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Queen Elizabeth used her authority to fight with this type of religious
organisation as even she evinced masculine character traits. Her independent
leadership brought her to the conclusion that she: will have here but one
mistress and no master (Hibbert, 1990). Philip Stubbes, famous Puritan and
scholar, described his negative views of cross-dressing in Anatomy of Abuses
where he criticised those women who rebelled against his beliefs when
performing in transvestite theatre. As out by Ed. Wells (2009) the apparel was
given as a symbol characteristic, to discern betwixt sex and sex, and therefore, for
one to dress in the apparel of another sex, is to join with the same, and to
contaminate the reality of his own kind.
Cupid, the god of love, also used his authoritative power in mischievous ways.
Although his actions were not as dangerous and harmful as Neptunes was, he
still abused that authority for his own pleasure. Since he is the god of love, he
has the authority to meddle and make nymphs fall in love with Lylys heroes,
Gallathea and Phillida, who at that time were still in disguises pretending to be
boys. This gods actions were perceived as abnormal: Any love encouraged by
Cupid, though, is exposed as false and unnatural in this play whereas in
contrast the love between Phillida and Gallathea is spontaneous, and in the
respect natural (G.V. Stanivukovic, 2001). As Dooley argues here, love cannot
be forced on anyone, it has to be spontaneous, and otherwise it is not a real
feeling. Here Dooley mentions that authority is also used in making people fall
in love, where cupid is using authoritative power in playful ways (Shakespeare
& Cymbeline, 2005).
Additionally, in Lylys play two fathers, Tyterus and Mellebeus, separately forced
their daughters Gallathea and Phyllida to disguise themselves as men and hide
in the green world to avoid being kidnapped by Agar. According to Phyllidas
father, gender change is something that can be learned and definitely,
something that one can get used to: Fear not Phyllida. Use will make it easy,
fear must make it necessary. (Ed. Bond, 1902: p.436, ln.22-23) Not only did
both fathers act against their daughters will, but they also transgressed, flouted,
and disobeyed the higher authority, Neptune. Gallathea is willing to adhere to
rules imposed by Neptune but also recognises her obligation to father as an
authoritative figure of the household (Orgel & Keilen, 2005).
The heroes gateway to love was difficult. In order to escape their brutal destiny,
both Gallathea and Phyllida were forced to cross-dress. Under male disguises,
not knowing the others true gender, they have been discovering and learning
from one another what it means to be a male. This play shows how in the course
of time their feelings for each other turned into love. Gallathea is the first
Renaissance play that explores lesbian relationships, which again was a taboo
topic and deeply forbidden in Protestant England. Again as with Shakespeares
As You Like It cross- dressing was negatively discussed and criticised especially by
Puritans who sought simplicity in the churches, and furthermore fought to ban
these theatrical performances that were exploring and discovering gender
changes (Love, 2003).
As per Babington, Noegeorgu and Googe, (1879) Philip Stubbes argued that
the women also there have dublets and Jerkins, and though this be a kind
of attire appropriate only to man, yet they blush not to wear it. As if they
could as well change their sex, & put on the kind of man, as they can wear
apparel assigned only to man, it is thought they would as verily become
men indeed. Therefore, these Women may not improperly be called
Hermaphroditi that is, Monsters of both kinds, half women, half men.
Men who dressed up as women and vice-versa were perceived as monsters that
set their faces against authority. What is interesting is the fact that in Lylys and
Shakespeares time women were not allowed on the theatrical stage which brings
up the further issue of the tangled gender plots on the stage such as women
pretending to be a men were actually men, and men pretending to be women
were also men. Grace Tiffany (1995) in Erotic Beasts and Social Monsters argued
that cross-dressing explodes gender categories by illuminating stereotypically
male behaviour as fictive role-play, performable by either sex. Although this
statement was directed specifically to Rosalind in As You Like It, it can also apply to
Gallathea, where both heroines were successfully able to play the role of, and
transform into, male characters.
Furthermore, in the same way as in Shakespeares play, the cross -dressing was
only possible on stage, where the actors and audience could benefit from the
green worlds freedom. Critics have re-imagined the cross-dressing concept on
Elizabethan stage as it is a phenomena which is always inside the patriarchal
systems; either particular instance of cross-dressing are understood as
transgressive or reaffirming patriarchal power which however becomes
inevitable described only in respect to patriarchy (Jean Howard, 2000).
This play not only touched upon the cross-dressing controversy but also
that of homosexual love. Its plot tangles together both sexual
inquisitiveness and gender identity. Lyly makes a clear statement in the
play that homosexual love is forbidden: I would not wish to be a woman
unless it was because thou art a man (Ed. Bond, 1902: p.449, ln.7-8).
Although this homosexual couple was destined to fail, by the end of the
play the goddess Venus suggests the alternative solution of
metamorphosis. She advised that their relationship could be saved if one
of them is changed into a man. Interestingly, Venuss matriarchal authority
wins over the patriarchal tyranny of both fathers who disagreed with
goddess decision.
References
A. Sinfield, 2006. Shakespeare, Authority, Sexuality: Unfinished Business in Cultural Materialism. 1st
ed. Routledge: Oxon.
Archer, I., 2006. The Pursuit of Stability: social relations in Elizabethan. London: Cambridge.
Babington, G..N. & Googe, B., 1879. Phillip Stubbes's Anatomy of the Abuses in England in
Shakspere's Youth. 1st ed. England: New Shakespere society.
Bate J., R.E., 2010. William Shakespeare As You Like It. 1st ed. England: Macmillan Publishers LTD.
Dekker, R.M. & Pol., L.C.V.d., 2002. The Tradition of Female Transvestitism in Early Modern Europe.
New York: St. Martins Press.
Dusinberre, J., 2005. Shakespeare and the Nature of Women. 2nd ed. New York: St. Martins Press.
Finley, G., 2003. Puritan; past, present, and future. [Online] Available at:
http://endtimepilgrim.org/puritans.htm.
Frye, N., 1957. Anatomy of criticism: Four essays. NJ: Princeton University Press.
G.V. Stanivukovic, 2001. Ovid and the Renaissance Body. 1st ed. Canada: University of Toronto Press
Incorporated.
Gosson, S., 2000. Against Poets and Pipers: from The School of Abuse.
Herrman, M., 1995. Time as a Tool of Patriarchal Oppression in As You Like It. [Online] Available at:
http://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? article=1061&context=rev.
References
Hibbert, C., 1990. The Virgin Queen: A Personal History of Elizabeth. 1st ed. USA: Viking Penguin.
Hooks, B., 2007. Understanding Patriarchy. Louisville Anarchist Federation.
Jean Howard, 2000. The Stage and Social Struggle in Early Modern England. New York: Routledge.
Locklear, S., 2014. As You like It. [Online] Available at: http://www.enotes.com/topics/as-you-likeit/teacher-resources.
Love, M., 2003. Puritan. [Online] Available at: Available at:
http://www.pbs.org/shakespeare/glossary/glossary274.html.
Lyly, J..&.B.R.W., 1902. The complete works of john lyly. Oxford U.P.
Montrose, L.A., 2006. Purpose of Playing: Shakespeare and the cultural politics of the Elizabethan
theatre. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Morrissin, M., 1996. As You like It (MaxNotes). 1st ed. USA: Research and Education Association.
Orgel, S. & Keilen, S., 2005. Shakespeare and Gender. New York: Garland.
Oxford Dictionaries Language Matters, 2014. Authority. [Online] Available at:
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/authority
Shakespeare, W..B.J..R.E. & Company, R.S., 2007. The RSC shakespeare: The complete works.
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Shakespeare, W. & Cymbeline, 2005. As you like it. Washington Square Press.
Tiffany, G., 1995. Erotic Beasts and Social Monsters: Shakespeare, Jonson, and Comic Androgyny.
England: University of Delaware Press.
Wells, R.H., 2009. Shakespeare's politics: A contextual introduction. London: Continuum.
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