, particularly as the TWTA is advertised to deliver 100 Watts of output power. So we move
further up (actually down) the gain curve. The gain now begins to decline and at input power level of
0 dBm, the gain is only 50 dB as opposed to 58 dB in the linear region. But since the output power is
now 100 watts (= 0 dBm + 50 dB = 50 dBm = 20 dBw = 100 Watts) we accept this gain hit. We
dont much care about the gain as it is the total output power we want.
We typically like to see a flat gain in the band of interest but this is not the case with TWTAs.
The gain in the region near saturation is any thing but flat. This causes problems.

Why TWTAs behave the way they do?

Now a little Math..
The Traveling-Wave non-linear behavior can be modeled with a power series, so that each term
represents a contribution of higher order effects.
Vout = k0 + k1Vin + k2Vin2 + k2Vin3 + k4Vin5 +
Most models are simplified by ignoring all terms beyond the third or fifth order since only the
second and third-order distortions are significant. Second order effects are not very important in
communications.
All about TWTAs

10

Vout = k0 + k1Vin + k2Vin2 + k3Vin3

Lets take a carrier of the form

Vin = A cos t
and put it through the non-linearity specified by Eq 1. We get

Vout = ( k 0 + k 2 A2 / 2) + ( k1 A + 3k3 A3 / 4) cos t + ( k 2 A2 / 2) c

DC Component

Fundamental

2nd Order harmonic

3rd Order harmon

We can see that the effect of the non-linearity is to produce an attenuated fundamental and
second order products which steal power away from the fundamental. The equation by itself is not
very helpful because we do not know what the coefficients are but it does allow us to see what
happens to these terms relative to each other.
We can see that if we double the amplitude of the input signal, no matter what these coefficients,
the amplitude of the 3rd order fundamental increases by 9 dB. There is a 3 dB to 1 dB relationship
between the 3rd product and the fundamental and this is widely observed and documented. We plotted
these products in Fig. 4 and note that they have a slope of 3 to 1 against the fundamental.
Lets take a look at the effect of this behavior on a signal in the time domain and in the frequency
domain.
Fig. 10a shows a baseband binary signal. This signal is then wave-shaped as shown in Fig. 10b.
Compare the signal in 10b to the signal in 10c which is the same signal through the TWTA. The
distortion you see includes both the amplitude and the phase distortions.

Figure 10a - Binary Signal

(You may to print to see all the details in the figures.)

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11

Figure 10b - Same signal through a Root-raised cosine filter that shaped the square waves.
(This is not considered distortion.)

Figure 10c- Same signal through the TWTA, distorted both in phase and amplitude.
We can qualitatively see the effect of this signal distortion by looking at the before and after
spectrum of this signal in Fig. 11a and 11b.

Figure 11a - Spectrum of incoming signal (Most all of the energy is confined
in-band)
All about TWTAs

12

Figure 11b - Spectrum of signal post TWTA (at OBO = 0)

Note that the signal energy has spilled into adjacent bands which have come up.

Figure11c - Spectrum of signal post TWTA (at OBO = -2 dB)

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Figure11d - Spectrum of signal post TWTA (at OBO = -6 dB)

We can see in Figures 11c and d that as we reduce the input power, the TWTA backs-off into a
linear range of operation. The spectrum of the two cases above shows the decreasing non-linear
behavior as input drive level is decreased. (Fig. 11c is for a OBO of -2 dB and Fig. 11d is for OBO of
-6 dB.) There is much less energy in the adjacent bands. Had we shown the time-domain signal for
these cases, we would see that there is much less signal distortion that what we see in Fig. 10c.
Behavior with two tones
Now lets take a look at what happens mathematically if we put two tones through the TWTA
instead of one. We characterized the TWTA behavior as
Vout = k0 + k1Vin + k2Vin2 + k3Vin3
The two tone signal is described as
Vin =
The signal is composed of two tones of the same amplitude, A. Putting this through the transformation equation above gives us many different combinations of the two original frequencies w1 and
All about TWTAs

14

w2. The output tones take the form of

where the order of the non-linearity is equal to n+m.
Term
= k0 + k2A2

Note
DC term

+ k1 A cos w1t + k1 A cos w2t

- the fundamental tones, 1st order effect

+ k2 A2 cos 2 w1t + k2 A2 cos 2 w2t

+ k2 A2 cos (w1+ w2) t

- Harmonics at twice the original frequency due to 2nd

order effects
-Sums of two frequencies due to 2nd order effects

+ k2 A2 cos (w1- w2) t

-Differences of two frequencies due to 2nd order effects

+ k3 A3 cos w1t + k3 A3 cos w2t

- Contribution to fundamentals due to the 3rd order term

+ k3 A3 cos 3w1t + k3 A3 cos 3w2t

- Harmonics at three the original frequency due

to 3
order effects
+ k3 A3 cos (2w1+ w2)t + k3 A3 cos (2w2+w1)t - Sum of the two frequencies due to 3nd order
effects
3
3
+ k3 A cos (2w1- w2)t + k3 A cos (2w2- w1)t - Differences of the two frequencies due to 3nd
order effects
nd

The above Table is a little bit confusing so lets do an example. We will look at a particular
transponder inside the Ku-band frequency range for a satellite. We have picked a band of 14 GHz to
14.5 GHz. In it there are ten transponder each of 50 MHz bandwidth. In transponder number 5, we
show two signals at frequencies of 14.22 and 14.23 GHz.

14.05

14.10

14.15

14.20

14.25

14.30

14.35

14 GHz

Transponder Band
Satellite Band

The table below shows the various products that results from these two signals going through
the TWTA.
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Non-linearity
Order
(n+m)
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3

Frequency
Location

14.22
14.23
28.44
28.46
28.45
0.01
42.66
42.69
42.67
42.68
14.21
14.24

14.05

Relative
Amplitude

3
3
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
0.3
0.3
1
1
1
1

14.10

14.15

Note

In-band
In-band
Out-of-band
Out-of-band
Out-of-band
Out-of-band
Out-of-band
Out-of-band
Out-of-band
Out-of-band
In-band
In-band

14.20

14.25

14.30

14.35

14 GHz

We can see the products that result from the inter-modulation of the two tones, and there are
only two that lie anywhere inside the band of interest. These are due to the 3rd order effects. All 2nd
order effects are at twice the nominal frequency and of no effect on Ku-band at all. One term lies
close to zero and this is filtered out.
The term in-band can be confusing. Does it mean within the transponders band or the
satellites? Unfortunately it is used both ways.

Two related concepts

The Noise Figure is defined as
NoiseFigure =

S/N
SNR at the input
=
S 0 / N 0 SNR at the output

Since all amplifiers add thermal noise to the incoming signal, the output signal-to-noise ratio will
be less. So the Noise Figure of a TWTA is always greater than 1, or is always positive in dBs.
The Noise Figure can also be expressed as a noise temperature (in Kelvin) as

All about TWTAs

16

 Noise temperture inKelvin

NoiseFigure = 10 Log
+ 1
290 Deg Kelvin

Since all amplifiers add thermal noise to the incoming signal, the output signal-to-noise ratio
will be less. So the Noise Figure of a TWTA is always greater than 1, or is always positive in dBs.
The Noise Figure can also be expressed as a noise temperature (in Kelvin) as

Dynamic Range
All devices have an intrinsic noise level. This is called the thermal noise of the device. The lowest
signal that can be resolved above this noise level and the maximum signal level that can be produced
by the device determines the dynamic range of the device. TWTA are not often characterized by
dynamic range but the concept in very relevant to their operation.
We can summarize the effects of TWTAs as two fold;
1. They transfer energy into the adjacent bands, which acts as interference for the adjacent
channels. These we can filter.
2. It steals energy from the fundamental and also distorts the in-band signal. There is not a whole
lot that can be done about that.
All in all, a troublesome but manageable phenomenon.
How do we manage it?
1. We use a TWTA that is as linear as possible and has a small phase shift.
2. We use strong filters after the TWTA to remove the out-of-band energy so as to reduce the
effect on the adjacent channels.
3. We can operate the TWTA in a non-linear region but this is not really a practical suggestion as
it would be like to driving a Ferrari at 45 miles-per-hour because it gives the best gas mileage at that
point.
4. We can use a linearizer.
How we specify the non-linearity of TWTAs
The TWTA manufacturers provide us with measures of the non-linearity of the TWTAs.
There are three main method by which non-linearity is specified.
1 C/3IM
2 NPR
3 1 dB Compression Point and Intercept Points
What is C/3Im
When two carriers are put through a TWTA, we get the characteristic frequency response in the
Figure below. In the first figure we see the two input tones. The second picture, which shows the
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17

output of the TWTA, shows not only the two original tones but multiple other harmonics. Each of
these harmonics are located at frequencies related to the two original frequencies. These previouslynot-there tones are called intermodulation products. Third order products of () and () type which are
of the highest power level and also lie close in to the band of interest are of most concern to us.

SystemView by ELANIX

Power Spectrum of Signal In (dBm 1 ohm)

80

105

130

155

80

105

130

155

40

20
P
o
w
0

e
r

-20

B
m

-40

-60

-80

Frequency in Hz (Res = 244.1e-3 Hz)

Figure 12 - Two equal carriers through a TWT, a. input signal, 2. Output signal

C/3IM is defined as the ratio of the power in one of the two main (or fundamental carriers) and
the next nearest spike.
C / 3IM =

Power of one of the main carriers

Power of the next highest 3 rd order product

Figure 13 shows what happens to the total power delivered when a second carrier of exactly the
same power level is added to the input of the tube. Note that the new response characteristic has
shifted down and to the right. In other words, not only do we get less total output power but we also
reach it at a lower drive level. The new saturation point or drive level is usually about 3 db less.
The reason why this happens is because of the birth of all those undesired inter-modulation
products. Each spike has stolen power from the parent carriers.
The C/3IM is computed by putting two tones of equal power through the TWTA. The carrier
output power and the power in the inter-modulation product is measured. The ratio of the carrier
power to the 3rd order IM is called the C/3IM. (The third-order inter-modulation is the highest spike
next to the fundamental carriers.) It nearly always takes the following shape for non-linearized
TWTAs.

All about TWTAs

18

C/3Im vs. IBO

25

C/3Im, dB

20
15
10
5
0
-20

-15

-10

-5

IBO, dB

Figure 13 - C/3IM levels at various IBO

C/3IM is nearly always specified as a function of the input power back-off per carrier. So the
saturation level means that both carriers are backed off by 3 dB. Typical C/3IM values start at about 9
dB at saturation. For each dB of decrease in the carrier output power, the IM level goes down by
about 3 dB.
At about C/3IM level of 20 dB, we can say that the TWTA is operating nearly linear.
A typical set of C/IM values are
IBO, dB
0
-3
-6
-9

C/3IM, dB
7
10
12
15

C/I
In an associated analysis, we can extend the C/3IM analysis from two to many carriers. These
pictures give an indication of what happens to the numerous signals as they go through the TWTA.
As more and more carriers are added, numerous intermodulation products result. The center carriers
are more effected by this and in each case are depressed (less output power).

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SystemView by ELANIX

Power Spectrum of Signal In (dBm 1 ohm)

80

105

130

155

80

105

130

155

40

20
P
o
w
0

e
r

-20

B
m

-40

-60

-80

Frequency in Hz (Res = 244.1e-3 Hz)

Figure 14a- Three equal carriers through a TWT, a. input signal, 2. Output signal (Note
that the middle signal has been depressed.)

SystemView by ELANIX

Power Spectrum of Signal In (dBm 1 ohm)

55

80

105

130

155

180

80

105

130

155

180

60

40

20

o
w
e
0

d
B

-20

-40

-60

55

Frequency in Hz (Res = 244.1e-3 Hz)

Figure 14b - Five Equal carriers through a TWT, a. input signal, 2. Output signal (Note
that the middle signals are depressed.)

All about TWTAs

20

SystemView by ELANIX

Power Spectrum of Signal Out (dBm 1 ohm)

60

110

S ystemView b y ELA NIX

160

210

Power Spectrum of Signal Out (dBm 1 ohm )

60

110

160

210

110

160

210

0
0

P
o

w
e

-20
-20

d
d

-40

-40

60

60

110

160

210
Frequency in Hz (Res = 244.1e-3 Hz)

Frequency in Hz (Res = 244.1e-3 Hz)

Figure 14c - Nine Equal carriers through a TWTA, a. input signal, 2. Output signal (Note
that the middle signals are depressed.)

NPR
The Noise Power Ratio (NPR) is a useful Figure of Merit when we have many carriers. It shows
the effect of many carriers on one particular carrier. With C/3IM we have an indication what happens
at the band edge when two carriers are used. NPR on the other hand gives an indication of what
happens to one of the in-band carriers when there are many others carriers present.
Noise Power Ratio (NPR) is a test of non-linearity that comes from Telephony and applies not
just to TWTA but to any system level DUT. NPR can be performed on whole receivers or systems. In
a typical telephone band, there are numerous line carriers. A test where one of these line carriers is
left out and then noise power in the empty band is measured corresponds to the NPR. This measured
noise in the target channel is a function of leaking into this band from other carriers. The NPR test
standardizes this form of testing and is conducted as shown in Fig. 15 below.
NPR is defined as
NPR =

Noise Source

Power level in the noise signal

Power level in the notch

Notch Filter
TWT

Noise Power Level

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Figure 15 - NPR Test Set-up

A wide-band noise source is generated. The noise signal is then filtered by a narrow notch with
as much rejection as is practically possible. Lets say that we were able to reduce the level in the
notch to 40 dB below the noise power level.
Now this notched filter is put through the TWTA. The non-linear effect of the TWTA is to
generate intermodulation products that tend to fill this notch. Now the new noise power in the notch
is 20 dB below the noise power. NPR is then defined as the ratio between the signal input noise
power and the signal notch output power.
How does NPR compare with C/3IM? This is not a really valid question because they are not
equivalent. The two parameters look at different aspects of the non-linearity but it is a question that is
often asked. We can say in general that NPR is always less than C/3IM, because it shows the response
to many carriers vs. the two tones for the C/3IM. A behavior for one particular TWTA is shown
below.

C/3IM and NPR

30

25

20
c/3

15

NP
10

0
-20

-15

-10

-5

Figure 16 - Comparing C/3IM and NPR (Note error: The labels are reversed)
1 dB Compression Point
1 dB Compression point is rarely used for TWTAs as but is often used for other amplifiers such
as LNAs, and sometimes for SSPAs.

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Figure 17 - 1 dB Compression Point is a measure of the non-linearity

The 1 dB compression point is that drive level where the power-out in dBm is l dB less than the
perfectly linear case. Extend the slope of the linear part of Pin vs. Pout curve and the point on the AM/
AM transfer curve where this straight line rises 1 dB above the actual Pout, is the 1 dB compression
point. See Fig. 3.
For the case above, the 1 dB compression point for Pout is app. 46 dBm. The relationship is
given by
Pout (at 1 dB Comp. Pt) = Pin (at 1 dB Comp. Pt) + Linear Gain - 1 dB
(A Rule of Thumb: the 1 dB compression point is usually 6 dB below saturation power.)
Intercept Points
A method of specifying non-linearity that is closely tied to the 1 dB compression point method
of specifying non-linearity is called the Intercept Method. The method requires the same test data as
C/3IM with two tones. IM levels are measured and plotted. Then a tangent is drawn to the IM vs.
IBO line. The point where this line intersects the tangent to the fundamental curve is called the 3rd
order intercept.
The third Order Intercept point is generally about 10 dB or more above the 1 dB compression
point.

What can we do to make TWTAs less non-linear

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Most of the system components used in communications systems are considered linear. This
means that the output is directly related to input. A sine wave remains a sine wave with the same
phase and an impulse remains an impulse even though its amplitude may be reduced or amplified. The
behavior is also constant over a given frequency range.
In addition, the output of a linear system contains only those frequencies that were transmitted
and no others. Any other frequencies that may be present in the output are considered distortion, the
result of non-linear behavior. (However, spurious responses that are not related to the input frequencies in any way, are usually not considered a non-linear response.)
TWTAs are notable primarily because their behavior is not linear. Since this results in spectrum
distortion, mitigation of these effects is important. One method of mitigating the nonlinear behavior of
a TWTA on the signals is to use a technique called pre-distortion.
In Fig. 18b, the AM/AM transfer response of a typical TWTA is shown. If we distorted the
signal as shown in 18a, then the sum of the pre-distorted signal and the TWTA distortion would
cancel out the TWTA non-linearity and give us a linear AM/AM transfer curve as in Fig. 18c. This is
the principle of operation of a linearizer.

Pre-distortion

TWT AM/AM

+
IBO, dB

IBO, dB

Figure 18a. Pre-Distortion, b. TWTA response, c. Sum of two is quasi-linear.

We can do the same thing to the phase rotation caused by the TWTA. The linearizer has to be
matched to the characteristics of the TWTA in order to produce the maximum beneficial effects.

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Phase Pre-distortion

TWT AM/PM

+
IBO, dB

IBO, dB

Figure 19a. Phase pre-distortion, b. TWTA Phase distortion, c. Sum of two is linear
A linearized TWTA (called LTWTA) has a expanded linearized region so we can operate closer
to saturation and get smaller non-linear effects. However, we dont get something for nothing. The
benefits of a linearized TWTA are not realized for all traffic configurations and in some cases the use
of a linearizer is actually disadvantageous. These disadvantages come from
1. Gain distortion near peak.
2. Difficult to match or tune the linearizer so optimum performance can be obtained
3. Not suitable for all traffic types
4. Requires expenditure of additional RF power and adds weight to the system
In the figure below we see the comparison of a TWTA and LTWTA. Two behaviors are notable.
1. The linearized AM/AM transfer curve crosses the non-linearized curve not at 0 dB but slightly
to the left. This says that when using a linearized TWT, maximum power is not obtained at saturation
but at slightly less than that.
2. We see that the LTWTA gain (Fig. 21) has a slight hump near saturation. The maximum gain
occurs at app. -3dB IBO which corresponds with the conclusion in Behavior 1. The hump introduces
some non-linearities of its own which we see in the C/3Im curve for a linearized TWTA. C/3IM
curves of LTWTAs are not nearly as regular as the non-linearized TWTAs. There are places in the
operating curve of LTWTAs, where the fifth order products are higher than the third order products.

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OBO, dB

Linearized vs. Non-Linearized

TWT AM/AM Behavior
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30

-20

-10

IBO, dB

Figure 20 - IBO vs. OBO for a LTWTA vs. TWTA

OBO, dB

Linearized vs. Non-Linearized

TWT Gain Behavior
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-30

-20

-10

Figure 21 - Gain vs. OBO for a Linearized vs. non-linearized TWTA

The C/3IM and the NPR behavior of a LTWTA vs. the non-linearized TWTA holds some
surprises. Although both the C/3IM and the NPR for the linearized tubes are better than the nonlinearized tube, the pattern has some unexpected bumps. These come from points where occasionally
the fifth order products rise above 3rd order products.

Copyright Dec 1998, 2002, All rights reserved

Charan Langton
mntcastle@earthlink.net

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