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CHAPTER 5:

ACTIVE FILTERS
EMT 283/3 Analog Electronic II

Outlines
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

7.
8.
9.

Introduction
Advantages of Active Filters over Passive Filters
Types of filter
Filter Response Characteristic
Active Low-Pass Filter
Active High-Pass Filter
Active Band-Pass Filter
Active Band-Stop Filter
Summary

Introduction

Filters are circuits that are capable of passing signals within a


band of frequencies while rejecting or blocking signals of
frequencies outside this band.
This property of filters is also called frequency selectivity.
Passive filters - built using components such as resistors,
capacitors and inductors.
Active filters - employ transistors or op-amps in addition to
resistors and capacitors.
Active filters are mainly used in communication and signal
processing circuits.
They are also employed in a wide range of applications such
as entertainment, medical electronics, etc.

Advantages of Active Filters over Passive Filters


1. Active filters can be designed to provide required
gain, and hence no attenuation as in the case of
passive filters.
2. No loading problem, because of high input
resistance and low output resistance of op-amp.

3. Active Filters are cost effective as a wide variety


of economical op-amps are available.

Active Filter

There are 4 basic categories of active filters:


Low-Pass filters
High-Pass filters
Band-Pass filters
Band-Stop filters
Each of these filters can be built by using op-amp
or transistor as the active element combined with
RC, RL or RLC circuit as the passive elements.

Active Filter

The passband is the range of


frequencies that are allowed
to pass through the filter.
The critical frequency, fc is
specified at the point where
the response drops by -3 dB
from the passband response
(i.e. to 70.7% of the passband
response)
The stopband is the range of
frequencies that have the most
attenuation
The transition region is the
area where the fall-off occurs

Low-Pass Filter

Allows the frequency from


0 Hz to critical frequency,
fH (also known as cutoff
frequency)
Ideally, the response drops
abruptly at the critical
frequency fH

Ideal response
Actual response

1st Order Low-Pass Filter

1
Vo
o
CR
H s s

1
Vi
s o
s
CR

1
o
CR

o
H s
s o

o
1
H j

j o 1 j
o

1st Order Low-Pass Filter


H j

1
2


1
o

1
H j dB 20 log

1st Order Low-Pass Filter

When 0

H j

1
0
1
o

And

H j dB 20 log 1 0 dB

1st Order Low-Pass Filter


1
c o
CR
1
1
H j

0.707
2
11
c
1
o
And H j

20
log
0
.
707

3
dB
dB
1 is known as 3-dB or cutoff
c
frequency (rad/s)
CR

When

1st Order Low-Pass Filter


STRAIGHT-LINE APPROX.
0 dB
-3 dB

SLOPE
= -20 dB/decade

-10 dB
PASSBAND
-20 dB

-30 dB

-40 dB
0.01f c

0.1f c

fc

10f c

100f c

nd
2

Order Low-Pass Filter

Vi V1
V1 Vo
sCV1
R
R
Vi sCR 2
Vo

V1
R R
R
V1 Vo
sCVo
R

(1)

+
Vi
-

V1

R
I2

I1
C

I3
C

I4 +
Vo
-

V1 sCR 1Vo (2)


Vi sCR 2
Vo

sCR 1Vo
(1) & (2)
R R
R

Vo
1
H s

Vi sCR 2 3sCR 1

1
2

CR
H s
3
1
s2 s

CR CR 2

nd
2

Order Low-Pass Filter

o2
H s 2
s s3o o2

where

o CR

0 dB
SLOPE
= -40 dB/decade

-3 dB
-20 dB

-40 dB

PASSBAND

-60 dB

-80 dB
0.01f c

0.1f c

fc

10f c

100f c

High-Pass Filter

Allows the frequencies


above the critical
frequency fL. (also known
as the cutoff frequency.
Ideally, the response rises
abruptly at the critical
frequency.

Gain,
1

fL
Stop
band

Pass
band

Ideal response
Actual response

1st Order High-Pass Filter


Vo
R
s
1
Vi
R
sC
s
s

1
s o
s
CR

s
H s
s o
Where;

1
o
CR

1st Order High-Pass Filter


j
1
H j

j o 1 j o
H j

1
o
1

H j dB 20 log
2
1 o

1st Order High-Pass Filter


H j

When

0
When

When
c o

1
o
1

H j
H j 1 0 dB
H j 0.707 3 dB

1st Order High-Pass Filter


STRAIGHT-LINE APPROX.
0 dB
-3 dB

-10 dB

SLOPE
= 20 dB/decade
PASSBAND

-20 dB

-30 dB

-40 dB
0.01f c

0.1f c

fc

10f c

100f c

nd
2

Order High-Pass Filter


C
+
Vi
-

V1

s2

H s 2
2
s s3o o

+
Vo
-

where

o CR

nd
2

Order High-Pass Filter

0 dB
-3 dB
-20 dB

SLOPE
=4
20 dB/decade

-40 dB

-60 dB

-80 dB
0.001f c

0.01f c

0.1f c

fc

10f c

100f c

1st & 2nd Order Filter


Low-Pass Filter (LPF)

c
H s
s c
H j

High-Pass Filter

H j

1 j
o
2
o
H s 2
s s3o o2

s
H s
s c

o
1 j

H s 2
2
s s3o o

Band-Pass Filter

Allows frequencies
between a lower
cutoff frequency (fL)
and an upper cutoff
frequency (fH).

Gain,
1

fL

fH

Pass
band
Ideal response
Actual response

Band-Pass Filter

BW f f c1

Bandwidth (BW)
c2
Center frequency

f0

f c1 f c 2

Quality factor (Q) is the


ratio of center frequency fo
to the BW

f0
Q
BW

Band-Stop Filter

Frequencies below fc1


(fL) and above fc2 (fH)
are passed.

Gain,
1

fL

fH

Stop
band
Ideal response
Actual response

Filter Response Characteristics

Identified by the shape Av


Chebyshev: rapid roll-off characteristic
of the response curve
Passband flatness
Attenuation of
frequency outside
the passband Butterworth: flat amplitude response
Three types:
1. Butterworth
2. Bessel
3. Chebyshev

Bessel: linear phase response

Filter Response Characteristics


1. Butterworth
Amplitude response is very flat in passband.
The roll-off rate -20 dB per decade (per filter order).
normally used when all frequencies in the passband must
have the same gain.
2. Chebyshev
overshoot or ripples in the passband.
The roll-off rate greater than 20 dB.
can be implemented with fewer poles and less complex
circuitry for a given roll-off rate.
3. Bessel
Linear phase response.
Ideal for filtering pulse waveforms.

Filter Response Characteristics


Damping Factor
determines the type of
response characteristic
either Butterworth,
Chebyshev, or Bessel.
The output signal is
fed back into the filter
circuit with negative
feedback determined
by the combination of
R1 and R2

R1
DF 2
R2

The Damping Factor


Parameters for Butterworth filters up to four poles are
given in the following table. (See text for larger order
filters).
Order

Roll-off
dB/deca
de

1st stage

2nd stage

Poles

DF

R1 /R2

Poles

DF

R1 /R2

-20

Optional

-40

1.414

0.586

-60

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

-80

1.848

0.152

0.765

1.235

Notice that the gain is 1 more than this resistor ratio. For example,
the gain implied by this ratio is 1.586 (4.0 dB).

Example

As an example, a two-pole VCVS Butterworth filter


is designed in this and the next two slides. Assume
the fc desired is 1.5 kHz. A basic two-pole low-pass
filter is shown.
C
A

Step 1: Choose R and C for the


desired cutoff frequency
based on the equation

fc 1

2 RC

By choosing R = 22 kW, then


C = 4.8 nF, which is close to a
standard value of 4.7 nF.

4.7 nF
RA

RB
+

Vin

22 kW

22 kW

CB

4.7 nF

Vout

R1

R2

Example
Step 2: Using the table for the Butterworth filter,
note the resistor ratios required.
1st stage

2nd stage

Order

Roll-off
dB/deca
de

Poles

DF

-20

Optional

-40

1.414

0.586

-60

1.00

-80

1.848

R1 /R2

Poles

DF

R1 /R2

1.00

1.00

1.00

0.152

0.765

1.235

Step 3: Choose resistors that are as close as practical to the desired


ratio. Through trial and error, if R1 = 33 kW, then R2 = 56 kW.

Example
Two-pole Low-Pass Butterworth Design
CA

4.7 nF
RA

RB

Vin

22 kW

22 kW

CB

4.7

nF

Vout

R1

33 kW

R2

56 kW

Filter Response Characteristics


Critical Frequency

The critical frequency, fc is


determined by the values of
R and C in the frequencyselective RC circuit.
For a single-pole (firstorder) filter, the critical
frequency is:
1

fc

2 RC

The above formula can be


used for both low-pass and
high-pass filters

Filter Response Characteristics


Roll-off rate

Greater roll-off rates can be achieved with more poles.


Each RC set of filter components represents a pole.
Cascading of filter circuits also increases the poles which
results in a steeper roll-off.
Each pole represents a 20 dB/decade increase in roll-off

Filter Response Characteristics

Roll-off depends on
number of poles

Active High-Pass Filters

At critical frequency,
Resistance = capacitive
reactance

R Xc
1
R
c C
1
R
2f cC

critical frequency:

1
fc
2RC

Active High-Pass Filters

Roll-off
depends on
number of
poles.

Active High-Pass Filters

A Single-Pole Filter

1
fc
2RC

R1
Acl 1
R2

Active High-Pass Filters

The Sallen-Key
second-order

(two-pole) filter
roll-off -40dB per decade

1
fc
2 RA RBC ACB
RA = RB = R
and CA = CB = C;
Lets

1
fc
2RC

Active High-Pass Filters


R

V2 V f

I2

R2
Vo
V f
V
I
R

R
2
1
Vo Vo R1 R2
R1
Ao

1
V2 V f
R2
R2

C
V1

Vo
V2
Ao

At node V1: I1 I 2 I 3

V1 Vo
sCVi V1
sCV1 V2
R

V2

+
I3

I4

Vo

R1

Vf
R2

Active High-Pass Filters

V1 Vo
Vo
sCVi V1
sCV1 (1)
R
Ao

At node V2: I 3 I 4
V2
sCV1 V2
R

Vo Vo
sCV1
Ao Ao R

Vo
Vo
V1

(2)
Ao Ao sCR
1 sC
1
1
1
Vo
Vo
(2) in (1): sCVi s 2C
R
Ao Ao sCR
R Ao

Active High-Pass Filters


sCR2 3 Ao sCR 1
Vo
sCVi
2

A
sCR
o

2
Ao s 2
Vo
Ao sCR

H s

2
Vi sCR 3 Ao sCR 1 s 2 3 Ao s 1
2
CR

CR
Ao s 2
1
2
2
where o
s 3 Ao o s o
CR

3 Ao = Damping Factor
Ao s 2
H s 2
2
s o s o

Active High-Pass Filters


R

3 Ao
R1
3 1
R2

R1
2
R2

I2
C
Vi

I1

V1

V2

+
I3

I4

Vo

R1

Vf
R2

Active High-Pass Filters

Cascaded HPF Six pole


cascade

3 Sallen-Key two-pole stages


roll-off -120 dB per decade

Active Low-Pass Filters

At critical frequency,
Resistance =
capacitive reactance

R Xc
1
R
c C

1
R
2f cC

critical frequency:

1
fc
2RC

Active Low-Pass Filters

A Single-Pole Filter

1
fc
2RC

R1
Acl 1
R2

Active Low-Pass Filters

The Sallen-Key
second-order

(two-pole) filter
roll-off -40dB per decade

1
fc
2 RA RBC ACB
For RA = RB = R
and CA = CB = C

1
fc
2RC

Active Low-Pass Filters


C

R
+

Vi
2

H s Ao 2
2
s o s o

R1

R2

1
o
CR

R1
& 2
R2

Vo

Active Low-Pass Filters

The 3-dB frequency c is related to o by a factor


known as the FREQUENCY CORRECTION FACTOR
k LP
(kLP), thus; c k LPo

RC

Type of response

Bessel
Butterworth
Chebyshev (1 dB)
Chebyshev (2 dB)
Chebyshev (3 dB)

1.732
1.414
1.054
0.886
0.766

Parameter table for Sellen-Key 2nd order LPFLP

0.785
1
1.238
1.333
1.390

Example
Design a Bessel 2nd order low-pass filter with a 3dB frequency of 5 kHz. Use C = 22 nF.
C

R
+

Vi
C

Vo

R1

R2

Solution
k LP
c k LPo
RC

From the table:

k LP 0.785

1.732

k LP
R
c C

Solution
C
22 nF
R
Vi

1.136 kW

R
+

1.136 kW
C

22 nF

Vo

R1
2.88 kW

R2

10.74 kW

A Bessel 2nd order LPF

Solution
10

-25

fc
-50
100Hz
VDB(C5:2)

1.0KHz

10KHz

100KHz

Frequency

Frequency response curve of a 2nd order Bessel LPF

Example
1.
2.

Determine critical frequency


Set the value of R1 for Butterworth response

Active Low-Pass Filters

Cascaded LPF Three-pole


cascade

two-pole and single-pole


roll-off -60dB per decade

Active Low-Pass Filters

Cascaded LPF Four pole


cascade

two-pole and two-pole


roll-off -80dB per decade

Example
Determine the capacitance values required to
produce a critical frequency of 2680 Hz if all
resistors in RC low pass circuit is 1.8 kW

Solution
1
fc
2RC
1
C
0.033 F
2f c R

CA1 CB1 CA2 CB 2 0.033 F

Active Low-Pass Filters

SELLEN-KEY LPF
The

slope (roll-off) of a filter is associated with the its


order the higher the order of a filter, the steeper will
be its slope.
The slope increases by 20 dB for each order, thus;

ORDER
1
2
3
4

SLOPE (dB/decade)
20
40
60
80

Active Low-Pass Filters

Active filters can be cascaded to increase its order,


e.g. cascading a 2nd order and a 1st order filter will
produce a 3rd order filter

Input
signal

2nd order
LPF

1st order
LPF

Output
signal

Cascading a 2nd order and a 1st order filter produces a 3rd


order filter with a roll-off of 60dB/decade

Active Band-Pass Filters

A cascade of a low-pass and high-pass filter

Band-pass filter formed by cascading a two-pole high-pass and a two-pole


low-pass filters

Active Band-Pass Filters

1
f c1
2 RA1RB1C A1CB1
fc2

1
2 RA2 RB 2C A2CB 2

f0

f c1 f c 2

Active Band-Pass Filters

Multiple-Feedback
BPF
The

low-pass circuit
consists of R1 and C1.
The high-pass circuit
consists of R2 and C2.
The feedback paths
are through C1 and R2.
Center frequency: 1

f0

R1 // R3 R2C1C2

Active Band-Pass Filters

Multiple-Feedback BPF
For C1 = C2 = C, the resistor values can be
obtained using the following formulas:

Q
Q
R1
2f oCAo R2 f C
o
The

Q
R3
2
2f oC (2Q Ao )

maximum gain, Ao occurs at the center


frequency.

Active Band-Pass Filters

State-Variable BPF
It

consists of a summing amplifier and two integrators.


It has outputs for low-pass, high-pass, and band-pass.
The center frequency is set by the integrator RC circuits.
R5 and R6 set the Q (bandwidth).

1 R5
Q 1
3 R6

Active Band-Pass Filters

The band-pass output peaks sharply the center


frequency giving it a high Q.

Active Band-Pass Filters

Biquad Filter

is a type of linear filter that implements a transfer


function that is the ratio of two quadratic functions. The name biquad is
short for biquadratic. It is also sometimes called the 'ring of 3' circuit.

contains an integrator, followed by an inverting amplifier, and then an


integrator.

In a biquad filter, the bandwidth is independent and the Q is dependent on


the critical frequency.

Active Band-Stop Filters

The BSF is opposite of BPF in that it blocks a specific


band of frequencies.
The multiple-feedback design is similar to a BPF
with exception of the placement of R3 and the
addition of R4

Active Band-Stop Filters

State Variable Band-Stop Filter


Summing

the low-pass and the high-pass responses of


the state-variable filter with a summing amplifier
creates a state variable band-stop filter

Summary

The bandwidth of a low-pass filter is the same as


the upper critical frequency.
The bandwidth of a high-pass filter extends from
the lower critical frequency up to the inherent limits
of the circuit.
The band-pass passes frequencies between the
lower critical frequency and the upper critical
frequency.
A band-stop filter rejects frequencies within the
upper critical frequency and upper critical
frequency.

Summary

The Butterworth filter response is very flat and has


a roll-off rate of 20 dB.
The Chebyshev filter response has ripples and
overshoot in the passband but can have roll-off
rates greater than 20 dB.
The Bessel response exhibits a linear phase
characteristic, and filters with the Bessel response
are better for filtering pulse waveforms.

Summary

A filter pole consists of one RC circuit. Each pole


doubles the roll-off rate.
The Q of a filter indicates a band-pass filters
selectivity. The higher the Q the narrower the
bandwidth.
The damping factor determines the filter response
characteristic.

Exercises
1. A band-pass filter can be created by cascading a high-pass
filter and a low-pass filter. (Answer: TRUE )
2. The bandwidth of a band-pass filter is the sum of the two
cutoff frequencies. (Answer: FALSE )
3. A Sallen-Key filter is a second-order filter. (Answer: TRUE )
4. Filters with Bessel characteristics are used for filtering pulse
waveforms. (Answer: TRUE )
5. The bandwidth of a practical high-pass filter is infinite.
(Answer: FALSE )

Exercises
6. In filters, a single RC network is called a pole. (Answer: TRUE )
7. A band-pass filter passes all frequencies within a band
between a lower and an upper cutoff frequency. (Answer: TRUE )
8. An active filter uses capacitors and inductors in the feedback
network. (Answer: FALSE )
9. A second-order filter has a roll-off of 20 dB/decade.
(Answer: FALSE)

10. Butterworth filters have the characteristic of a very flat


response in the passband and a roll-off of 20 dB/decade.
(Answer: TRUE )

Exercises

Identify the frequency response curve for a bandpass filter.

Answer: A

Exercises
A ________ filter rejects all frequencies within a specified
band and passes all those outside this band.
A. low-pass
C. band-pass

B.
D.

high-pass
band-stop

Answer: D

Filters with the ________ characteristic are useful when a


rapid roll-off is required because it provides a roll-off rate
greater than 20/dB/decade/pole.
Answer: B

A. Butterworth
C. Bessel

B.

Chebyshev

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