Unmanned Robotic Ground Vehicle by Using ZIG-BEE and GPS: M.Tech - EMBEDDED SYSTEMS-KEC-11F41D5512

Unmanned Robotic Ground Vehicle by using ZIG-BEE and GPS
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
M.Tech EMBEDDED SYSTEMS-KEC-11F41D5512
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1.1 INTRODUCTION
Terrorism, the new face of nations fate has exceeded its own state of action. Its time to uproot
terrorism instead to face it and to dedicate the brave hearts to the nation. With the advent growth
in the field of Robotics in todays scenario is tremendous especially in the areas of nations
security is concerned .As terrorism increasing day by day, its duty of engineers to curb it
through innovation. Since robots become more advanced and sophisticated it can be used to
perform the desired tasks where men cannot be in a state to carry out his tasks. With automation
and application of electronics in the field of robotics ensures safety for individuals and desired
task can be achieved This project set sights on devising and demonstrating an archetype of one
guided weapon system which considerably reduces the people substantially present in the streaks
of fire. The objective of our work is to devastate the terror activities. In this project, the
methodology adopted to achieve our objective is to build a self-powered vehicle with selfnavigating design; sensing obstacle in the navigation path of the vehicle; to turn ON the wireless
camera once the vehicle movement is detected; to transmit the real time video signals to control
room and to trigger the weapon if necessary.
Most of the military organization now takes the help of robots to carry out many risky jobs that
cant be done the soldier.ARV robots are more like tanks. In fact they are less like soldiers. These
military robots are mainly used as support for manned vehicle missions. The commander of a
tank squadron can use these robots without the need for more soldiers. The history of military
robots during the time of World War II these robots were in the form of German Goliath tracked
and Soviet teletanks. The history begins with the invention of radio controlled boat intended for
military use by Nicola Tesla. Smart controlled robotic vehicles like QinetiQs MAARS are armed
with weapons to shoot insurgents;
The development of Unmanned Robotic Ground Vehicle was divided into three phrases. In first
phrase, the vehicle module was instrumented. In second phrase, the computer control module
was instrumented. In third phrase, a display unit is set up in the control room.
By employing GPS and ZIG-BEE technology, we can navigate the robotic ground vehicle from
control room to exercise some defense operations, a place where man power cannot handle.
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CHAPTER 2
BLOCK DIAGRAM
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2.1. VEHICLE MODULE
2.2. CONTROL MODULE
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Fig 2.1.Vehicle module.
Fig 2.2. Control room module
CHAPTER 3
BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION
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3. BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

3.1OVERVIEW
Latitude and Longitude data of the vehicle is transmitted to control room to indicate present
location of vehicle. Webcam will be monitoring the considering places. Transmit the real-time
video signals to control room. Navigate the vehicle towards the desired location. Location of the
vehicle is updated while navigation. Check for obstacle in the path of vehicle. If obstacle
detected intimate the control room and take alternative path else navigate in the prescribed path.
Intimate the control room when the vehicle reached the target location. If desired send
commands to fire up using barrel turrets.
The development of Unmanned Robotic Ground Vehicle was divided into three phrases. In first
phrase, the vehicle module was instrumented. In second phrase, the computer control module
was instrumented. In third phrase, a display unit is set up in the control room.
3.2VEHICLE MODULE
In the vehicle module section, the microcontroller ARM7 is the heart of the entire design. Its
features includes 32-bit, 0-MHz, 32-bit ARM7TDMI-S with AHB/APB interfaces. And Very fast
Flash programming via on-chip boot-loader software with Temperature range: -40 to +85 C.
These powerful yet cost-effective microcontrollers have up to 512 KB of ISP/IAP Flash and up
to32 KB of SRAM. Each has up to two 10-bit A/D converters, two I2C-bus interfaces, and Fast
I/o operations. Wide operating voltage range (2.0V to 5.5V).The GPS Receiver GMO-101
features include Full implementation of ultra-high performance Si RF star III single chip
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architecture. High tracking sensitivity of -159dBm; Low power consumption of 45mA at full
tracking (for USB interface); Small size of 36(W)x42(L)x15(H) (mm) with patch antenna of
25x25x4mm.;Built-in backup battery for hot/warm starts and better performance; Firmware
upgradeable for future potential performance enhancements and Flexible connector interface and
cable length.
The PIR sensor features includes Detection range up to 20 feet away; Single bit output; Jumper
selects single or continuous trigger output mode; 3-pin SIP header ready for breadboard or
through hole project; Small size makes it easy to conceal; Compatible with BASIC Stamp,
Propeller, and many other microcontrollers. The sensor in a motion detector is actually split in
two halves. The reason for that is that we are looking to detect motion (change) not average IR
levels. The two halves are wired up so that they cancel each other out. If one half sees more or
less IR radiation than the other, the output will swing high or low. The PIR sensor itself has two
slots in it; each slot is made of a special material that is sensitive to IR. The lens used here is not
really doing much and so we see that the two slots can 'see' out past some distance (basically the
sensitivity of the sensor). When the sensor is idle, both slots detect the same amount of IR, the
ambient amount radiated from the room or walls or outdoors.
3.3CONTROL MODULE
The computer control module circuit diagram is shown below. The AC source is used, which is
fed to the transformer. From the transformer the AC voltage is fed to a rectifier circuit consisting
of one or more diodes. The rectifier converts AC voltage to DC voltage. This DC is not steady as
from a battery. The regulator circuit is used to give out a very steady voltage. The MAX232 is
used which is an integrated circuit that converts signals from an RS-232 serial port to signals
suitable for use in TTL compatible digital logic circuits. To interface the hardware module to the
computer, the RS232 port on the computer is used. The Zig-Bee transceiver with the following
specifications is used, Indoor/Urban: up to 100 (30 m); Outdoor line-of-sight: up to 300 (100
m); Transmit Power: 1mW (0 dBm); Receiver Sensitivity: -92 dBm; TX Current: 45 mA (@3.3
V); RX Current: 50 mA (@3.3 V); Power-down Current: < 10 A.
The commands for the action on the robotic vehicle to be performed are sent only from the
control room. The control room module has a Zig-Bee transceiver which transmits the command
window input to the vehicle. The command window is programmed by means of using Visual
Basic 6.0 software. As the vehicle power supply is turned on the GPS location of the vehicle is
shown in command window in terms of Latitude and Longitude. The command window is
programmed in a way to show the GPS location of the vehicle even while navigation. The
latitude can be incremented or decremented by clicking on the respective icons on the command
window. Similarly, the longitude can also be incremented or decremented by clicking on the
icons on the command window for the respective navigation of the vehicle. As the desired
location of the vehicle is reached, the message DESTINATION REACHED is popped up on the
command window. If any kind of obstacle or intruder is been detected the vehicle intimates the
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control room with message OBSTACLE DETECTED with the location of obstacle in terms of
latitude and longitude. A receiver is kept on the control room to receive the video signals which
is been transmitted from the wireless camera mounted on the vehicle. The receiver is connected
to a display unit to view the real time video captured by the vehicle camera.
The IR LED proximity sensor is used in the system for the detection obstacle on the path of
navigation. The Infrared proximity sensors work by sending out a beam of IR light, and then
computing the distance to any nearby objects from characteristics of the returned (reflected)
signal which is received by another IR LED.
The Zig-Bee transceiver is placed on the vehicle this receives all the commands given from the
control room. 802.15.4 is a packet-based radio protocol. It addresses the communication needs of
wireless applications that have low data rates and low power consumption requirements. It is the
foundation on which Zig-Bee is built. The heart of this vehicle is microcontroller ARM7 Two
microcontrollers, IC2 is first microcontroller which acts as master controller which decodes all
the commands received from the transmitter and give commands to slave microcontroller1 IC3
and slave2 IC5.
CHAPTER 4
OVERVIEW OF TECHNOLOGIES
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4. OVERVIEW OF TECHNOLOGIES
4.1. INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
An embedded system is some combination of computer hardware and software, either
fixed in capability or programmable, that is specifically designed for a particular function.
A general-purpose definition of embedded systems is that they are devices used to
control, monitor or assist the operation of equipment, machinery or plant. "Embedded" reflects
the fact that they are an integral part of the system. In many cases their embedded may be such
that their presence is far from obvious to the casual observer and even the more technically
skilled might need to examine the operation of a piece of equipment for some time before being
able to conclude that an embedded control system was involved in its functioning. At the other
extreme a general-purpose computer may be used to control the operation of a large complex
processing plant, and its presence will be obvious. All embedded systems are including
computers or microprocessors. Some of these computers are however very simple systems as
compared with a personal computer.
The very simplest embedded systems are capable of performing only a single function or
set of functions to meet a single predetermined purpose. In more complex systems an application
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program that enables the embedded system to be used for a particular purpose in a specific
application determines the functioning of the embedded system. The ability to have programs
means that the same embedded system can be used for a variety of different purposes. In some
cases a microprocessor may be designed in such a way that application software for a particular
purpose can be added to the basic software in a second process, after which it is not possible to
make further changes.
The simplest devices consist of a single microprocessor (often called a "chip), which
may itself be packaged with other chips in a hybrid system or Application Specific Integrated
Circuit (ASIC). Its input comes from a detector or sensor and its output goes to a switch or
activator which (for example) may start or stop the operation of a machine or, by operating a
valve, may control the flow of fuel to an engines.
4.1.1. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

The embedded system is the combination of both software and hardware.
Embedded
System
Software
ALP
C
VB
Etc.,
Hardware
Processor
Peripherals
memory
Fig4.1.1: Block diagram of Embedded System

Software deals with the languages like ALP, C, and VB etc. Hardware deals with Processors,
Peripherals, and Memory.
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Memory
It is used to store data or address.
Peripherals
These are the external devices connected
Processor
It is an IC which is used to perform some task
A general-purpose definition of embedded systems is that they are devices used to control,
monitor or assist the operation of equipment, machinery or plant. "Embedded" reflects the fact
that they are an integral part of the system. In many cases their embedded may be such that their
presence is far from obvious to the casual observer and even the more technically skilled might
need to examine the operation of a piece of equipment for some time before being able to
conclude that an embedded control system was involved in its functioning.
Processors are classified into four types like:
1. Micro Processor (p)
2. Micro controller (c)
3. Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
4. Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC)
4.1.2 Micro Processor (p):

It is an electronic chip which performs arithmetic and logical operations
with assistance of internal memory.
ALU
CU
MEMORY
Fig 4.1.2: Block Diagram of Micro Processor (p)
4.1.3 Micro Controller (c):

It is a highly integrated micro processor designed for specific use in embedded systems.
All embedded systems are including computers or microprocessors. Some of these computers are
however very simple systems as compared with a personal computer. The very simplest
embedded systems are capable of performing only a single function or set of functions to meet a
single predetermined purpose. In more complex systems an application program that enables the
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embedded system to be used for a particular purpose in a specific application determines the
functioning of the embedded system.
CPU
CPU
MEMORY
MEMORY
INPUT/OUTPUT
PORTS
I/O PORTS
Fig 4.1.3: Block Diagram of Micro Controller (c)
4.1.4. Micro Controller versus Micro Processor

What is the difference between a Microprocessor and Microcontroller? By microprocessor is
meant the general purpose Microprocessors such as Intel's X86 family (8086, 80286, 80386,
80486, and the Pentium) or Motorola's 680X0 family (68000, 68010, 68020, 68030, 68040, etc).
These microprocessors contain no RAM, no ROM, and no I/O ports on the chip itself. For this
reason, they are commonly referred to as general-purpose Microprocessors.
A system designer using a general-purpose microprocessor such as the Pentium or the 68040
must add RAM, ROM, I/O ports, and timers externally to make them functional. Although the
addition of external RAM, ROM, and I/O ports makes these systems bulkier and much more
expensive, they have the advantage of versatility such that the designer can decide on the amount
of RAM, ROM and I/O ports needed to fit the task at hand. This is not the case with
Microcontrollers.
A Microcontroller has a CPU (a microprocessor) in addition to a fixed amount of RAM, ROM,
I/O ports, and a timer all on a single chip. In other words, the processor, the RAM, ROM, I/O
ports and the timer are all embedded together on one chip; therefore, the designer cannot add any
external memory, I/O ports, or timer to it. The fixed amount of on-chip ROM, RAM, and number
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of I/O ports in Microcontrollers makes them ideal for many applications in which cost and space
are critical.
In many applications, for example a TV remote control, there is no need for the computing
power of a 486 or even an 8086 microprocessor. These applications most often require some I/O
operations to read signals and turn on and off certain bits.
4.1.5. Micro Controller for Embedded Systems

In the Literature discussing microprocessors, we often see the term Embedded System.
Microprocessors and Microcontrollers are widely used in embedded system products. An
embedded system product uses a microprocessor (or Microcontroller) to do one task only. A
printer is an example of embedded system since the processor inside it performs one task only;
namely getting the data and printing it. Contrast this with a Pentium based PC. A PC can be used
for any number of applications such as word processor, print-server, bank teller terminal, Video
game, network server, or Internet terminal.
Software for a variety of applications can be loaded and run. Of course the reason a pc
can perform myriad tasks is that it has RAM memory and an operating system that loads the
application software into RAM memory and lets the CPU run it.
In an Embedded system, there is only one application software that is typically burned
into ROM. An x86 PC contains or is connected to various embedded products such as keyboard,
printer, modem, disk controller, sound card, CD-ROM drives, mouse, and so on. Each one of
these peripherals has a Microcontroller inside it that performs only one task. For example, inside
every mouse there is a Microcontroller to perform the task of finding the mouse position and
sending it to the PC. Table 1-1 lists some embedded products.
4.1.6 Applications of embedded system:
Manufacturing and process control
Construction industry
Transport
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Buildings and premises
Domestic service
Communications
Office systems and mobile equipment
Banking, finance and commercial
Medical diagnostics, monitoring and life support
Testing, monitoring and diagnostic systems
4.1.7 Industrial functions of embedded systems:

A manufacturing company has provided the following list of embedded systems
Multi-loop control
:Panel mounted devices: Safety and security
:Field devices
:Analytical systems
:Electrical supply
:Tools
:-
DCS, SCADA, telemetry

Control, display, recording and operations
Alarm and trip systems, fire and gas systems, building security.
Measurement, actuation
Laboratory systems; on-line/ plant systems
Supply, measurement, control, protection
For design, documentation, testing, maintenance
4.1.8 Electronics applications and consumer devices:

As the number of powerful embedded processors in consumer devices continues to rise, the
Blue Cat Linux operating system provides a highly reliable and royalty-free option for
systems designers.
And as the wireless appliance revolution rolls on, web-enabled navigation systems, radios,
personal communication devices, phones and PDAs all benefit from the cost-effective
dependability, proven stability and full product life-cycle support opportunities associated with
Blue Cat embedded Linux. Blue Cat has teamed up with industry leaders to make it easier to
build Linux mobile phones with Java integration.
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For makers of low-cost consumer electronic devices who wish to integrate the LynxOS realtime operating system into their products, we offer special MSRP-based pricing to reduce royalty
fees to a negligible portion of the device's MSRP.
4.1.9 Military and Aerospace software applications

A general-purpose definition of embedded systems is that they are devices used to control,
monitor or assist the operation of equipment, machinery or plant. "Embedded" reflects the fact
that they are an integral part of the system.
From in-orbit embedded systems to jumbo jets to vital battlefield networks, designers of
mission-critical aerospace and defense systems requiring real-time performance, scalability, and
high-availability facilities consistently turn to the Linux OS RTOS and the LynxOS-178 RTOS
for software certification to DO-178B.Rich in system resources and networking services, Lynx
OS provides an off-the-shelf software platform with hard real-time response backed by powerful
distributed computing (CORBA), high reliability, software certification, and long-term support
options.
The LynxOS-178 RTOS for software certification, based on the RTCA DO-178B standard,
assists developers in gaining certification for their mission- and safety-critical systems. Real-time
systems programmers get a boost with Linux Works' DO-178B RTOS training courses.
4.2 ZIG-BEE
Zig-Bee used for wireless communication, we can transmit data by using Zig-Bee transmitter
and the data transmitted is received by the Zig-Bee receiver at the receiver end. In our project the
data is transmitted from Zig-Bee transmitter and it is received by receiver module which is
placed in far distance also. The minimum distance that a Zig-Bee can cover is 100mts to 1000mts
(1km).The main advantage of Zig-Bee technology is the data can be transmitted and received
without any signals.
Zig-Bee-style networks began to be conceived around 1998, when many installers realized
that both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth were going to be unsuitable for many applications. In particular,
many engineers saw a need for self-organizing ad-hoc digital radio networks.
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Zig-Bee operates in the industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands; 868 MHz in
Europe, 915 MHz in the USA and Australia and 2.4 GHz in most jurisdictions worldwide. Data
transmission rates vary from 20 kilobits/second in the 868 MHz frequency band to 250
kilobits/second in the 2.4GHz frequency band.
4.3 Global Positioning System

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that sends and
receives radio signals. A GPS receiver acquires these signals and provides you with information.
Using GPS technology, you can determine location, velocity, and time, 24 hours a day, in any
weather conditions anywhere in the worldfor free.GPS, formally known as the NAVSTAR
(Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging). Global Positioning System originally was developed
for the military. Because of its popular navigation capabilities and because you can access GPS
technology using small, inexpensive equipment, the government made the system available for
civilian use. The USA owns GPS technology and the Department of Defense maintains it. At least
24 GPS satellites orbit the earth twice a day in a specific pattern. They travel at approximately
7,000 miles per hour about 12,000 miles above the earths surface. These satellites are spaced so
that a GPS receiver anywhere in the world can receive signals from at least four of them. The
signals can pass through clouds, glass, and plastic. Most solid objects such as buildings attenuate
(decrease the power of) the signals. The signals cannot pass through objects that contain a lot of
metal or objects that contain water (such as underwater locations).
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CHAPTER 5
HARD WARE COMPONENTS
5. HARD WARE COMPONENTS

5.1 ARM7 LPC 2148:
ARM processors are RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computation) Processor. ARM was
formed in 1990 as Advanced RISC Machines Ltd., a joint venture between Acron, Apple and
VLSI between Acron, Apple and VLSI in November 1990. In 1991, ARM introduced the ARM6
processor family, and VLSI became the initial licensee. Arm is the industrys leading provider of
16/32 bit embedded RISC microprocessor solutions. ARM provides comprehensive support
required in developing a complete system. ARM processors can be used in any domain. Mainly
ARM processors are used in handheld devices, robotics, automation, and consumer electronics.
But ARM processors are available for almost every domain.
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ARM designs microprocessor technology that lies at the heart of advanced digital
products, from mobile phones and digital cameras to games consoles and automotive systems,
and is leading intellectual property (IP) provider of high-performance, low-cost, power-efficient
RISC processors, peripherals, and system-on-chip (SoC) designs through involvement with
organizations such as the Virtual Socket Interface Alliance (VSIA) and Virtual Component
Exchange (VCX). ARM also offers design and software consulting services.
The ARM architecture processors popular in Mobile phone systems popular in Mobile
phone systems.ARM provides the advantage of using a CISC in terms of functionality, along
with the advantage of an RISC in terms of faster program implementation as well as reduced
code lengths. ARM's architecture is compatible with all four major platform operating systems:
1. Symbian OS
2. Palm OS
3. Windows CE
4. Linux
ARM is the industry standard embedded microprocessor architecture, and is a leader in
low-power high performance cores.
5.1.1 ARM7 LPC2148 Microcontroller:

The LPC2148 microcontrollers are based on a 16-bit/32-bit ARM7TDMI-S CPU with
real-time emulation and embedded trace support, that combine microcontroller with embedded
high speed flash memory of 512 kB. A 128-bit wide memory interface and unique accelerator
architecture enable 32-bit code execution at the maximum clock rate. For critical code size
applications, the alternative 16-bit Thumb mode reduces code by more than 30 % with minimal
performance penalty. Due to their tiny size and low power consumption, LPC2148 are ideal for
applications where miniaturization is a key requirement, such as access control and point-of-sale.
Serial communications interfaces ranging from a USB 2.0 Full-speed device, multiple UARTs,
SPI, SSP to I2C-bus and on-chip SRAM of 32 kB, make these devices very well suited for
communication gateways and protocol converters, soft modems, voice recognition and low end
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imaging, providing both large buffer size and high processing power. Various 32-bit timers,
single or dual 10-bit ADC(s), 10-bit DAC, PWM channels and 45 fast GPIO lines with up to nine
edge or level sensitive external interrupt pins make these microcontrollers suitable for industrial
control and medical systems.
5.1.2 Features:
ARM7TDMI-S based high-performance 32-bit RISC Microcontroller with Thumb
extensions, 16-bit/32-bit ARM7TDMI-S microcontroller in a tiny LQFP64 package.

512KB on-chip Flash ROM with In-System Programming (ISP) and In-Application
Programming (IAP), 32KB RAM.

Vectored Interrupt Controller,
Two 10bit ADCs with 14 channels.
USB 2.0 Full Speed Device Controller.
Two UARTs, one with full modem interface.
Two I2C serial interfaces,
Two SPI serial interfaces
Two 32-bit timers,
Watchdog Timer,
PWM unit,
Real Time Clock with optional battery backup,
Brown out detect circuit
General purpose I/O pins.
CPU clock up to 60 MHz,
On-chip crystal oscillator and On-chip PLL
5.1.3 Architecture:
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Fig 5.1.3: ARM7 Architecture
5.1.4 Architectural Overview:

The ARM7TDMI-S is a general purpose 32-bit microprocessor, which offers high
performance and very low power consumption. The ARM architecture is based on Reduced
Instruction Set Computer (RISC) principles, and the instruction set and related decode
mechanism are much simpler than those of micro programmed Complex Instruction Set
Computers (CISC). This simplicity results in a high instruction throughput and impressive realtime interrupt response from a small and cost-effective processor core. Pipeline techniques are
employed so that all parts of the processing and memory systems can operate continuously.
Typically, while one instruction is being executed, its successor is being decoded, and a third
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instruction is being fetched from memory. The ARM7TDMI-S processor also employs a unique
architectural strategy known as Thumb, which makes it ideally suited to high-volume
applications with memory restrictions, or applications where code density is an issue. The key
idea behind Thumb is that of a super-reduced instruction set. Essentially, the ARM7TDMI-S
processor has two instruction sets:
The standard 32-bit ARM set.

A 16-bit Thumb set.
The Thumb sets 16-bit instruction length allows it to approach twice the density of
standard ARM code while retaining most of the ARMs performance advantage over a traditional
16-bit processor using 16-bit registers. This is possible because Thumb code operates on the
same 32-bit register set as ARM code. Thumb code is able to provide up to 65 % of the code size
of ARM, and 160 % of the performance of an equivalent ARM processor connected to a 16-bit
memory system. The particular flash implementation in the LPC2141/42/44/46/48 allows for full
speed execution also in ARM mode. It is recommended to program performance critical and
short code sections (such as interrupt service routines and DSP algorithms) in ARM mode. The
impact on the overall code size will be minimal but the speed can be increased by 30% over
Thumb mode. The VPB interface provides a communications link between the CPU or host and
the UART0.The UART0 receiver block, U0RX, monitors the serial input line, RXD0, for valid
input. TheUART0 RX Shift Register (U0RSR) accepts valid characters via RXD0. After a valid
character is assembled in the U0RSR, it is passed to the UART0 RX Buffer Register FIFO to
await access by the CPU or host via the generic host interface.
5.1.5 Types of Memory:

They are two types of memory that is
1) On-chip flash program memory.
2) On-chip static RAM.
5.1.5.1 On-Chip Flash Program Memory:

The LPC2141/2/4/6/8 incorporates a 32 kB, 64 kB, 128 kB, 256 kB, and 512 kB Flash
memory system, respectively. This memory may be used for both code and data storage.
Programming of the Flash memory may be accomplished in several ways: over the serial built-in
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JTAG interface, using In System Programming (ISP) and UART0, or by means of In Application
Programming (IAP) capabilities. The application program, using the IAP functions, may also
erase and/or program the Flash while the application is running, allowing a great degree of
flexibility for data storage field firmware upgrades, etc. When the LPC2141/2/4/6/8 on-chip boot
loader is used, 32 kB, 64 kB, 128 kB, 256 kB, and 500 kB of Flash memory is available for user
code. The LPC2141/2/4/6/8 Flash memory provides minimum of 100,000 erase/write cycles and
20 years of data-retention.
5.1.5.2 On-Chip Static RAM:

On-chip Static RAM (SRAM) may be used for code and/or data storage. The on-chip
SRAM may be accessed as 8-bits, 16-bits, and 32-bits. The LPC2141/2/4/6/8 provide 8/16/32 kB
of static RAM, respectively. The LPC2141/2/4/6/8 SRAM is designed to be accessed as a byteaddressed memory. Word and half word accesses to the memory ignore the alignment of the
address and access the naturally-aligned value that is addressed (so a memory access ignores
address bits 0 and 1 for word accesses, and ignores bit 0 for half word accesses).
Therefore valid reads and writes require data accessed as half words to originate from
addresses with address line 0 being 0 (addresses ending with 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, A, C, and E in
hexadecimal notation) and data accessed as words to originate from addresses with address lines
0 and 1 being 0 (addresses ending with 0, 4, 8, and C in hexadecimal notation). This rule applies
to both off and on-chip memory usage.
The SRAM controller incorporates a write-back buffer in order to prevent CPU stalls
during back-to-back writes. The write-back buffer always holds the last data sent by software to
the SRAM. This data is only written to the SRAM when another write is requested by software
(the data is only written to the SRAM when software does another write). If a chip reset occurs,
actual SRAM contents will not reflect the most recent write request (i.e. after a "warm" chip
reset, the SRAM does not reflect the last write operation).
Any software that checks SRAM contents after reset must take this into account. Two
identical writes to a location guarantee that the data will be present after a Reset. Alternatively, a
dummy write operation before entering idle or power-down mode will similarly guarantee that
the last data written will be present in SRAM after a subsequent Reset.
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5.1.6 Memory Map:

The LPC2141/2/4/6/8 incorporates several distinct memory regions, shown in the
following figures. In addition, the CPU interrupt vectors may be remapped to allow them to
reside in either flash memory (the default) or on-chip static RAM.
A general-purpose definition of embedded systems is that they are devices used to
control, monitor or assist the operation of equipment, machinery or plant. "Embedded" reflects
the fact that they are an integral part of the system.
There are two 32-bit timers (each with four capture and compare channels), a PWM unit with six
outputs, a real-time clock, and a Watchdog timer. For debugging, each device supports real-time
emulation and embedded trace support and has an integrated vectored interrupt controller (VIC).
Also, for compatibility with existing tools, each device uses the standard ARM test/debug JTAG
interface. The LPC214XX versions have seven Fast I/O pins (5-V tolerant) with switching up to
15 MHz for all the devices, the operating temperature range is -40 to 85 C.
Third-Party Development Tools
Through third-party suppliers, we offer a range of development tools for our microcontrollers.
The NXP microcontroller family LPC214x uses a high-performance 32-bit ARM7 core that
operates at up to 60 MHz.Each device has up to 512 KB of on-chip Flash and up to 32 KB of onchip SRAM memory.
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Table 5.1.6: Memory map

Table 5.1.6 shows different views of the peripheral address space. Both the AHB and
APB peripheral areas are 2 megabyte spaces which are divided up into 128 peripherals. Each
peripheral space is 16 kilobytes in size. This allows simplifying the address decoding for each
peripheral. All peripheral register addresses are word aligned (to 32-bit boundaries) regardless of
their size. This eliminates the need for byte lane mapping hardware that would be required to
allow byte (8-bit) or half-word (16-bit) accesses to occur at smaller boundaries. An implication
of this is that word and half-word registers must be accessed all at once.
5.1.7 Interrupt controller:

The Vectored Interrupt Controller (VIC) accepts all of the interrupt request inputs and
categorizes them as:
Fast Interrupt Request (FIQ)

Vectored Interrupt Request (IRQ)
Non-vectored IRQ
Page 24
5.1.7.1 Fast Interrupt Request (FIQ):

Fast interrupt request (FIQ) has the highest priority. If more than one request is assigned
to FIQ, the VIC combines the requests to produce the FIQ signal to the ARM processor. The
fastest possible FIQ latency is achieved when only one request is classified as FIQ, because then
the FIQ service routine does not need to branch into the interrupt service routine but can run
from the interrupt vector location. If more than one request is assigned to the FIQ class, the FIQ
service routine will read a word from the VIC that identifies which FIQ source(s) is (are)
requesting an interrupt.
5.1.7.2 Vectored Interrupt Request (IRQ):

Vectored IRQs have the middle priority. Sixteen of the interrupt requests can be assigned
to this category. Any of the interrupt requests can be assigned to any of the 16 vectored IRQ
slots, among which slot 0 has the highest priority and slot 15 has the lowest.
5.1.7.3 Vectored Interrupt Request:

Non vectored IRQs have the lowest priority. The VIC combines the requests from all the
vectored and non-vectored IRQs to produce the IRQ signal to the ARM processor. The IRQ
service routine can start by reading a register from the VIC and jumping there. If any of the
vectored IRQs are pending, the VIC provides the address of the highest-priority requesting IRQs
service routine, otherwise it provides the address of a default routine that is shared by all the nonvectored IRQs. The default routine can read another VIC register to see what IRQs are active.
5.1.7.4 Interrupt Sources:

Each peripheral device has one interrupt line connected to the Vectored Interrupt
Controller, but may have several internal interrupt flags. Individual interrupt flags may also
represent more than one interrupt source.
5.1.8 Pin Connect Block:

The pin connect block allows selected pins of the microcontroller to have more than one
function. Configuration registers control the multiplexers to allow connection between the pin
and the on chip peripherals. Peripherals should be connected to the appropriate pins prior to
being activated, and prior to any related interrupt(s) being enabled. Activity of any enabled
peripheral function that is not mapped to a related pin should be considered undefined. The Pin
Control Module with its pin select registers defines the functionality of the microcontroller in a
given hardware environment. After reset all pins of Port 0 and 1 are configured as input with the
Page 25
following exceptions: If debug is enabled, the JTAG pins will assume their JTAG functionality;
if trace is enabled, the Trace pins will assume their trace functionality. The pins associated with
the I2C0 and I2C1 interface are open drain.
5.1.9 Fast General Purpose Parallel I/O (GPIO):

Device pins that are not connected to a specific peripheral function are controlled by the
GPIO registers. Pins may be dynamically configured as inputs or outputs. Separate registers
allow setting or clearing any number of outputs simultaneously. The value of the output register
may be read back, as well as the current state of the port pins. LPC2148 introduce accelerated
GPIO functions over prior LPC2000 devices:
GPIO registers are relocated to the ARM local bus for the fastest possible I/O timing.
Mask registers allow treating sets of port bits as a group, leaving other bits unchanged.
All GPIO registers are byte addressable.
Entire port value can be written in one instruction
Features:
Bit-level set and clear registers allow a single instruction set or clear of any number of
bits in one port.
Direction control of individual bits.
Separate control of output set and clear.
All I/O default to inputs after reset.
5.1.10 10-bit ADC:

The LPC2144/46/48 contains two analog to digital converters. These converters are
single 10-bit successive approximation analog to digital converters. While ADC0 has six
channels, ADC1 has eight channels. Therefore, total number of available ADC inputs for
LPC2141/42 is 6 and for LPC2144/46/48 are 14. Each device is equipped with up to two 10-bit
A/D converters and a 10-bit D/A converter. The A/D converters have eight channels apiece and,
on the LPC214xx versions, result registers for each channel.
Features:
10 bit successive approximation analog to digital converter.
Page 26
Measurement range of 0 V to VREF (2.0 V VREF VDDA).

Each converter capable of performing more than 400,000 10-bit samples per second.
Every analog input has a dedicated result register to reduce interrupt overhead.
Burst conversion mode for single or multiple inputs.
Optional conversion on transition on input pin or timer match signal.
Global Start command for both converters.
5.1.11 10-bit DAC:

The DAC enables the LPC2141/42/44/46/48 to generate a variable analog output. The
Maximum DAC output voltage is the VREF voltage.
Features
10-bit DAC.
Buffered output.
Power-down mode available.
5.1.12 USB 2.0 Device Controller:

The USB is a 4-wire serial bus that supports communication between a host and a
number of peripherals. The host controller allocates the USB bandwidth to attached devices
through a token based protocol. The bus supports hot plugging, unplugging, and dynamic
configuration of the devices. All transactions are initiated by the host controller. The
LPC2141/42/44/46/48 is equipped with a USB device controller that enables 12 Mbit/s data
exchange with a USB host controller. It consists of a register interface, serial interface engine,
endpoint buffer memory and DMA controller. The serial interface engine decodes the USB data
stream and writes data to the appropriate end point buffer memory. The status of a completed
USB transfer or error condition is indicated via status registers. An interrupt is also generated if
enabled. A DMA controller (available in LPC2146/48 only) can transfer data between an
endpoint buffer and the USB RAM.
Features:
Fully compliant with USB 2.0 Full-speed specification.

Supports 32 physical (16 logical) endpoints.
Supports control, bulk, interrupt and isochronous endpoints.
Scalable realization of endpoints at run time.
Page 27
Endpoint maximum packet size selection (up to USB maximum specification) by
software at run time.

RAM message buffer size based on endpoint realization and maximum packet size.
Supports Soft Connect and Good Link LED indicator. These two functions are sharing
one pin.
Supports bus-powered capability with low suspend current.
Supports DMA transfer on all non-control endpoints (LPC2146/48 only).
One duplex DMA channel serves all endpoints (LPC2146/48 only).
5.1.13 UARTs:
The LPC2141/42/44/46/48 each contains two UARTs. In addition to standard transmit
and receive data lines, the LPC2144/46/48 and UART1 also provide a full modem control
handshake
interface.
Compared
to
previous
LPC2000
microcontrollers,
UARTs
in
LPC2141/42/44/46/48 introduce a fractional baud rate generator for both UARTs, enabling these
microcontrollers to achieve standard baud rates such as 115200 with any crystal frequency above
2MHz. In addition, auto-CTS/RTS flow-control functions are fully implemented in hardware
Features:
16 byte Receive and Transmit FIFOs.

Register locations conform to 550 industry standard.
Receiver FIFO trigger points at 1, 4, 8, and 14 bytes
Built-in fractional baud rate generator covering wide range of baud rates without a need
for external crystals of particular values.

Transmission FIFO control enables implementation of software (XON/XOFF) flow
control on both UARTs.

LPC2144/46/48 UART1 equipped with standard modem interface signals. This module
also provides full support for hardware flow control (auto-CTS/RTS).
5.1.14 I2C-Bus Serial I/O Controller:

The LPC2141/42/44/46/48 each contains two I2C-bus controllers. The I2C-bus is
bidirectional, for inter-IC control using only two wires: a serial clock line (SCL), and a serial
data line (SDA).
Each device is recognized by a unique address and can operate as either a receiver-only
device (e.g., an LCD driver or a transmitter with the capability to both receive and send
information (such as memory)). Transmitters and/or receivers can operate in either master or
Page 28
slave mode, depending on whether the chip has to initiate a data transfer or is only addressed.
The I2C-bus is a multi-master bus; it can be controlled by more than one bus master connected to
it. The I2C-bus implemented in LPC2141/42/44/46/48 supports bit rates up to 400 Kbit/s (Fast
I2C-bus).
Features:
Compliant with standard I2C-bus interface.

Easy to configure as master, slave, or master/slave.
Programmable clocks allow versatile rate control.
Bidirectional data transfer between masters and slaves.
Multi-master bus (no central master).
Arbitration between simultaneously transmitting masters without corruption of serial data
on the bus.
Serial clock synchronization allows devices with different bit rates to communicate via
one serial bus.

Serial clock synchronization can be used as a handshake mechanism to suspend and
resume serial transfer.

The I2C-bus can be used for test and diagnostic purposes.
5.1.15 SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) I/O Controller:

The LPC2141/42/44/46/48 each contains one SPI controller. The SPI is a full duplex
serial interface, designed to handle multiple masters and slaves connected to a given bus. Only a
single master and a single slave can communicate on the interface during a given data transfer.
During a data transfer the master always sends a byte of data to the slave, and the slave always
sends a byte of data to the master.
Features:
Compliant with Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) specification.

Synchronous, Serial, Full Duplex, Communication.
Combined SPI master and slave.
Maximum data bit rate of one eighth of the input clock rate.
5.1.16 SSP Serial I/O Controller:

The LPC2141/42/44/46/48 each contains one SSP. The SSP controller is capable of
operation on a SPI, 4-wire SSI, or Micro wire bus. It can interact with multiple masters and
slaves on the bus. However, only a single master and a single slave can communicate on the bus
Page 29
during a given data transfer. The SSP supports full duplex transfers, with data frames of 4 bits to
16 bits of data flowing from the master to the slave and from the slave to the master. Often only
one of these data flows carries meaningful data.
Features:
Compatible with Motorolas SPI, TIs 4-wire SSI and National Semiconductors Micro
wire buses.
Synchronous serial communication.
Master or slave operation.
8-frame FIFOs for both transmit and receive.
Four bits to 16 bits per frame.
5.1.17 General Purpose Timers/External Event Counters:

The Timer/Counter is designed to count cycles of the peripheral clock (PCLK) or an
externally supplied clock and optionally generate interrupts or perform other actions at specified
timer values, based on four match registers. It also includes four capture inputs to trap the timer
value when an input signals transitions, optionally generating an interrupt. Multiple pins can be
selected to perform a single capture or match function, providing an application with or and
and, as well as broadcast functions among them. The LPC2141/42/44/46/48 can count
external events on one of the capture inputs if the minimum external pulse is equal or longer than
a period of the PCLK. In this configuration, unused capture lines can be selected as regular timer
capture inputs, or used as external interrupts.
Features:
A 32-bit timer/counter with a programmable 32-bit prescaler.

External event counter or timer operation.
Four 32-bit capture channels per timer/counter that can take a snapshot of the timer
value when an input signals transitions.

Four 32-bit match registers that allow:
Continuous operation with optional interrupt generation on match.
Stop timer on match with optional interrupt generation.
Reset timer on match with optional interrupt generation.
Page 30
Four external outputs per timer/counter corresponding to match registers, with the
following capabilities:
5.1.18 Watchdog Timer:

The purpose of the watchdog is to reset the microcontroller within a reasonable amount
of time if it enters an erroneous state. When enabled, the watchdog will generate a system reset if
the user program fails to feed (or reload) the watchdog within a predetermined amount of time.
Features:
Internally resets chip if not periodically reloaded.

Debug mode.
Enabled by software but requires hardware reset or a watchdog reset/interrupt to be
disabled.
Incorrect/Incomplete feed sequence causes reset/interrupt if enabled.
Flag to indicate watchdog reset.
Programmable 32-bit timer with internal pre-scalar.
Selectable time period from (TPCLK 256 4) to (TPCLK 232 4) in multiples of
TPCLK 4.
5.1.19 Real-Time Clock:

The RTC is designed to provide a set of counters to measure time when normal or idle
operating mode is selected. The RTC has been designed to use little power, making it suitable for
battery powered systems where the CPU is not running continuously (Idle mode).
Features:
Measures the passage of time to maintain a calendar and clock.

Ultra-low power design to support battery powered systems.
Provides Seconds, Minutes, Hours, Day of Month, Month, Year, Day of Week, and Day
of Year.
Can use either the RTC dedicate 32 kHz oscillator input or clock derived from the
external crystal/oscillator input at XTAL1. Programmable reference clock divider allows
fine adjustment of the RTC.

Dedicated power supply pin can be connected to a battery or the main 3.3 V.
Page 31
5.1.20 Pulse Width Modulator:

The PWM is based on the standard timer block and inherits all of its features, although
only the PWM function is pinned out on the LPC2141/42/44/46/48. The timer is designed to
count cycles of the peripheral clock (PCLK) and optionally generate interrupts or perform other
actions when specified timer values occur, based on seven match registers. The PWM function is
also based on match register events. The ability to separately control rising and falling edge
locations allows the PWM to be used for more applications. For instance, multi-phase motor
control typically requires three non-overlapping PWM outputs with individual control of all three
pulse widths and positions.
Two match registers can be used to provide a single edge controlled PWM output. One
match register (MR0) controls the PWM cycle rate, by resetting the count upon match. The other
match register controls the PWM edge position. Additional single edge controlled PWM outputs
require only one match register each, since the repetition rate is the same for all PWM outputs.
Multiple single edge controlled PWM outputs will all have a rising edge at the beginning of each
PWM cycle, when an MR0 match occurs.Three match registers can be used to provide a PWM
output with both edges controlled. Again, the MR0 match register controls the PWM cycle rate.
The other match registers control the two PWM edge positions. Additional double edge
controlled PWM outputs require only two match registers each, since the repetition rate is the
same for all PWM outputs. With double edge controlled PWM outputs, specific match registers
control the rising and falling edge of the output. This allows both positive going PWM pulses
(when the rising edge occurs prior to the falling edge), and negative going PWM pulses (when
the falling edge occurs prior to the rising edge).
Features:
Seven match registers allow up to six single edge controlled or three double edge
controlled PWM outputs, or a mix of both types.
The match registers also allow:
Continuous operation with optional interrupt generation on match.
Stop timer on match with optional interrupt generation.
Page 32
Reset timer on match with optional interrupt generation.

Supports single edge controlled and/or double edge controlled PWM outputs. Single edge
controlled PWM outputs all go HIGH at the beginning of each cycle unless the output is a
constant LOW. Double edge controlled PWM outputs can have either edge occur at any
position within a cycle. This allows for both positive going and negative going pulses.
Pulse period and width can be any number of timer counts. This allows complete
flexibility in the trade-off between resolution and repetition rate. All PWM outputs will
occur at the same repetition rate.

Double edge controlled PWM outputs can be programmed to be either positive going or
negative going pulses Match register updates are synchronized with pulse outputs to
prevent generation of erroneous
pulses. Software must release new match values
before they can become effective.

May be used as a standard timer if the PWM mode is not enabled.
A 32-bit Timer/Counter with a programmable 32-bit Presale.
5.1.21 SYSTEM CONTROL:

5.1.21.1 Crystal Oscillator:
On-chip integrated oscillator operates with external crystal in range of 1 MHz to 25 MHz
The oscillator output frequency is called fosc and the ARM processor clock frequency is referred
to as CCLK for purposes of rate equations, etc. fosc and CCLK are the same value unless the PLL
is running and connected.
5.1.22 PLL (Phase Locked Loop):

The PLL accepts an input clock frequency in the range of 10 MHz to 25 MHz. The input
frequency is multiplied up into the range of 10 MHz to 60 MHz with a Current Controlled
Oscillator (CCO). The multiplier can be an integer value from 1 to 32 (in practice, the multiplier
value cannot be higher than 6 on this family of microcontrollers due to the upper frequency limit
of the CPU). The CCO operates in the range of 156 MHz to 320 MHz, so there is an additional
divider in the loop to keep the CCO within its frequency range while the PLL is providing the
desired output frequency. The output divider may be set to divide by 2, 4, 8, or 16 to produce the
Page 33
output clock. Since the minimum output divider value is 2, it is insured that the PLL output has a
50 % duty cycle. The PLL is turned off and bypassed following a chip reset and may be enabled
by software. The program must configure and activate the PLL, wait for the PLL to Lock, then
connect to the PLL as a clock source. The PLL settling time is 100s.
5.1.23 Reset and Wake-Up Timer:

Reset has two sources on the LPC2141/42/44/46/48: the RESET pin and watchdog reset.
The RESET pin is a Schmitt trigger input pin with an additional glitch filter. Assertion of chip
reset by any source starts the Wake-up Timer (see Wake-up Timer description below), causing
the internal chip reset to remain asserted until the external reset is de-asserted, the oscillator is
running, a fixed number of clocks have passed, and the on-chip flash controller has completed its
initialization. When the internal reset is removed, the processor begins executing at address 0,
which is the reset vector. At that point, all of the processor and peripheral registers have been
initialized to predetermined values. The Wake-up Timer ensures that the oscillator and other
analog functions required for chip operation are fully functional before the processor is allowed
to execute instructions.
This is important at power on, all types of reset, and whenever any of the aforementioned
functions are turned off for any reason. Since the oscillator and other functions are turned off
during Power-down mode, any wake-up of the processor from Power-down mode makes use of
the Wake-up Timer. The Wake-up Timer monitors the crystal oscillator as the means of checking
whether it is safe to begin code execution.
When power is applied to the chip, or some event caused the chip to exit Power-down
mode, some time is required for the oscillator to produce a signal of sufficient amplitude to drive
the clock logic. The amount of time depends on many factors, including the rate of VDD ramp
(in the case of power on), the type of crystal and its electrical characteristics (if a quartz crystal is
used), as well as any other external circuitry (e.g. capacitors), and the characteristics of the
oscillator itself under the existing ambient conditions.
5.1.24 Brownout Detector:

The LPC2141/42/44/46/48 includes 2-stage monitoring of the voltage on the VDD pins.
If this voltage falls below 2.9 V, the BOD asserts an interrupt signal to the VIC. This signal can
be enabled for interrupt; if not, software can monitor the signal by reading dedicated register. The
second stage of low voltage detection asserts reset to inactivate the LPC2141/42/44/46/48 when
Page 34
the voltage on the VDD pins falls below 2.6 V. This reset prevents alteration of the flash as
operation of the various elements of the chip would otherwise become unreliable due to low
voltage. The BOD circuit maintains this reset down below 1 V, at which point the POR circuitry
maintains the overall reset. Both the 2.9 V and 2.6 V thresholds include some hysteresis. In
normal operation, this hysteresis allows the 2.9V detection to reliably interrupt, or a regularlyexecuted event loop to sense the condition.
5.1.25 Code Security:

This feature of the LPC2141/42/44/46/48 allows an application to control whether it can
be debugged or protected from observation. If after reset on-chip boot loader detects a valid
checksum in flash and reads 0x8765 4321 from address 0x1FC in flash, debugging will be
disabled and thus the code in flash will be protected from observation. Once debugging is
disabled, it can be enabled only by performing a full chip erase using the ISP.
5.1.26 External Interrupt Inputs:

The LPC2141/42/44/46/48 include up to nine edge or level sensitive External Interrupt
Inputs as selectable pin functions. When the pins are combined, external events can be processed
as four independent interrupt signals. The External Interrupt Inputs can optionally be used to
wake-up the processor from Power-down mode. Additionally capture input pins can also be used
as external interrupts without the option to wake the device up from Power-down mode.
5.1.27 Memory Mapping Control:

The Memory Mapping Control alters the mapping of the interrupt vectors that appear
beginning at address 0x0000 0000. Vectors may be mapped to the bottom of the on-chip flash
memory, or to the on-chip static RAM. This allows code running in different memory spaces to
have control of the interrupts.
5.1.28 Power Control:

The LPC2141/42/44/46/48 supports two reduced power modes:
Idle Mode:
In Idle mode, execution of instructions is suspended until either a reset or interrupt
occurs. Peripheral functions continue operation during idle mode and may generate interrupts to
cause the processor to resume execution. Idle mode eliminates power used by the processor
Page 35
itself, memory systems and related controllers, and internal buses. In Power-down mode, the
oscillator is shut down and the chip receives no internal clocks. The processor state and registers,
peripheral registers, and internal SRAM values are preserved throughout Power-down mode and
the logic levels of chip output pins remain static.
Power-Down Mode:
The Power-down mode can be terminated and normal operation resumed by either a reset
or certain specific interrupts that are able to function without clocks. Since all dynamic operation
of the chip is suspended, Power-down mode reduces chip power consumption to nearly zero.
Selecting an external 32 kHz clock instead of the PCLK as a clock-source for the on-chip
RTC will enable the microcontroller to have the RTC active during Power-down mode. Powerdown current is increased with RTC active. However, it is significantly lower than in idle mode.
not needed in the application, resulting in additional power savings during active and idle mode.
5.1.29 VPB Bus:
The VPB divider determines the relationship between the processor clock (CCLK) and
the clock used by peripheral devices (PCLK). The VPB divider serves two purposes. The first is
to provide peripherals with the desired PCLK via VPB bus so that they can operate at the speed
chosen for the ARM processor. In order to achieve this, the VPB bus may be slowed down to 12
to 14 of the processor clock rate. Because the VPB bus must work properly at power-up (and its
timing cannot be altered if it does not work since the VPB divider control registers reside on the
VPB bus), the default condition at reset is for the VPB bus to run at 14 of the processor clock
rate. The second purpose of the VPB divider is to allow power savings when an application does
not require any peripherals to run at the full processor rate. Because the VPB divider is
connected to the PLL output, the PLL remains active (if it was running) during Idle mode.
5.2 Power Supply

The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input i.e., 230V from
the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a rectifier. The output
obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in order to get a pure d.c voltage, the
output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any a.c components present even after
Page 36
rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain a pure constant dc
voltage.
Transformer
Rectifier
Filter
Regulator
Load
5.2: Power supply Architecture

Transformer:
Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and these
voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the A.C input
available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the required voltage level. This
is done by a transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to decrease the voltage to a
required level.
Rectifier:
The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C.
The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used
because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification.
Filter:
Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier
and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and
load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this
point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.
Voltage regulator:
As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage regulator is an
electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. In this project,
Page 37
power supply of 5V and 12V are required. In order to obtain these voltage levels, 7805 and 7812
voltage regulators are to be used. The first number 78 represents positive supply and the numbers
05, 12 represent the required output voltage levels.
5.3 RESET
In electronics and technology, a reset button is a button that can reset a device. On video game
consoles, the reset button restarts the game, losing the player's unsaved progress. On personal
computers, the reset button clears the memory and reboots the machine forcibly. Reset buttons
are found on circuit breakers to reset the circuit. This button can cause data corruption so this
button often doesn't exist on many machines. Usually, in computers and other electronic devices,
it is present as a small button, possibly recessed into the case or only accessible by a pin or
similar thin object, to prevent it being pressed accidentally.
The reset button could be an actual button or concept. The reset button would typically kick off
a soft boot, instructing the computer to go through the process of shutting down, which would
clear memory and reset devices to their initialized state. Contrary to the 'Power Button', which
would simply remove power immediately?
Pressing the reset button would be preferable to the power button, which could potentially leave
a device in the middle of some operation and subject to defect. In most commodity hardware, the
consumer would expect the device to be resilient enough to 'reset' when power was restored.
Fig 5.3 Reset Internal Circuit

Depending on the architecture, the reset button might have different effects. On PCs, usually it is
connected to the motherboard, and when pressed it sends a reset signal to all peripherals. Many
Page 38
newer computers have no separate button for resetting the computer; it is integrated with the
power button. On most new operating systems, the user can customize what happens when they
press the power button. For example they may set it to 'Do nothing', 'restart', 'shutdown', or 'stand
by'. This is only for pressing the button once; on most computers the power button can remove
power immediately if held down for a few seconds. When OS hangs reset button is no longer
"integrated with the power button".The RESET signal into the LM4F232H5QD microcontroller
connects to the RESET switch and to the Stellaris ICDI circuit for a debugger-controlled reset.
External reset is asserted (active low) under any one of these conditions:
1. Power-on reset
2. RESET switch held down
5.4 CRYSTAL OSCILATOR
Fig 5.4.Crystal Oscillator

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the
mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal
with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as
in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to
stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric
Page 39
resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits incorporating them became known as
crystal oscillators,[] but other piezoelectric materials including polycrystalline ceramics are used
in similar circuits.
Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of
megahertz. More than two billion crystals are manufactured annually.
Most are used for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cell
phones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as
counters, signal
generators,
and oscilloscopes.
A crystal is
a solid in
which
the
constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern
extending in all three spatial dimensions. Almost any object made of an elastic material could be
used
like
crystal,
with
appropriate transducers,
since
all
objects
have
natural resonant frequencies of vibration.
5.5 SERIAL COMMUNICATION:

The main requirements for serial communication are:
5.5.1. RS 232 cable
5.5.2. MAX 232 IC
5.5.3. HYPER TERMINAL
When the pins P3.0 and P3.1 of microcontroller are set, UART which is inbuilt in the
microcontroller will be enabled to start the serial communication.
5.5.1. RS232 CABLE:
To allow compatibility among data communication equipment, an interfacing standard called
RS232 is used. Since the standard was set long before the advent of the TTL logic family, its
input and output voltage levels are not TTL compatible. For this reason, to connect any RS232 to
a microcontroller system, voltage converters such as MAX232 are used to convert the TTL logic
levels to the RS232 voltage levels and vice versa.
5.5.2. MAX 232:
Max232 IC is a specialized circuit which makes standard voltages as required by RS232
standards. This IC provides best noise rejection and very reliable against discharges and short
circuits. MAX232 IC chips are commonly referred to as line drivers.
Page 40
To ensure data transfer
between PC and microcontroller, the baud rate and voltage levels of Microcontroller and PC
should be the same. The voltage levels of microcontroller are logic1 and logic 0 i.e., logic 1 is
+5V and logic 0 is 0V. But for PC, RS232 voltage levels are considered and they are: logic 1 is
taken as -3V to -25V and logic 0 as +3V to +25V. So, in order to equal these voltage levels,
MAX232 IC is used. Thus this IC converts RS232 voltage levels to microcontroller voltage
levels and vice versa.
5.6 Zig-Bee
5.6.1 Introduction:
Zig-Bee is the name of a specification for a suite of high level communication protocols using
small, low-power digital radios based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard for wireless personal area
networks (WPANs), such as wireless headphones connecting with cell phones via short-range
radio. The technology is intended to be simpler and cheaper than other WPANs, such as
Bluetooth. Zig-Bee is targeted at radio-frequency (RF) applications which require a low data
rate, long battery life, and secure networking.
In an industry during certain hazards is will be very difficult to monitor the parameter through
wires and analog devices such as transducers. To overcome this problem we use wireless device
to monitor the parameters so that we can take certain steps even in worst case. Few years back
the use of wireless device was very less, but due the rapid development is technology now a days
we use maximum of our data transfer through wireless like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, wi-max ,etc.
In view of all this things, the design of wireless parameter progress helps in an industry to
monitor the parameter in real time with the use of Zig-Bee, is an easy installation platform, cost
effective method for the low bit rate transmission, so with the help of the ready Zig-Bee platform
by using the embedded c language we interface the module with the pc by the help of visual
basic we monitor the parameters in the system.
The main use of this module helps in an industry during the worst cases as the analog device may
be damaged may be during the fire accidents, etc. But with the wireless transmission we have not
have an accurate data but when compared to the analog failure the errors are very minimum so
we use wireless to monitor the parameter in an industry where their no means of human interface
to monitor the parameters .
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5.6.2 Overview:
Zig-Bee builds upon the physical layer and medium access control defined in IEEE standard
802.15.4 (2003 version) for low-rate WPAN's. The specification goes on to complete the
standard by adding four main components: network layer, application layer, Zig-Bee device
objects (ZDO's) and manufacturer-defined application objects which allow for customization and
favor total integration.
Besides adding two high-level network layers to the underlying structure, the most significant
improvement is the introduction of ZDO's. These are responsible for a number of tasks, which
include keeping of device roles, management of requests to join a network, device discovery and
security. At its core, Zig-Bee is mesh network architecture. Its network layer natively supports
three types of topologies: both star and tree typical networks and generic mesh networks. Every
network must have one coordinator device, tasked with its creation, the control of its parameters
and basic maintenance. Within star networks, the coordinator must be the central node. Both
trees and meshes allow the use of Zig-Bee routers to extend communication at the network level
(they are not Zig-Bee coordinators, but may act as 802.15.4 coordinators within their personal
operating space), but they differ in a few important details: communication within trees is
hierarchical and optionally utilizes frame beacons, whereas meshes allow generic
communication structures but no router beaconing.
The relationship between IEEE 802.15.4-2003 and Zig-Bee is similar to that between IEEE
802.11 and the Wi-Fi Alliance. The Zig-Bee 1.0 specification was ratified on December 14, 2004
and is available to members of the Zig-Bee Alliance. An entry level membership called Adopter,
in the Zig-Bee Alliance costs US$3500 annually and provides access to the specifications and
permission to create products for market using the specifications. For non-commercial purposes,
the Zig-Bee specification is available to the general public at the Zig-Bee Specification
Download Request. Most recently, the Zig-Bee 2006 specification was posted in December
2006.
Zig-Bee operates in the industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands; 868 MHz in Europe,
915 MHz in countries such as USA and Australia, and 2.4 GHz in most jurisdictions worldwide.
The technology is intended to be simpler and cheaper than other WPANs such as Bluetooth. The
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most capable Zig-Bee node type is said to require only about 10% of the software of a typical
Bluetooth or Wireless Internet node, while the simplest nodes are about 2% However, actual
code sizes are much higher, closer to 50% of Bluetooth code size Zig-Bee chip vendors have
announced 128-kilobyte devices.
As of 2006, the retail price of a Zig-Bee-compliant transceiver is approaching $1, and the price
for one radio, processor, and memory package is about $3. Comparatively, before Bluetooth was
launched (1998) it had a projected price, in high volumes, of $4 - $6; the price of consumergrade Bluetooth chips is now under $3.
First stack release is now called "Zig-Bee 2004". The 2nd stack release is called 2006, and
mainly replaces the MSG/KVP structure used in 2004 with a "cluster library". The 2004 stack is
now more or less obsolete. The Zig-Bee Alliance has started work on Zig-Bee 2007, looking to
extend the Zig-Bee 2006 specification capabilities; the main enhancements are optimizing
certain network level functionality (such as data aggregation). There are also some new
application profiles like Automatic Meter Reading, Commercial building automation and home
automation based on the "cluster library principle".
Zig-Bee 2007, now the current stack release, is sometimes called "Pro", but pro is a stack profile,
which defines certain stack settings and mandatory features. Zig-Bee 2007 at the network level is
not backwards-compatible with Zig-Bee 2004/2006, although a Zig-Bee 2004/2006 RFD node
can join a 2007 network, and vice-versa. It's not possible to mix 2004/2006 routers with 2007
routers/coordinator.
Network Layers:
The main functions of the network layer are to enable the correct use of the MAC sub layer and
provide a suitable interface for use by the next upper layer, namely the application layer. Its
capabilities and structure are those typically associated to such network layers, including routing.
Application Layer:
The application layer is the highest-level layer defined by the specification, and is the effective
interface of the Zig-Bee system to its end users. It comprises the majority of components added
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by the Zig-Bee specification: both ZDO and its management procedures, together with
application objects defined by the manufacturer, are considered part of this layer.
Fig 5.6.2 Zig-Bee high-level communication model

Zig-Bee high level communication model / protocol model is as shown in above figure. It is
having, security service provider, application framework, Zig-Bee device object, application
support sub layer, network layer, medium access layer and physical layer. The communication
these layers in a proper way will decides the efficiency of the Zig-Bee network.
5.7 Global Positioning System

5.7.1. About GPS
Global Positioning System (GPS) technology is changing the way we work and play. You
can use GPS technology when you are driving, flying, fishing, sailing, hiking, running, biking,
working, or exploring. With a GPS receiver, you have an amazing amount of information at your
fingertips. Here are just a few examples of how you can use GPS technology.
Know precisely how far you have run and at what pace while tracking your path so you
can find your way home.
Pinpoint the perfect fishing spot on the water and easily relocate it.
Get the closest location of your favorite restaurant when you are out-of-town.
Find the nearest airport or identify the type of airspace in which you are flying
5.7.2. What is GPS?

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The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that sends and
receives radio signals. A GPS receiver acquires these signals and provides you with information.
Using GPS technology, you can determine location, velocity, and time, 24 hours a day, in any
weather conditions anywhere in the worldfor free.GPS, formally known as the NAVSTAR
(Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging). Global Positioning System originally was developed
for the military. Because of its popular navigation capabilities and because you can access GPS
technology using small, inexpensive equipment, the government made the system available for
civilian use. The USA owns GPS technology and the Department of Defense maintains it.GPS
technology requires the following three segments.
Space segment.
Control segment.
User segment
Space Segment
At least 24 GPS satellites orbit the earth twice a day in a specific pattern. They travel at
approximately 7,000 miles per hour about 12,000 miles above the earths surface. These satellites
are spaced so that a GPS receiver anywhere in the world can receive signals from at least four .
Each GPS satellite constantly sends coded radio signals (pseudorandom code) to the earth.
These GPS satellite signals contain the following information.
The particular satellite that is sending the information.
Where that satellite should be at any given time (the precise location of the satellite is.
called ephemeris data).
Whether or not the satellite is working properly.
The date and time that the satellite sent the signal.
The signals can pass through clouds, glass, and plastic. Most solid objects such as
buildings attenuate (decrease the power of) the signals. The signals cannot pass through objects
that contain a lot of metal or objects that contain water (such as underwater locations). The GPS
satellites are powered by solar energy. If solar energy is unavailable, for example, when the
satellite is in the earths shadow, satellites use backup batteries to continue running. Each GPS
satellite is built to last about 10 years. The Department of Defense monitors and the satellites to
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ensure that GPS technology continues to run smoothly for years to come.
Fig 5.7.2: GPS modem

Control Segment
The control segment is responsible for constantly monitoring satellite health, signal integrity,
and orbital configuration from the ground control segment includes the following sections:
Master control station
Monitor stations
Ground antennas
Monitor Stations
At least six unmanned monitor stations are located around the world. Each station
constantly monitors and receives information from the GPS satellites and then sends the orbital
and clock information to the master control station (MCS).
Master Control Station (MCS)

The MCS) is located near Colorado Springs in Colorado. The MCS constantly receives
GPS satellite orbital and clock information from monitor stations. The controllers in the MCS
make precise corrections to the data as necessary, and send the information (known as ephemeris
data) to the GPS satellites using the ground antennas.
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Ground Antennas
Ground antennas receive the corrected orbital and clock information from the MCS, and
then send the corrected information to the appropriate satellites.
User Segment
The GPS user segment consists of your GPS receiver. Your receiver collects and processes
signals from the GPS satellites that are in view and then uses that information to determine and
display your location, speed, time, and so forth. Your GPS receiver does not transmit any
information back to the satellites.
5.7.3 How Does GPS Technology Work?
The following points provide a summary of the technology at work:
The control segment constantly monitors the GPS constellation and uploads information to
satellites to provide maximum user accuracy
Your GPS receiver collects information from the GPS satellites that are in view.
Your GPS receiver accounts for errors. Refer to the Sources of Errors.
Your GPS receiver determines your current location, velocity, and time.
Your GPS receiver can calculate other information, such as bearing, track, trip distance,
and distance to destination, sunrise and sunset time so forth.
Your GPS receiver displays the applicable information on the screen.
5.7.4 Who Uses GPS?

GPS technology has many amazing applications on land, at sea, and in the air. You might
be surprised to learn about the following examples of how people or professions are already using
GPS technology
Agriculture
In precision farming, GPS technology helps monitor the application of fertilizer and
pesticides. GPS technology also provides location information that helps farmers plow, harvest,
map fields, and mark areas of disease or weed infestation.
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Aviation
Aircraft pilots use GPS technology for en route navigation and airport approaches. Satellite
navigation provides accurate aircraft location anywhere on or near the earth.
Environment
GPS technology helps survey disaster areas and maps the movement of environmental
phenomena (such as forest fires, oil spills, or hurricanes). It is even possible to find locations that
have been submerged or altered by natural disasters.
Ground Transportation
GPS technology helps with automatic vehicle location and in-vehicle navigation systems.
Many navigation systems show the vehicles location on an electronic street map, allowing drivers
to keep track of where they are and to look up other destinations. Some systems automatically
create a route and give turn-by-turn directions. GPS technology also helps monitor and plan
routes for delivery vans and emergency vehicles.
Marine
GPS technology helps with marine navigation, traffic routing, underwater surveying,
navigational hazard location, and mapping. Commercial fishing fleets use it to navigate to
optimum fishing locations and to track fish migrations.
Military
Military aircraft, ships, submarines, tanks, jeeps, and equipment use GPS technology for many
purposes including basic navigation, target designation, close air support, weapon technology, and
rendezvous.
Public Safety
Emergency and other specialty fleets use satellite navigation for location and status
information.
Rail
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Precise knowledge of train location is essential to prevent collisions, maintain smooth traffic
flow, and minimize costly delays. Digital maps and onboard inertial units allow fully-automated
train control.
Space
GPS technology helps track and control satellites in orbit. Future booster rockets and
reusable launch vehicles will launch, orbit the earth. Return, and land, all under automatic control.
Space shuttles also use GPS navigation.
Surveying
Surveyors use GPS technology for simple tasks (such as defining property lines) or for
complex tasks (such as building infrastructures in urban centers). Locating a precise point of
reference used to be very time consuming. With GPS technology, two people can survey dozens
of control points in an hour. Surveying and mapping roads and rail systems can also be
accomplished from mobile platforms to save time and money.
5.8 L293D- Current Driver
Fig 5.8 L293D- Current Drivers
Features
Wide Supply-Voltage Range: 4.5 V to 36 V
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Separate Input-Logic Supply
Internal ESD Protection
Thermal Shutdown
High-Noise-Immunity Inputs
Functionally Similar to SGS L293 and SGS L293D
Output Current 1 A Per Channel (600 mA for L293D)
Peak Output Current 2 A Per Channel (1.2 A for L293D)
Output Clamp Diodes for Inductive Transient Suppression (L293D)
5.8.1Description
The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half-H drivers. The L293 is designed to provide
bidirectional drive currents of up to 1 A at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. The L293D is designed to
provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 600-mA at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. Both
devices are designed to drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, dc and bipolar stepping
motors, as well as other high-current/high-voltage loads in positive-supply applications.
All inputs are TTL compatible. Each output is a complete totem-pole drive circuit, with a
Darlington transistor sink and a pseudo- Darlington source. Drivers are enabled in pairs, with
drivers 1 and 2 enabled by 1,2EN and drivers 3 and 4 enabled by 3,4EN.When an enable input is
high, the associated drivers are enabled and their outputs are active and in phase with their
inputs. When the enable input is low, those drivers are disabled and their outputs are off and in
the high-impedance state. With the proper data inputs, each pair of drivers forms a full-H (or
bridge) reversible drive suitable for solenoid or motor applications. On the L293, external highspeed output clamp diodes should be used for inductive transient suppression.
A VCC1 terminal, separate from VCC2, is provided for the logic inputs to minimize device
power dissipation. The L293 and L293D are characterized for operation from 0 to 70 degree
Celsius.
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Fig.5.8.1. L293D Block diagram
5.8.2 Electric Motors:

Electric motors are used to efficiently convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Magnetism is the basis of their principles of operation. They use permanent magnets,
electromagnets, and exploit the magnetic properties of materials in order to create these amazing
machines.
There are several types of electric motors available today. The following outline gives an
overview of several popular ones. There are two main classes of motors: AC and DC. AC motors
require an alternating current or voltage source (like the power coming out of the wall outlets in
your house) to make them work. DC motors require a direct current or voltage source (like the
voltage coming out of batteries) to make them work. Universal motors can work on either type of
power. Not only is the construction of the motors different, but the means used to control the
speed and torque created by each of these motors also varies, although the principles of power
conversion are common to both.
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Motors are used just about everywhere. In our house, there is a motor in the furnace for the
blower, for the intake air, in the sump well, dehumidifier, in the kitchen in the exhaust hood
above the stove, microwave fan, refrigerator compressor and cooling fan, can opener, garbage
disposer, dish washer pump, clocks, computer fans, ceiling fans, and many more items. In
industry, motors are used to move, lift, rotate, accelerate, brake, lower and spin material in order
to coat, paint, punch, plate, make or form steel, film, project, tissue, aluminum, plastic and other
raw materials. They range in power ratings from less than 1/100 hp to over 100,000 hp. The
rotate as slowly as 0.001 rpm to over 100,000 rpm. They range in physical size from as small as
the head of a pin to the size of a locomotive engine.
What happens when a wire carrying current is within a magnetic field?
Fig 5.8.2(a) Left Hand Rule

This is the Left Hand Rule for motors. The first finger points in the direction of the magnetic
field (first - field), which goes from the North Pole to the South pole. The second finger points
in the direction of the current in the wire (second - current).The thumb then points in the
direction the wire is thrust or pushed while in the magnetic field (thumb - torque or thrust).So,
when a wire carrying current is perpendicular to a magnetic field, a force is created on the wire
causing it to move perpendicular to the field and direction of current. The greater the current in
the wire, or the greater the magnetic field, the faster the wire moves because of the greater force
created. If the current in the wire is parallel to the magnetic field, there will be no force on the
wire.
DC Motors
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Fig 5.8.2(b) DC Motor

DC motors are fairly simple to understand. They are also simple to make and only require a
battery or dc supply to make them run. A simple motor has six parts, as shown in the diagram
below:
Armature or rotor
Commutator
Brushes
Axle
Field magnet
DC power supply of some sort
An electric motor is all about magnets and magnetism: A motor uses magnets to create motion.
If you have ever played with magnets you know about the fundamental law of all magnets:
Opposites attract and likes repel. So if you have two bar magnets with their ends marked "north"
and "south," then the north end of one magnet will attract the south end of the other. On the other
hand, the north end of one magnet will repel the north end of the other (and similarly, south will
repel south). Inside an electric motor, these attracting and repelling forces create rotational
motion. The armature (or rotor) is an electromagnet, while the field magnet is a permanent
magnet (the field magnet could be an electromagnet as well, but in most small motors it is not in
order to save power).
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When you put all of these parts together, here is a complete electric motor:Even a small electric
motor contains the same pieces described above: two small permanent magnets, a commutator,
two brushes, and an electromagnet made by winding wire around a piece of metal. Almost
always, however, the rotor will have three poles rather than the two poles as shown in this
article. There are two good reasons for a motor to have three poles:
It causes the motor to have better dynamics. In a two-pole motor, if the electromagnet is
at the balance point, perfectly horizontal between the two poles of the field magnet when
the motor starts, one can imagine the armature getting "stuck" there. This never happens
in a three-pole motor.
Each time the Commutator hits the point where it flips the field in a two-pole motor, the
Commutator shorts out the battery (directly connects the positive and negative terminals)
for a moment. This shorting wastes energy and drains the battery needlessly. A three-pole
motor solves this problem as well.
It is possible to have any number of poles, depending on the size of the motor and the specific
application it is being used in. Motion and controls cover a wide range of components that in
some way are used to generate and/or control motion. Areas within this category include
bearings and bushings, clutches and brakes, controls and drives, drive components, encoders and
resolves, Integrated motion control, limit switches, linear actuators, linear and rotary motion
components, linear position sensing, motors (both AC and DC motors). There are three types of
electrical connections between the stator and rotor possible for DC electric motors: series,
shunt/parallel and compound (various blends of series and shunt/parallel) and each has unique
speed/torque characteristics appropriate for different loading torque profiles/signatures.
5.8.3. Types of Motors
Split Phase
The split phase motor is mostly used for "medium starting" applications. It has start and run
windings, both are energized when the motor is started. When the motor reaches about 75% of its
rated full load speed, the starting winding is disconnected by an automatic switch.
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Uses: This motor is used where stops and starts are somewhat frequent. Common applications of
split phase motors include: fans, blowers, office machines and tools such as small saws or drill
presses where the load is applied after the motor has obtained its operating speed.
Capacitor Start
This motor has a capacitor in series with a starting winding and provides more than double the
starting torque with one third less starting current than the split phase motor. Because of this
improved starting ability, the capacitor start motor is used for loads which are hard to start. It has
good efficiency and requires starting currents of approximately five times full load current. The
capacitor and starting windings are disconnected from the circuit by an automatic switch when
the motor reaches about 75% of its rated full load speed.
Uses: Common uses include: compressors, pumps, machine tools, air conditioners, conveyors,
Horsepower & RPM
Horsepower
Electric motors are rated by horsepower, the home shop will probably utilize motors from 1/4 HP
for small tools and up to 5 HP on air compressors. Not all motors are rated the same, some are
rated under load, others as peak horsepower and hence we have 5 HP compressors with huge
motors and 5 Hp shopvacs with tiny little motors. Unfortunately all 5 HP compressor motors are
not equal in actual power either, to judge the true horsepower the easiest way is to look at the
amperage of the motor. Electric motors are not efficient, most have a rating of about 50% due to
factors such as heat and friction and some may be as high as 70%.
This chart will give a basic idea of the true horse power rating compared to the ampere rating.
Motors with a higher efficiency rating will draw fewer amps, for example a 5 HP motor with a
50% efficiency rating will draw about 32 amps at 230 VAC compared to about 23 amps for a
motor with a 70% rating.
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Table 5.8.3 Basic idea of the true horse power rating compared to the ampere rating
A quick general calculation when looking at a motor is 1 HP = 10 amps on 110 volts and 1 HP =
5 amps on 220 volts.
RPM
The shaft on a typical shop motor will rotate at either 1725 or 3450 RPM (revolutions per
minute).
The speed of the driven machine will be determined by the size of pulleys used, for example a
3450 RPM motor can be replaced by a 1750 RPM motor if the diameter of the pulley on the
motor is doubled. The opposite is true as well but if the pulley on the 1750 RPM motor is small it
is not always possible to replace it with one half the size. It may be possible to double the pulley
size on the driven machine if it uses a standard type of pulley, (not easily done on air
compressors for example).
Electronic speed reducers such as the ones sold for routers will not work on induction type
motors.
Phase, Voltage & Rotation
Whether or not you can use a motor will likely depend on these factors.
Single Phase
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Ordinary household wiring is single phase, alternating current. Each cycle peaks and dips as
shown. To run a three phase motor a phase converter must be used, usually this is not practical, it
is often less expensive to change the motor on a machine to a single phase style.
Fig 5.8.3 (a) Single phase

Three Phase
This is used in industrial shops, rather than peaks and valleys the current supply is more even
because of the other two cycles each offset by 120 degrees.
5.8.3 (b) Three phase

Voltage
Many motors are dual voltage i.e., by simply changing the wiring configuration, they can be run
on 110 volts or 220 volts. Motors usually run better on 220 volts, especially if there is any line
loss because of having to use a long wire to reach the power supply.
Motors are available for both AC and DC current, our typical home wiring will be AC. There are
DC converters available which are used in applications where the speed of the motor is
controlled.
Rotation
The direction the shaft rotates can be changed on most motors by switching the right wires. The
direction of rotation is usually determined by viewing the motor from the shaft end and is
designated as CW (clockwise) or CCW (counter-clockwise). Motors are the devices that provide
the actual speed and torque in a drive system. This family includes AC motor types (single and
multiphase motors, universal, servo motors, induction, synchronous, and gear motor) and gear
motor) as well as linear, stepper and air motors, and motor contactors and starters.
5.9 WIRELESS WEBCAM
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Fig 5.9 Wireless Webcam

Typical low-cost webcam used with many personal computers .A webcam is a video camera that
feeds its image in real time to a computer or computer network. Unlike an IP camera (which uses
a direct connection using Ethernet or Wi-Fi), a webcam is generally connected by a USB cable,
FireWire cable, or similar cable.
Their most popular use is the establishment of video links, permitting computers to act as
videophones or videoconference stations. The common use as a video camera for the World
Wide Web gave the webcam its name. Other popular uses include security surveillance, computer
vision, video broadcasting, and for recording social videos.
Webcams are known for their low manufacturing cost and flexibility,[1] making them the lowest
cost form of video telephony. They have also become a source of security and privacy issues, as
some built-in webcams can be remotely activated via spyware.
Childcare webcast video monitoring

Childcare webcams can offer improved security, communication, and increased service value in
daycare facilities. According to researchers and industry leaders, as many as 100 childcare
facilities add Internet viewing systems each month, and the total number of centers with some
form of Internet monitoring runs into the thousands. In the United States, private services have
been offering dedicated webcasting systems to centers nationwide for several years as of 2010.
Video calling and videoconferencing

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Further information: Videophone, Videoconferencing, and telephony. As webcam capabilities

have been added to instant messaging, text chat services such as AOL Instant Messenger, and
VoIP services such as Skype, one-to-one live video communication over the Internet has now
reached millions of mainstream PC users worldwide. Improved video quality has helped
webcams encroach on traditional video conferencing systems.New features such as automatic
lighting controls, real-time enhancements (retouching, wrinkle smoothing and vertical stretch),
automatic face tracking and autofocus, assist users by providing substantial ease-of-use, further
increasing the popularity of webcams.
Webcam features and performance can vary by program, computer operating system, and also by
the computer's processor capabilities. Video calling support has also been added to several
popular instant messaging programs.
Video security
Webcams are also used as security cameras. Software is available to allow PC-connected
cameras to watch for movement and sound, recording both when they are detected. These
recordings can then be saved to the computer, e-mailed, or uploaded to the Internet. In one wellpublicized case, computer e-mailed images of the burglar during the theft of the computer,
enabling the owner to give police a clear picture of the burglar's face even after the computer had
been stolen.
Recently webcam privacy software has been introduced by such companies such as Stop Being
Watched or Webcam lock. The software exposes access to a webcam and prompts the user to
allow or deny access by showing what program is trying to access the webcam. Allowing the
user to accept a trusted program the user recognizes or terminate the attempt immediately. Other
companies on the market manufacture and sell sliding lens covers that allow users to retrofit the
computer and close access to the camera lens. In December 2011, Russia announced that 290,000
Webcams would be installed in 90,000 polling stations to monitor the Russian presidential
election, 2012.
Video clips and stills

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Webcams can be used to take video clips and still pictures. Various software tools in wide use
can be employed for this, such as Pic-master (for use with Windows operating systems), Photo
Booth (Mac), or Cheese (with Unix systems).
Input control devices
Special software can use the video stream from a webcam to assist or enhance a user's control of
applications and games. Video features, including faces, shapes, models and colors can be
observed and tracked to produce a corresponding form of control. For example, the position of a
single light source can be tracked and used to emulate a mouse pointer, a head mounted light
would enable hands-free computing and would greatly improve computer accessibility. This can
be applied to games, providing additional control, improved interactivity and immersiveness.
Free Track is a free webcam motion tracking application for Microsoft Windows that can track a
special head mounted model in up to six degrees of freedom and output data to mouse, keyboard,
joystick and Free Track-supported games By removing the IR filter of the webcam, IR LEDs can
be used, which has the advantage of being invisible to the naked eye, removing a distraction
from the user. Track IR is a commercial version of this technology.
The Eye Toy for the PlayStation 2, PlayStation Eye for the PlayStation 3, and the Xbox Live
Vision camera and Kinect motion sensor for the Xbox 360 and are color digital cameras that
have been used as control input devices by some games. Small webcam-based PC games are
available as either standalone executables or inside web browser windows using Adobe Flash.
5.10 METAL DETECTOR

Most modern metal detectors operate on the balanced coil, full loop system. Three coils
are wrapped around the aperture through which the product passes. In the center of the enclosure
is the transmitter coil that broadcasts a radio frequency signal and generates an Electromagnetic
field. Equally spaced on either side of the transmitter coil are two receiver coils as shown in the
two figures below.
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Fig 5.10.Equally spaced on either side of the transmitter coil and a receiver coil
The field is generally trapped inside the shielded enclosure of the detector but some field escapes
from the aperture on both sides of the detector. Anything that enters into this field that is either
Magnetic, or Electrically Conductive will cause a disturbance in the field strength around it. All
metals have either one or both of these characteristics and will be detectable if the size of the
signal is large enough. The signals from the receiving coils are connected in opposition to each
other and therefore when no disturbance is occurring there will be a net signal across the coils of
zero they are balanced. This forms the electrical equivalent of a balance weigh scale. As metal
passes through the detector the balance will be offset as the contaminant enters the aperture and
again as it leaves the exit side. This disturbance is amplified and analyzed by the control
electronics and detection will occur if the sensitivity threshold has been exceeded. Ferrous In
Foil The exception to this design occurs when a product is packaged in foil (pure aluminum).
Foil lids and trays are common examples where an alternative system is required. Here the
detector operates using a series of magnets and is referred to as a Ferrous in Foil detector. The
drawback of this type of inspection is that Non Ferrous and Stainless contaminants cannot be
detected.
To achieve these goals we must know advanced detector theory intimately. A sound working
knowledge of electronics, mathematics, and mechanical engineering are essential as is familiarity
with government regulations. We also pride ourselves on our practical knowledge of hands-on
detecting in the field.
Page 61
5.10.1 Product Effect and Phasing

The control electronics actually split the received signal into two separate channels: magnetic
and conductive. This means there are effectively two balance scales in the detector (see figure 3).
These scales continuously measure the magnetic and conductive signal component of every
disturbance. Products that are being inspected can also have one or both of these characteristics.
Product Effect Metal detectors detect metal based on measuring electrical conductivity and
magnetic permeability. Many products to be inspected inherently have one or both of these
characteristics within their makeup. For example, any product which is iron enriched such as
cereals, create a large magnetic signal which the detector must overcome in order to detect small
pieces of metal. These are referred to as dry products. Conversely, products with high moisture
and salt content such as bread, meat, cheese, etc. are electrically conductive and produce a
conductive error signal. These are referred to as wet products. The table below shows typical
product error signals and categorizes them as wet or dry. The detector must remove or reduce this
product effect in order to identify a metal contaminant. Most modern detectors will have some
form of automatic calibration to do this - it is often referred to a phasing.
Typical Wet Products
Typical Dry Products
1. Food: Meat, Cheese, Bread and Bakery 1.Food: Cereal, Crackers, Flour and powders,
Products, Fish, Dairy Products, Salads
2. Packaging: Metalized Film.
Biscuits, Frozen Food Products (< 10 Degrees

C), Peanut Butter and Margarine (Vegetable oil
is not conductive)
2. Other: Wood Products, Plastics and Rubber
Table 5.10.Comparison between wet and dry products

5.10.2 Metal Free Area:
The Electro-magnetic field is trapped inside the detectors enclosure (shield). However, some
field escapes out of the aperture on both sides and forms the metal free area or MFA. Generally,
the size of the practical leakage is about 1.5 times the (smaller) aperture dimension and no metal
should be allowed in this area. Large moving metal should be kept 2 x away. Where applications
demand a smaller MFA, special detectors are available which can substantially reduce the total
area required.
Page 62
Fig 5.10(a) Metal Free Area

Metal Free Area
Metal detectors work on the principle of transmitting a magnetic field and analyzing a return
signal from the target and environment. The transmitted magnetic field varies in time, usually at
rates of fairly high-pitched audio signals. The magnetic transmitter is in the form of a transmit
coil with a varying electric current flowing through it produced by transmit electronics. The
receiver is in the form of a receive coil connected to receive and signal processing electronics.
The transmit coil and receive coil are sometimes the same coil. The coils are within a coil
housing which is usually simply called the coil, and all the electronics are within the
electronics housing attached to the coil via an electric cable and commonly called the control
box. This changing transmitted magnetic field causes electric currents to flow in metal targets.
These electric currents are called eddy currents, which in turn generate a weak magnetic field,
but their generated magnetic field is different from the transmitted magnetic field in shape and
strength. It is the altered shape of this regenerated magnetic field that metal detectors use to
detect metal targets. (The different shape may be in the form of a time delay.) The regenerated
magnetic field from the eddy currents causes an alternating voltage signal at the receive coil.
This is amplified by the electronics because relatively deeply buried targets produce signals in
the receive coil which can be millions of times weaker than the signal in the transmit coil, and
thus need to be amplified to a reasonable level for the electronics to be able to process.
Page 63
1. Transmit signal from the electronics causes transmit electrical current in transmit coil.
2.
Electrical
current
in
the
transmit
coil
causes
transmitted
magnetic
field.
3. Transmitted magnetic field causes electrical currents to flow in metal targets (called eddy
currents.)
4. Eddy currents generate a magnetic field. This is altered compared to the transmitted field.
5. Receive coil detects the magnetic field generated by eddy currents as a very small voltage.
6. Signal from receive coil is amplified by receive electronics, then processed to extract signal
from the target, rather than signals from other environment magnetic sources such as earths
magnetic field.
As with most introductions, the above brief description is over-simplified. The signal induced in
the receive coil, by the magnetic field of the eddy current, can be thought of as made up of two
simultaneous components, not just an altered component:
One component is the same shape as the transmit signal. This is called the reactive signal
(X). Because it is the same shape as the transmit field, the signal, by definition, responds
immediately to whatever the transmit signal is doing.
When this X component is subtracted from the eddy current induced signal in the receive coil,
the shape of the remaining signal depends only upon the history of the transmitted field, and not
the instantaneous value. This signal is called the resistive or loss component (R).
Both the target X and R signals vary depending on the distance of the target from the coil; the
further away, the weaker the transmitted magnetic field at the object, and the weaker the received
signal from the eddy currents; thus the weaker than receive coil R and X signals which, as stated,
may be very weak for deep targets.
1. Products that offer the most useful features and best possible performance
2. Products those are highly reliable
3. Products that exceed expectations every time they are used.
Page 64
CHAPTER 6
PROJECT SCHEMATIC
6.1 INTERFACING ARM7 WITH GPS AND ZIG-BEE

Page 65
Fig 6.1(a) Schematic view of ARM7 interfacing with ZIG-BEE and GPS
Fig 6.1(b) Power Supply
6.2 INTERFACING ARM7 WITH WEBCAM

Page 66
Fig 6.2 Interfacing ARM7 with webcam
Page 67
CHAPTER 7
SOFT WARE TOOLS
7.1SOFTWARE TOOLS
Software Tools Required
Page 68
Keil v3, Proteus are the two software tools used to program microcontroller. The
working of each software tool is explained below in detail.
Keil:-
1.
Click on the Keil u Vision Icon on Desktop
2.
The following fig will appear
Fig 7.1(a) keil u Vision Icon
3.
Click on the Project menu from the title bar
4.
Then Click on New Project
Fig 7.1(b) New Project in keil
5.
Save the Project by typing suitable project name with no extension in your own folder
sited in either C:\ or D:\
Page 69
Fig.7.1 (c) Saving the project in keil
6.
Then Click on save button above.
7.
Select the component for u r project. I.e. LPC2148l
8.
Click on the + Symbol beside of LPC 2148
Fig.7.1 (d) Drop down from LPC 2148
9.
Select LPC2148 as shown below
Fig.7.1 (e) Selecting the LPC 2148
10.
Then Click on OK
11.
The Following fig will appear
Page 70
Fig.7.1 (f) Window open to click OK
12.
Then Click either YES or NOmostly NO
13.
Now your project is ready to USE
14.
Now double click on the Target1, you would get another option Source group 1 as
shown in next page.
Fig.7.1 (g) Selecting Target
15.
Click on the file option from menu bar and select new
Fig.7.1 (h) Selecting New Project
16.
The next screen will be as shown in next page, and just maximize it by double
clicking on its blue boarder.
Page 71
Fig.7.1 (i) Editing window
17.
Now start writing program in either in C or ASM
18.
For a program written in Assembly, then save it with extension . asm and for C
based program save it with extension .C
Fig.7.1 (j) Saving the Program with extension
19.
Now right click on Source group 1 and click on Add files to Group Source
Fig.7.1 (k) Adding Files to Group Source
Page 72
20.
Now you will get another window, on which by default C files will appear.
Fig.7.1 (l) Extensions available by drop down
21.
Now select as per your file extension given while saving the file
22.
Click only one time on option ADD
23.
Now Press function key F7 to compile. Any error will appear if so happen.
Fig.7.1 (m) Compile the program
24.
If the file contains no error, then press Control+F5 simultaneously.
25.
The new window is as follows
Fig.7.1(n) Error controlling window
26.
Then Click OK
27.
Now Click on the Peripherals from menu bar, and check your required port as shown
in fig below
Page 73
Fig.7.1 (o) Selecting peripheral
28.
Drag the port a side and click in the program file.
Fig.7.1 (p) Selecting ports for program file
29.
Now keep Pressing function key F11 slowly and observe.
30.
You are running your program successfully
7.2 Proteus:
Proteus is software which accepts only hex files. Once the machine code is converted into
hex code, that hex code has to be dumped into the microcontroller and this is done by the
Proteus. Proteus is a programmer which itself contains a microcontroller in it other than the one
which is to be programmed. This microcontroller has a program in it written in such a way that it
accepts the hex file from the Keil compiler and dumps this hex file into the microcontroller
which is to be programmed. As the Proteus programmer kit requires power supply to be
operated, this power supply is given from the power supply circuit designed above. It should be
noted that this programmer kit contains a power supply section in the board itself but in order to
switch on that power supply, a source is required. Thus this is accomplished from the power
supply board with an output of 12volts.
Page 74
Features:
Supports major Atmel 89 series devices
Auto Identify connected hardware and devices
Error checking and verification in-built
Lock of programs in chip supported to prevent program copying
20 and 40 pin ZIF socket on-board
Auto Erase before writing and Auto Verify after writing
Informative status bar and access to latest programmed file
Simple and Easy to use
Works on 57600 speed
7.3 Micro flash

Description
It is simple to use and low cost, yet powerful flash microcontroller programmer for the
Atmel 89 series. It will Program, Read and Verify Code Data, Write Lock Bits, Erase and Blank
Check. All fuse and lock bits are programmable. This programmer has intelligent onboard
firmware and connects to the serial port. It can be used with any type of computer and requires
no special hardware. All that is needed is a serial communication ports which all computers have.
All devices have signature bytes that the programmer reads to automatically identify the
chip. No need to select the device type, just plug it in and go! All devices also have a number of
lock bits to provide various levels of software and programming protection. These lock bits are
fully programmable using this programmer. Locked bits are useful to protect the program to be
read back from microcontroller only allowing erase to reprogram the microcontroller.
The programmer connects to a host computer using a standard RS232 serial port. All the
programming 'intelligence' is built into the programmer so you do not need any special hardware
to run it. Programmer comes with window based software for easy programming of the devices.
Page 75
CHAPTER 8
RESULT ANALYSIS
Page 76
8.1 Screenshot of Program Code for Control Room Operations
Fig 8.1 Screenshot of Program code for control room operations
8.2 Screenshot of Microsoft Visual C++ program
Page 77
Fig 8.2 Screenshot of Microsoft Visual C++ program

Screenshot of Command window at control room
8.3 Screenshot of Command Window at Control Room
Fig 8.3 Screenshot of Command window at control room
8.4 Control Room Transmitter Module
Page 78
Fig. 8.4 Control room Transmitter module
8.5 Video Receiver Unit at Control Room
Fig 8.5 Video receiver unit at control room
8.6 Front View of Robotic Vehicle Prototype
Page 79
Fig 8.6 Front view of Robotic Vehicle prototype
8.7 View of Internal Circuitry of the Prototype
Fig. 10 View of Internal circuitry of the prototype
Page 80
CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION
Page 81
9. CONCLUSION
The design and implementation of unmanned robotic ground vehicle has been depicted in detail
and a minimum realization able to realistically demonstrate capability potential with the given
mission is represented. The project delivers an entirely novel technique for nullifying the terror
activities inside the buildings. Furthermore, the proposed system has the capability of
revolutionizing design of next generation defense weapon system. The test tasks were very much
pertained to surveillance and tactical reconnaissance was satisfactory. The salient part of the
whole system includes system integration and information flow between the control room and the
robotic vehicle. The system level enables the task oriented operations that combines the
autonomous motion of the robotic vehicle and task execution capabilities. The designed vehicle
has the potentialities to up root terrorism instead of facing it and it is dedicated to save brave
hearts to the nation.
Page 82
CHAPTER 10
FUTURE SCOPE
Page 83
10. FUTURE SCOPE

The purported system presents the versatile autonomous robotic ground vehicle with
reconnaissance action. The vehicle is observed to be capable of navigating over rough terrain and
the triggering action holds good. The potential scope to incorporate features with the present
design of the vehicle encompasses methods like rapid hazard avoidance maneuver when
operation of the vehicle is in the rough changing terrain to alter the speed in various situations,
optical dynamic detection method for detecting the buried bomb materials around the vehicle
environment and to mount a robotized arm on the vehicle to lift the suspicious object, thereby
scanning it using portable x-ray device. The additional features to be incorporated with the
present construction of the vehicle are highly promising.
Page 84
CHAPTER 11
11. References
[1] Jones K, Special Weapons Observation Remote recon Direct Action System (SWORDS),
In proceedings of AVT-SCI Joint Symposium, Neuilly-sur-Seine, France, pp 36-1 36-8, Nov
2012.
[2] Abhinav Kumar Singh, Nilaya Mitash Shanker and Anand Prakash Yadav,
RF Controlled Terrorist fighting robot International Journal of
Computer Science & Communication Vol. 1, No. 1, January-June 2011,pp. 109-112.
[3] T.Iwamoto, H.Yamamoto, Mechanical Design of Variable
Configuration Tracked Vehicle, J. of Mechanical Design, 112, 289-294,1998.
[4] Amalia F. Foka and Panos E. Trahania, Predictive Autonomous Robot
Navigation, Proceedings of 2002 IEEE/RSJ International conference on
intelligent robots and systems EPFL, Laussane, Switzerland, October2010.
[5] Coombs, D.et al., 2000: Driving autonomously off-road up to 35 km/h.
Proc. of the IEEE Intelligent Vehicle Symposium, 186-191
Page 85

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