1

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Trap mechanism in hydrocarbon migration is fundamental in the
analysis of a prospect and an important part in any successful oil and
gas exploration or resource assessment program. A trap can be
defined as any geometric arrangement of rock, regardless of origin,
that permits significant accumulation of oil or gas, or both, in the
subsurface. Although we define a trap as the geometric configuration
that retains hydrocarbons several critical component must be in place
for a trap to be effective, including adequate reservoir rocks and
seals, and each of these must be addressed during trap evaluation.
The oil and gas within a trap is part of the petroleum system,
whereas the trap itself is part of one or more sedimentary basins and
is evaluated as part of a prospect. The hydrocarbon-forming process
and the trap-forming process occur as independent event and
commonly at different types. The timing of the trap-forming process is
important in a petroleum system study because if the trap forms
before the hydrocarbon-forming process the evidence (oil and gas)
that a petroleum system exist is preserved. The volume of oil and gas

preserved depends on the type and the size of the trap, which is
important in the evaluation of the prospect. The critical component of
a trap (the reservoir, seal, and the geometric arrangement with each
other) can be combined in variety of ways by a number of separate
processes. Different authors have focused on various trap attributes
as the key elements or elements of their classifications.

1.1 HYDROCARBON MIGRATION

Hydrocarbon migration refers to the movement of petroleum
from the source rock to the reservoir rocks. It is important to
understand this process so that the direction of migration and
trapping of petroleum can be predicted. Many different theories have
been proposed in the past but it is now clear that petroleum is mainly
transported as a separated phase and that the process is mainly
driven by the buoyancy of petroleum relative to water. The solubility
of oil in water is very low for most compounds. The solubility of oil in
water is very low for most compounds. The solubility of gas,
particularly methane, is much higher both in oil and water and
increases with depth (pressure). There is however, also very limited
flow in sedimentary basins to transport petroleum.

Figure 1.0: petroleum geology, (migration process in hydrocarbon

migration) shanawaz mustafa

Figure 1.2: diagram illustrating the movement and accumulation of

hydrocarbon (Kevin.T Bibble)

1.2 PRIMARY MIGRATION

Primary migration is here defined as the movement of

hydrocarbons (oil and natural gas) from mature organic-rich source
rocks to an escape point where the oil and gas collect as droplets or
stringers of continuous-phase liquid hydrocarbon and secondary
migration can occur. The escape point from the source rock can be
any point where hydrocarbons can begin to migrate as continuousphase fluid through water-saturated porosity. The escape point then
could be anywhere the source rock is adjacent to a reservoir rock, an
open fault plane, or an open fracture. Secondary migration is the
movement of hydrocarbons as a single continuous-phase fluid
through

water-saturated

rocks,

faults,

or

fractures

and

the

concentration of the fluid in trapped accumulations of oil and gas.

Numerous mechanisms for primary migration have been proposed.
The main proposed mechanisms for secondary migration are
buoyancy and hydrodynamics.
The mechanisms of primary hydrocarbon migration and the
timing of hydrocarbon expulsion have been debated by petroleum
geologists since the beginning of the science. Mechanisms proposed
for primary hydrocarbon migration include: solution in water, diffusion
through water, dispersed droplets, soap micelles, continuous-phase

migration through the water-saturated pores, and others. Early

workers generally favored early expulsion of hydrocarbons with the
water

phase

of

compacting sediments,

primary hydrocarbon

migration, and secondary migration through reservoir carrier beds is

the necessary next step for the formation of a commercial oil or gas
accumulation. A thorough understanding of the mechanics of
secondary hydrocarbon migration and entrapment is useful in the
exploration for oil and gas. Knowledge in this area of exploration can
be critical in tracing hydrocarbon migration routes, interpreting
hydrocarbon shows, predicting vertical and lateral seal capacity,
exploiting discovered fields, and in the general understanding of the
distribution of hydrocarbons in the subsurface.
1.3 SECONDARY MIGRATION
The hydrocarbons expelled from a source bed next move through the
wider pores of carrier beds (e.g., sandstones or carbonates) that are
coarser-grained
termed secondary

and

more

migration.

permeable.
The

This

distinction

movement

between

is

primary

and secondary migration is based on pore size and rock type. In

some cases, oil may migrate through such permeable carrier beds
until it is trapped. If an oil droplet were expelled from a source rock

whose boundary was the seafloor, oil would rise through seawater as
a continuous-phase droplet because oil is less dense than water and
the two fluids are immiscible. The rate of rise would depend on the
density difference (buoyancy) between the oil and the water phase.
The main driving force then for the upward movement of oil through
sea water is buoyancy. Buoyancy is also the main driving force for oil
or gas migrating through water-saturated rocks in the subsurface. In
the subsurface, where oil must migrate through the pores of rock,
there exists a resistant force to the migration of hydrocarbons that
was not present in the simple example. The factors that determine
the magnitude of this resistant force are (1) the radius of the pore
throats of the rock, and (2) the hydrocarbon-water interfacial tension,
and (3) wettability. These factors, in combination, are generally called
"capillary pressure." Capillary pressure has been defined as the
pressure difference between the oil phase and the water phase
across a curved oil-water interface pointed out that capillary pressure
between oil and water in rock pores is responsible for trapping oil and
gas in the subsurface.

Figure 1.2 definition of primary and secondary migration (after tissot

and welte).

1.4 DRIVING FORCES FOR HYDROCARBON MIGRATION

Under hydrostatic conditions, buoyancy is the main driving force for
continuous-phase secondary hydrocarbon migration. When two
immiscible fluids (hydrocarbon and water) occur in a rock, a buoyant
force is created owing to the density difference between the
hydrocarbon phase and the water phase. The greater the density
difference, the greater the buoyant force for a given length

hydrocarbon column (always measured vertically). For a static

continuous hydrocarbon column, the buoyant force increases
vertically upward through the column.
1.5 EFFECTS OF HYDRODYNAMICS ON DRIVING FORCES
The importance of hydrodynamics with regard to oil entrapment
in structural traps has been discussed in detail by Hubbert (1953).
Numerous other authors have since documented the effects of
hydrodynamics on structural oil reservoirs throughout the world. In
thinking of the effects of hydrodynamics on secondary migration and
primarily stratigraphic-type entrapment of hydrocarbons, we must
consider how a hydrodynamic condition would effect the buoyant
driving force of a hydrocarbon filament in the subsurface.
Hydrodynamic conditions in the subsurface change the buoyant
force, and therefore the migration potential, for a hydrocarbon column
of a given height. Buoyancy, as has been defined for a static oil
filament, is the pressure in the water phase minus the pressure in the
oil phase at a given height above the free water level. When a
hydrodynamic condition exists, the pressure in the water phase (and
therefore the buoyant force) at any point will be different from that for
hydrostatic conditions.

10

1.6.0 RESISTANT FORCES TO SECONDARY MIGRATION

In a previous example we discussed how a filament of oil
released at the seafloor would rise through seawater because of the
force of buoyancy. If the same filament of oil or gas is required to
move through a water-saturated porous rock we have introduced a
resistant force to hydrocarbon movement. For the hydrocarbon
filament or globule to move through a rock, work is required to
squeeze the hydrocarbon filament through the pores of the rock. In
more technical terms, the surface area of the hydrocarbon filament
must be increased to the point that it will pass through the previously
water-saturated pore throats of the rock. The magnitude of this
resistant force in any hydrocarbon-water-rock system then is
determined by the radius of the pore throats of the rock; the
hydrocarbon-water interfacial tension (surface energy); and wettability
as expressed by the contact angle of hydrocarbon and water against
the solid pore walls as measured through the water phase. This
resistant force to migration is generally termed "capillary pressure."

11

For a simplified example, visualize a hydrocarbon filament trying to

move upward through a water-saturated cylindrical pore .The
variables of the resistant force to hydrocarbon movement can be
expressed by a simple equation (Purcell, 1949):

Where

Pd

(dynes/cm2);

=
=

hydrocarbon-water
interfacial

tension

displacement
(dynes/cm);

pressure
wettability,

expressed by the contact angle of hydrocarbon and water against the

solid (degrees); and R = radius of largest connected pore throats
(cm). The displacement pressure is that force required displacing
water from the cylindrical pore and forcing the oil filament through the
pore.

1.6.1 INTERFACIAL TENSION

Interfacial tension can be defined as the work required
enlarging by unit area the interface between two immiscible fluids
(e.g., oil and water). Interfacial tension is the result of the difference

12

between the mutual attraction of like molecules within each fluid and
the attraction of dissimilar molecules across the interface of the fluids.
Oil-water interfacial tension varies as a function of the chemical
composition of the oil, amount and type of surface-active agents,
types and quantities of gas in solution, pH of the water, temperature,
and pressure. At atmospheric pressure and 70F, interfacial tension of
crude oils and associated formation water for 34 Texas oil reservoirs
of different ages ranged from 13.6 to 34.3 dynes/cm, with a mean of
21 dynes/cm (Livingston, 1938). Oil-water interfacial tension generally
tends to decrease with increasing API gravity and decreasing
viscosity (Livingston, 1938).
With increasing temperature, oil-water interfacial tension generally
decreases. For pure benzene-water and decane-water systems,
interfacial tension decreases between 0.03 to 0.08 dynes/cm/F
(Michaels and Hauser, 1950) depending on the pressure.
In attempting to quantify oil-water-rock displacement pressure,
a value for oil-water interfacial tension in the subsurface must be
measured or estimated. Sophisticated laboratory equipment can
measure oil-water interfacial tension at reservoir temperature and

13

pressure. If this equipment is not available, interfacial tension can

generally be measured at atmospheric conditions in most chemical
laboratories.

The

results

of

atmospheric

interfacial

tension

measurements must be extrapolated to subsurface temperature and

pressure. If no laboratory data are available for the oil-water system
in question, then an estimate must be made. Livingston's mean value
for 34 Texas crude oils of 21 dynes/cm at 70F is the best value for
medium-density crude oils (30 to 40 API). A value of approximately
15 dynes/cm may be appropriate for higher gravity crude oils (greater
than 40 API) with 30 dynes/cm being a reasonable approximation for
low-gravity crude oils (less than 30 API). These estimates or
measurements

at

atmospheric

temperature

(70F)

must

be

extrapolated to reservoir temperature. It is suggested that the oilwater interfacial tension value at 70F be decreased 0.1 dynes/cm/F
temperature increase above 70F.

14

1.6.2 WETTABILITY
Wettability can be defined as the work necessary to separate a
wetting fluid from a solid. In the subsurface we would generally
consider water the wetting fluid and the solid would be grains of
quartz in sandstone, calcite in a limestone, etc. The adhesive force or
attraction of the wetting fluid to the solid in any oil-water-rock system
is the result of the combined interfacial energy of the oil-water, oilrock, and water-rock surfaces. Wettability is generally expressed
mathematically by the contact angle of the oil-water interface against
the rock or pore wall as measured through the water phase. For rockfluid systems with contact angles between 0 and 90, the rocks are
generally considered water-wet; for contact angles greater than 90,
the rocks are considered oil-wet. Water-wet rocks would imbibe water
preferentially to oil. Oil-wet rocks or oil-wet surfaces would imbibe oil
preferentially to water. Although a contact angle of 90 has generally
been considered the break over point to an oil-wet surface, Morrow et
al (1973) stated that a contact angle of greater than 140 in dolomite
laboratory packs was necessary for oil to be imbibed. Water-laid
sedimentary rocks are generally considered to be preferentially
water-wet owing to the strong attraction of water to rock surfaces and

15

the initial exposure of pore surfaces to water rather than

hydrocarbons during sedimentation and early diagenesis. Water is
thought by many workers to be a perfect wetting fluid and a thin film
of water would coat all grain surfaces. If this is the situation, the
contact angle for oil-water-rock systems would be zero. The
wettability term in the displacement pressure equation would then be
unity, as the cosine of zero is one. If water is not a perfect wetting
fluid and the oil-water contact angle is greater than zero, the
displacement pressure should theoretically decrease for that oil-water
rock system. L. J. M. Smits (1971, personal commun.) has done
experimental work on identical size bead packs which suggests that
displacement pressures are only slightly affected by changing the oilwater-solid contact angle from 0 to 85. Similar results were obtained
by Morrow et al (1973) on displacement pressure tests in dolomite
packs with contact angles ranging from 0 to 140. These data and the
general assumption that most rocks are preferentially water-wet
suggest that the wettability term in the displacement pressure
equation can be considered unity.

16

If the rocks are partially oil-wet, then the wettability term can be
significant in reducing displacement pressure from that for the waterwet case. In the subsurface, rocks are seldom completely oil-wet but
are fractionally oil-wet, that is, some of the grain surfaces are oil-wet
and some are water-wet. According to Salathiel (1972), this would
most likely occur in reservoir rocks where oil has been trapped and
the grain surfaces in the larger pores would be exposed to the
surface-active molecules in the oil phase and form an oil film or
coating on the grain, making it preferentially oil-wet. The pore
surfaces at the smaller pores or in the corners of the larger pores that
are not saturated with oil would remain water-wet. Fatt and Klikoff
(1959) have determined that when a rock is partially oil-wet there is a
reduction in the oil-water displacement pressure for that oil-waterrock system. They suggested that the degree of fractional wettability
needed to significantly reduce displacement pressure from that for
the water-wet case is greater than 25% oil-wet grain surfaces.

17

Figure 1.3 driving forces on hydrocarbon migration wikipedea(2009)

18

CHAPTER TWO
HYDROCARBON TRAPS
2.0 HYDROCARBON TRAPS
A trap is a geologic structure or a stratigraphic feature capable
of retaining hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbon traps that result from
changes in rock type or pinch-outs, unconformities, or other
sedimentary

features

such

as

reefs

or

buildups

are

called stratigraphic traps. Hydrocarbon traps that form in geologic

structures such as folds and faults are called structural traps. Any
mixture of structural and stratigraphic elements is called a
combination trap.
2.1 STRUCTURAL TRAPS
Structural traps are created by syn-to post depositional
deformation of strata into a geometry (a structure) that permits the
accumulation of hydrocarbons in the subsurface. The resulting
structures involving the reservoir, and usually the seal intervals, are
dominated by either folds, faults, piercements, or any combination of
the foregoing. Traps formed by gently dipping strata beneath an
erosional unconformity are commonly excluded from the structural

19

category, although as sub unconformity deformation increases these

distinction becomes ambiguous. Super posed multiple deformations
may also blur the forgoing distinctions.
Subdivisions of structural traps have been proposed by many
authors based on a variety of schemes, example of these are fault
dominated traps and fold dominated traps.

2.1.1 FOLD DOMINATED TRAPS

Structural traps that are dominated by folds at the reservoir-seal
level exhibit a wide variety of geometries and are formed or modified
by a number of significantly different syn-and post depositional
deformation mechanisms. Although usually considered to result from
tectonically induced deformation the term fold is purely descriptive
and refers to curved or non planer arrangements of geologic (usually
bedding) surfaces. Therefore, folds include not only tectonically
induced phenomena but also primary depositional features, gravityinduced slumping, compaction effect etc. it is convenient to divide

20

prospect-scale folds into two categories those that are directly fault
related and those that are largely fault free.
Most fault related folds result from bending above non planar
fault surface. Crystalline basement may or may not be involved, and
strata shortening, extension, or transcurrent movements may have
occurred. Common examples are fault bend folds and fault
propagation folds in detached fold and thrust belts. Fault bend folds
are also common in extensional Terranes. Other faulted related folds
include drag fold, or fold formed by frictional forces acting across a
fault, and drape folds, those formed by flexure above a buried fault
along which there has been renewed movement. These latter folds
however are not caused by slip over a nonplanar fault surface. Also,
drape folds do not involve significant strata shortening or extension at
the reservoir level. Fault free, or lift off folds result from buckling
caused by strata shortening above a docollement, usually within a
thick or very efficient sequence of evaporates or shale. Kink bands
and chevron folds are special types of fault free folds. Other type of
fault free folds may form by bending above material that moves
vertically or horizontally by flow without significant strata shortening or
extension at the reservoir seal interval.

21

Figure 2.1: diagram illustrating fault dominated trap (Kevin.T Bibble)

22

2.1.2 FAULT DOMINATED TRAP

As already pointed out, faults can be extremely important to the
viability of a trap by providing either seals or leak points. They are
capable of acting as top, lateral, or base seals by juxtaposing
relatively permeable rock units against more permeable reservoir
units or by acting as seals surfaces due to impermeable nature of the
material along the faults. In addition, they may act as leak points by
juxtaposing of permeable units or by creation of a fracture network.
The term fault is descriptive in that it refers to a surface across which
they have been displacement without reference to the cause of that
reference

(either,

whether

it

is

tectonically,

gravitationally,

diagenetically or otherwise induced). Structural traps that are

dominated by faults at the reservoir - the seal level (the fault itself
makes the trap by sealing the reservoir without an ancillary fold) can
be divided into three categories based on the types of separation, or
slip if it is known that geologic surface exhibit across the fault. These
are normal, reverse, and strike separation or slip fault trap.

23

2.2 NORMAL FAULT

Normal traps are the most common fault dominated structural
traps. They are of two fundamentally different geometries and are
most common in two different tectonostratigraphic setting. Normal
fault involving the basement occur in areas of significant crustal
extension, such as the gulf of cuez and the North Sea, and are
characterize by tilted fault block that exhibit a zigzag map pattern.
Probably the most important trap geometry is the trap door closure at
fault intersection. Syn-and post depositional normal fault that are
detached from the basement occur in area of rapid subsidence and
sedimentation, commonly on passive continental margins, such as
the USA, gulf coast, Niger-Delta and are characterized by a listric
profile and a cuspate map pattern that is usually concave basinward.
On the downthrown side of major displacement normal fault in these
setting smaller synthetic and antithetic fault dominated trap are
typically keystone normal fault dominated traps above deep seated
salt intrusions are also common.

24

2.3 REVERSE FAULT

Reverse fault traps may be associated with detached or basement
involved thrust (No angle or high angle reverse faults.) these
structures tend not to produce pure fault dominated traps because of
attendant folding. In this position, the hanging wall moved up relative
to the foot wall, indicating reverse fault activity. The picture shows
that the central hanging wall was pushed up relative to the foot wall.
Most of the faults in the Rocky Mountains are reverse fault.

25

Figure 2.3: types of traps in which folding dominate the reservoir-seal

interval. Fault related traps include (A) fault bend (B) fault
propogation, (C) fault grab (D) fault drape. Fault free types include (E)

26

lift off, (F) chevron/king band, (G) diaper, and (H) differential
compaction
2.4 STRATIGRAPHIC TRAP
In 1936 levorsen proposed the term stratigraphic features in
which a variation in stratigraphy is the chief confining element in the
reservoir which traps the oil. The existence of such non structural trap
has been recognized atleast the late 1800. Today we would define a
stratigraphic trap as one which the requisite geometry and reservoirseals combination where formed by any variation in the stratigraphy
that is independent of structural deformation except for regional
tilting.
Many attempts have been made to classify types of
stratigraphic traps. Early efforts, while not specifically using the term
stratigraphic, lead to broad categories of traps that where close
because of varying porosity within rocks later works recognized that
considerable variability exist among such trap, and subdivision
became more numerous. A number of treatments of stratigraphic
traps provide information on different approaches to classification and
supply abundant, we generally follow Ritten-House, (1972) and divide

27

stratigraphic traps into primary and depositional stratigraphic trap,

stratigraphic traps associated with unconformities, and secondary
stratigraphic traps.

Figure 2.4: types of traps in which faulting dominate the reservoir-seal

interval. (A) Basement involved normal fault trap and trap. (B)

28

Synthetic detached listric normal fault traps (C) two types of reverse
fault traps. (D) strike-slip traps

2.4.1 PRIMARY OR DEPOSITIONAL STRATIGRAPHIC TRAP

Primary or depositional stratigraphic traps are created by
changes in contemporaneous deposition. As described here such
traps are not associated with significant unconformity two general
classes of primary stratigraphic traps can be recognized: those
formed by lateral depositional changes, such as facies changes and
depositional pinchouts, and those created by buried depositional
relief.
Facies changes may juxtapose potential reservoir rocks and
impermeable seal rocks over relatively short lateral distance in either
siliciclastic or carbonate settings. The lateral transition from reservoir
to seal is generally gradational, leading to possible non economic
segment within the reservoir. Particular care must be taken to identify
strike closure in this type of trap. Deposional pinchouts may lead to
reservoir and seal combination that can trap hydrocarbon. The

29

transition from reservoir to lateral seal may be abrupt, in contrast to

facies change traps. Strike closure is also a risk for pinchouts traps.
Both lateral facies change and depositional pinchouts traps
generally require a component of regional dip to the effective. Both
types are common elements of combination structural-stratigraphic
traps, particularly if the structure was growing during deposition of the
reservoir and seal rocks
The general second general class of primary stratigraphic
traps is associated with buried depositional relief. These traps are
equivalent to the constructive paleogeomorphic traps of Martin
(1966). Carbonate reefs provide a classic example of potential traps
associated with buried depositional relief. Reef growth with time
enhances depositional relief, and the transition from tight lagoonal
rocks to porous and permeable backreef-reef-fore reef rock may
provide a good reservoir-lateral seal combination. The relationship
between the forereef rocks and adjacent basinal deposits (potential
source rocks) can create excellent migration partway. Formation of a
top seal requires that reef growth is terminated and that the reef is
very buried beneath the trap with low permeability material. A key risk
for this type of trap is accurate prediction of porosity and permeability

30

with the reef complex. The Devonian reef fields of the western
Canada sedimentary basin are excellent example of this type of trap.
Another type of buried depositional relief is associated with some
submarine fan deposit. In such depositional settings sand- ridge
depositional lobes may be encased in shale.

Figure 2.5 primary or Deposional stratigraphic traps. (A) Traps

created by lateral changes in sedimentary rock type during
deposition. (B) traps formed by buried Deposional relief.

31

2.4.2 SECONDARY STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS

Another major category of stratigraphic traps results from
post depositional alteration of strata. Such alteration may either
create reservoir quality rocks non reservoir or create seals from
former reservoir. Although the example used is taken from a
carbonate setting, similar digenetic plugging can occur in just about
any rock type under the proper circumstances. Porosity occlusion is
not limited to only digenetic mineral cements. Asphalt, permafrost,
and gas hydrates are other possible agents that may form seals for
these types of stratigraphic traps. Unfortunately it is often difficult to
predict position of the cementation boundaries in the subsurface
before drilling, and this type of trap can be a challenging exploration
target.
The second type of secondary stratigraphic traps is
associated with porosity enhancement that improves reservoir quality
in otherwise tight sections.Dolomization of limited permeability
limestones is a good example. Dissolution of framework or material is

32

another porosity and permeability enhancement mechanism. Porosity

enhancement associated with dolomization and dissolution potentially
can

create

traps

on

its

own.

Commonly, though,

porosity

enhancement is associated with other types of traps as a modifying

element.

Figure 2.6: secondary digenetic stratigraphic traps. (A) Traps created

by post depositional up dip porosity occlusion. (B) Traps created by
post depositional porosity and permeability enhancement
2.5 COMBINATION TRAP
Many of worlds hydrocarbon traps are not simple features
but instead combine both structural and stratigraphic elements.

33

Levorsen recognized this in his 1967 classification of trap he noted

that every a complete gradation exist between structural and
stratigraphic end members and that discovered traps illustrates
almost imaginable combination of structure and stratigraphy.
Levorsen restricted the use of the term combination trap to features in
which neither the structural nor the stratigraphic element alone forms
the traps but both are essential to it. Many people now use the term
combination trap in a less rigorous way and apply it to any trap that
has both structural and stratigraphic element, regardless of whether
both are required for the trap to be viable strict adherence to the
definitions does not necessarily find hydrocarbon, both early
recognition of stratigraphic complication associated with structural
traps or structural modification of dominantly stratigraphic trap can
help eliminate exploration or development suprises. An explanation
that is commonly proposed for these observations is that reservoir
conditions are hydrodynamic rather than hydrostatic. In general, dips
of oil water contacts seldom exceed a few degrees, but higher dips
have been reported up to 10 degrees, if the dip(tilt) of the oil water
contact exceeds the trap flanks, the trap will be flushed (generally, if
trap flank dips exceed 5 degrees, there is little risk of flushing).

34

Therefore, in the evaluation of structural traps with relationship gently

dipping flanks, consideration should be given to hydrodynamic
conditions, it is important to note that tilted oil water contacts may be
related to phenomena other than hydrodynamics (e.g), variation in
reservoir

characteristics and geotectonic), and that present day

hydrodynamic condition may not reflect those in the past.

It is possible to calculate the theoretical change in trap
capacity and therefore the risk associated with trap capacity and
therefore the risk associated with trap flushing in a strongly
hydrodynamic situation. Hubbert (1953) showed that the tilt of the oil
water contact is the direction of flow is a function of the hydraulic
gradient and the densities of both hydrocarbons and water .the lower
the oil density and greater the water flow, the more easily the oil
density and greater the water flow, the more easily the oil is
displaced.

35

Figure 2.7: combination traps. (A) Intersection of a fault with an updip

depositional edge of porous and permeable section (B) folding of an
updip depositional pinchouts of reservoir section.

2.6 HYDRODYNAMIC TRAPS

Explorationists have known since about mid-century that oilwater contacts in many hydrocarbons-bearing traps are tilted. In other
cases, traps that have no static closure contain hydrocarbons, and

36

traps that do not have static closure and should reasonably contain
hydrocarbons do not. An explanation that is commonly proposed for
these observations is that reservoir conditions are hydrodynamic
rather than hydrostatic. In general, dips of oil-water contacts seldom
exceed a few degrees, but higher dips have been reported. If the dip
(tilt) of the oil water contact exceeds the dip of the trap flanks, the trap
will be flushed (generally, if trap flank dips exceeds 5 0 , there is little
risk of flushing). Therefore, in the evaluation of structural traps with
relatively gently dipping flanks, considering should be given to
hydrodynamic conditions. It is important to note that tilted oil water
contact may be related to phenomena other than hydrodynamics
(e.g., variations in reservoir characteristics and neotectonics), and
that present day hydrodynamic conditions may not reflect those in the
past. It is possible to calculate the theoretical change in trap capacity
and therefore the risk associated with trap flushing in a strongly
hydrodynamic situation. Hubbert (1953) showed that the tilt of the oil
water contact in the direction of flow is a function of the hydraulic
gradient and the densities of both hydrocarbons and water. The lower
the oil density and greater the water flow, the more easily the oil is
displaced.

37

Figure 2.8: (A) Generalized hydrostatic trap. (B) Generalized

hydrodynamic trap. (C) Hydrodynamic traps with increased water flow
or oil density. (D) Hydrodynamic trap without static closure created by
down dip water flow. (E) Same situation as in (D) but with updip water
flow. (F) Tilted oil-water contact in fold dominated trap with down dip
water movement. (G)Tilted oil-water contact in fold dominated trap
with updip water movement.

38

CHAPTER THREE
COMPONENT OF A TRAP
3.0 TWO CRITICAL COMPONENTS OF TRAP
To be a viable trap, a subsurface feature must be capable of
receiving hydrocarbons and storing them for some significant length
of time. This requires two fundamental components: a reservoir rock
in which to store the hydrocarbons, and seal (or set of seals) to keep
the hydrocarbon from migrating out of the trap. We do not consider
the presence of hydrocarbons to be critical component of a trap,
although this is certainly a requirement for economic success. The
absence of hydrocarbons may be the result of failure of other play or
prospect parameters, such as the lack of a pod of active source rock
or migration conduits, and it may have nothing to do with the ability of
an individual feature to act as a trap.
3.1 RESERVIOR
The reservoir within a trap provides the storage space for the
hydrocarbons. This requires adequate porosity within the reservoir
interval). The porosity can be primary (depositional), secondary
(digenetic), or fractures, but it must supply enough volume to

39

accommodate a significant amount of fluids. The reservoir must also

be capable of transmitting and exchanging fluids. This requires
sufficient effective permeability within the reservoir interval and also
along the migration conduit that connects the reservoir with a pod of
active source rock. Because most traps are initially water filled, the
reservoir rock must be capable exchanging fluids as the original
formation water is displaced by hydrocarbons, traps are not passive
receivers of fluids into otherwise empty space; they are focal points
of active fluid exchange.
A trap that contains only one homogenous reservoir rock is
rare. Individual reservoir commonly include lateral/or vertical variation
in porosity and permeability. Such variation can be caused either by
primary depositional processes or by secondary digenetic or
deformational effects and can lead to hydrocarbon saturation but non
productive waste zones within a trap. Variation in porosity and, more
importantly, permeability can also create transition that occurs over
some distance between the reservoir and the major seals of a trap.
This interval may contain significant amount of hydrocarbons that are
difficult to produce effectively. Such intervals should be viewed as
uneconomic parts of the reservoir and not part of the seal. Otherwise,

40

trap spill points may be mis-identified. Many traps contain several

discrete reservoir rocks with interbedded impermeable units that form
internal seals and segment hydrocarbon accumulations into separate
compartments with separate gas-oil-water contacts and different
pressure distributions.

41

Figure 3.0: common trap limitations. (A) Waste or non productive

zones in trap. (B) Multiple impermeable layers in trap creating several
individual oil-water contacts (C) Non-to poorly productive transition
zone. (D) Lateral transition from reservoir to seal. (E) Lateral
stratigraphically controlled leak point. (F) lateral leak point or thief
bed.

3.2 SEAL
The seal is equally critical component of a trap, without
effective seals, hydrocarbons will migrate out of the reservoir rock
with time and the trap will lack viability. Most effective seals for
hydrocarbon accumulations are formed by relatively thick; laterally
continuous, ductile rocks with high capillary entry pressure, but other
types of seals may be important parts of individual traps (e.g. Fault
zone material, volcanic rock, asphalt, and permafrost). All traps
require some form of top seal when the base of the top seal is convex
upward in three dimensions, the contours drawn to represent this
surface (called the sealing surface by Downey, 1984) close to map
view. If these are the case, no other seal is necessary to form an

42

adequate trap. In fact some authors have used the basic convex or
non convex geometry of sealing surface as a way of classifying traps.
Many traps are more complicated and require that, in
addition to a top seal, other effective seals must be present. Lateral
seals impede hydrocarbon movement from the sides of a trap and are
a common element of successful stratigraphic traps. Facie changes
from porous and permeable rocks to rocks with higher capillary entry
pressures can form lateral seals, as can lateral digenetic changes
from reservoir to tight rocks. Other lateral seals are created by the
juxtaposition of dissimilar rock types across erosional or depositional
boundaries. Traps in incised valley complexes commonly rely on this
type of lateral seal. Stratigraphic variability in lateral seals poses a
risk of leakage and trap limitation. Even thinly interbedded intervals of
porous and permeable rock (thief beds) in a potential lateral seal can
destroy an otherwise viable trap. Base seals are present in many
traps and most commonly stratigraphic in nature. The presence or
absence of an adequate base seal is not a general trap requirement,
but it can play an important role in deciding how a field will be
developed.

43

Faults can be important in providing seals for trap, and fault

leak is a common trap limitation. Fault can create or modify seals by
juxtaposing dissimilar rock types across the fault, by smearing or
dragging less permeable material into the fault zone, by performing a
less permeable gouge because of differential sorting and cataclasis,
or by preferential digenesis along the fault, fault induced leakage may
result from juxtaposing of porous and permeable rocks across the
fault or by formation of a fracture network along the fault itself.

Figure 3.1: diagram illustrating positions of seal in a hydrocarbon

system.

CHAPTER FOUR

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POROSITY AND PERMEABILTY

4.0 INTRODUCTION TO POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY
Hydrocarbon accumulations can occur only if all essential
elements (source rock, reservoir rock, seal rock, and overburden
rock) and processes (generation-migration-accumulation of petroleum
and trap formation) have operated adequately and in the proper
timespace framework. Absence or inadequacy of even one of the
elements or processes eliminates any chance of economic success.
Thus, sandstone reservoir parameters (reservoir size, porosity, and
permeability) are among the geologic controls that have to be
included in the consideration of risk factors for plays and prospects.
The importance of accurate pre-drill assessments, including reservoir
quality, is growing as oil and natural gas companies are increasingly
exploring deeper targets. The proportion of undeveloped, deep
reservoirs was even higher for gas fields. The trend toward greater
producing depths has not been limited to the North Sea. Anomalously
high porosities and permeabilities in deeply buried sandstones can
extend the economic basement and provide critical support for
commercial production. Four known major causes of anomalously
high porosity in sandstones are as follows: (1) grain coats and grain

45

rims (effective only in detrital-quartzrich sandstones), (2) early

emplacement of hydrocarbons, (3) shallow development of fluid
overpressure,

and

(4)

secondary

porosity.

Although

these

phenomena are generally known to geologists, misconceptions exist

regarding their occurrence and effectiveness. In this article, we
discuss quantification and predictability of anomalous porosity as the
result of the first three causes.
4.1 POROSITY
Porosity refers to the percentage of total volume of a material
that is occupied by voids or air spaces that exist between the rock
grains. The more porous a material is, the greater the amount of open
space, or voids, it contains. Stored in these voids are liquids and
gases. Porosity differs from one material to another. Unconsolidated
deposits of clay have the greatest porosities because of their
crystallographic structure; they are comprised of parallel sheets of
clay minerals. Unconsolidated deposits of sand have lower porosities
because of the nature of the sand grains to each other. Source rocks
have high porosities; the best source materials are clays & shales,
but these same materials make poor reservoir rocks. Porosity of a
rock is a measure of its ability to hold a fluid.

Mathematically,

46

porosity is the open space in a rock divided by the total rock volume
(solid + space or holes). Porosity is normally expressed as a
pecentage of the total rock which is taken up by pore space. For
example, a sandstone may have 8% porosity. This means 92 percent
is solid rock and 8 percent is open space containing oil, gas, or
water. Eight percent is about the minimum porosity that is required to
make a decent oil well, though many poorer (and often noneconomic) wells are completed with less porosity. Even though
sandstone is hard, and appears very solid, it is really very much like a
sponge (a very hard, incompressible sponge). Between the grains of
sand, enough space exists to trap fluids like oil or natural gas! The
holes in sandstone are called porosity (from the word porous). Here
is a very thin slice (thinner than a human hair) of actual sandstone as
seen through a microscope. The larger brown and yellow pieces are
grains of quartz, an extremely common mineral. Between the
grains, you can see the porosity in the rock.If you take a piece of
sandstone and pour water on it, you will see the water is absorbed
right into the rock. The water is soaked into the porosity.
The porosity is shown as black in the drawing on the right. Oil or gas
will fill these holes in the rock. Notice that the more spherical the

47

grains are, the more space or porosity is left between them. Hence,
well-rounded sandstone will have more porosity than a poorly-routed
one!

A geologist loves to encounter well-rounded sandstone,

because they hold the most oil and gas of any of the clastic rocks.
4.2 PERMEABILITY
Permeability (measured in centimeters per second) refers to
the ability of a material to transmit [fluid or gas]. The rate at which a
material will transmit a fluid or gas depends upon total porosity,
number

of

interconnections

between

voids,

and

size

of

interconnections between voids. For example, although clay has a

higher porosity than sand (clay has a greater number of voids), the
voids that make up the clay are not interconnected and therefore
cannot transmit the fluid or gas out of it. The permeability of a typical
clay in Louisiana would be 1 x 10 -7 cm/sec, or a movement of about 3
feet in 30 years. Therefore movement of a fluid or gas out of clay is
very difficult. Sand on the other hand has a typical permeability of 1 x
10-5 cm/sec, or a movement of about 300 feet in 30 years. Therefore
sand has greater permeability than clay. The permeability of a rock is
a measure of the resistance to the flow of a fluid through a rock. If it
takes a lot of pressure to squeeze fluid through a rock, that rock has

48

low permeability or low perm.

If fluid passes through the

rock easily, it has high permeability, or high perm.

Table 1.0: diagram illustrating permeability chart for typical

sediments.

Permeability

in

petroleum-producing

rocks

is

usually

expressed in units called millidarcys (one millidarcy is 1/1000 of a

darcy). Most oil and gas reservoirs produce from rocks that have ten
to several hundred millidarcys. One darcy (1000 millidarcys) is a
huge amount of permeability!

49

In the last 10 years, an increasing amount of US gas production is

coming from shale gas wells. Shale has a lot of porosity (much more
than sandstone), but extremely low permeability. That means shale
has historically been a poor producer of hydrocarbons. While gas has
been produced from shales for over a hundred years, quantities were
small. Two things have changed the situation, allowing for increased
shale gas development. These concepts have allowed petroleum
companies to artificially induce more permeability into shale gas
rocks:

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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
We have defined a trap as any geometric arrangement of
rock that permits significant accumulation of hydrocarbons in the
subsurface. We do not consider the presence of hydrocarbons in
economic accounts to be a critical element of a trap. The absence of
oil or gas in a subsurface feature can be the result of failure or
absence of other essential elements or processes of a petroleum
system and may have nothing to do with the viability of a trap.
Although we use the geometric arrangement of key elements to
define a trap, trap evaluation must include much more than just
mapping the configuration of those elements. Reservoir and seal
characteristics are so important to trap viability that their evaluation
must be an integral part of any trap study. Traps can be classified as
structural,

stratigraphic,

or

combination

trap,

in

addition,

hydrodynamic flow can modify traps and perhaps lead to hydrocarbon

accumulations where no conventional traps exist, as more and more
of the worlds hydrocarbon provinces reach mature stages of
exploration, such traps may provide some of the best opportunities
for future discoveries.

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