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Graduate Course
Fundamentals of RSP
Chapter 1
Applications
Applications of Radar
Police traffic radar
: Enforce speed limit and measure the speed of baseballs and tennis serves
Color weather radar
: Viewer of local television news
: One type of metrological radar
Air traffic control
: Guide commercial aircraft both an route and in the vicinity of airports
: Determine altitude and avoid severe weather
: Image runway approaches in poor weather
: Collision avoidance and buoy detection by ships
Spaceborne (both satellite and space shuttle) and airborne radar
: Map earth topology and environmental characteristics
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ct0
2
(1.1)
: azimuth angle
: elevation angle
Transmitter
Waveform generator
- To generate the desired pulse waveform
Transmitter
- To modulate the pulse signal to the desired radio frequency (RF)
- To amplifies this signal to a useful power level
Duplexer
- Through the duplexer, transmitter output is routed to the antenna
- To be also called circulator or T/R switch
Receiver
Low-noise RF amplifier
- First stage of receiver
Signal Processor
- Baseband signal is next sent to the signal processor
- Signal processing: pulse compression, matched filtering, Doppler filtering,
integration, CFAR detection, Clustering, motion compensation, and so on.
Atmospheric Attenuation
Operational Frequency
Lower radar frequencies
- Longer range surveillance application
- Because of :
low atmospheric attenuation
high available powers
Dy
radians
(1.9)
Weather conditions
Millimeter wave
- To have severe losses for even light-to-medium rain rates
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1.3.2 Antennas
The most important properties for a signal processing
- Gain, Beamwidth, Sidelobe-levels
We can get the factors from the antenna power pattern,
The antenna power pattern
P ( , ) = E ( , )
(1.3)
(1.4)
Antenna pattern
Lets consider only the far-field power pattern
Azimuth pattern
E ( ) =
Dy / 2
Dy / 2
A( y )e
2y
j sin
dy
(1.5)
Antenna pattern
E ( ) =
Dy / 2
Dy / 2
A( y )e
2y
j sin
dy =
sin ( D y / ) sin
( D y / ) sin
(1.8)
3-dB Beamwidth
The angular resolution of the antenna is determined by the 3-dB beamwidth of
its main lobe.
1
E
(
)
=
0.707
This can be founded by
2
and solving the argument
=(Dy/)sin.
(1.9)
P
Effective aperture Ae =
m2
W
(1.11)
G=
Ae
(1.12)
Array antenna
It is composed of array elements that is identical dipoles or other simple
antennas with very broad patterns.
Usually, the elements are evenly spaced to form a uniform linear array.
sin
(1.13)
n =0
This is similar to the discrete Fourier transform of the weight sequence {an}.
In case of all an =1, the pattern is the familiar aliased sinc function, whose
magnitude is
E ( ) = E0
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sin[N (d / ) sin ]
sin[(d / ) sin ]
(1.14)
RADAR SIGNAL PROCESSING LAB.
1.3.3 Receivers
The echo waveform r(t) received from a single scatterer
r (t ) = A (t ) sin [ t + (t ) ]
(1.17)
(1.18)
The sum term is then removed by the low-pass filter, leaving only the
modulation term A(t)cos[(t)].
Q-channel (the upper branch) mixes the signal with the LO having the
same frequency but a 90 phase shift from the I channel oscillator.
The mixer output is
(1.19)
r (t ) = A(t ) sin[t + (t )]
r (t ) = A(t )e j [t + (t ) ]
(1.21)
Superheterodyne Receiver
Superheterodyne receiver
1.4.1 Resolution
Resolution Cell
the volume in the space
that contributes to the echo received by radar at any one instant
V = (
R 3 R 3
)(
)R = R 2 3 3R
2
2
4
1.4.1 Resolution
Range resolution
The quantity that Separate different two target
into different time samples in the range direction.
R =
ct 0 c(t 0 ) c
=
2
2
2
1.4.1 Resolution
CR = 2 R sin(
3
2
) R 3
Wavenumber
Time domain
T=
Spatial domain
T =
(sec)
F=
(meter)
F=
(Herz)
2c
(cycles/meter)
(rad/sec)
(rad/meter)
Wavenumber
Fs > F
Nyquist criterion
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k
Xs (U ) = n = X (U ) = X (U kFs )
Ts n =
Spectrum
Replication
Low pass
filter
1.5.2 Phenomenology
To design a successful signal processor characteristics of the signals
Phenomenology : the characteristics of the signals received by the radar
(signal power, frequency, polarization, angle of arrival)
The received signal phenomenology is determined by
- Physical size or orientation and velocity
- The characteristics of the radar (ex. transmitted waveform, polarization)
In Ch.2, models of the behavior of typical measured signals
- radar range equation : predicting signal power
- Doppler phenomenon : received frequency
- random process and linear systems theory : describe radar signals and
to design and analyze radar signal processors
Beamforming
Fixed beamforming
1.Form a directive gain pattern, similar to that shown in Fig. 1.6
2.The high-gain main lobe and low side lobes
- Selectively enhance the echo strength from scatterers in the antenna look
direction while suppressing the echoes from scatterers in other directions
3.Proper choice of the weights
- The main lobe can be steered to various look directions
- Tradeoff between the side lobe level and the main lobe width can be varied
Beamforming
Adaptive beamforming
- Greater jammer and clutter suppression
Beamforming
Example of the effect adaptive beamforming
Fig 1.25 Example of effect adaptive beamforming. (a) Map of received signal power as a function
of angle of arrival and signal Doppler shift. (b) Angle-Doppler map after adaptive processing.
(Image courtesy of Dr. W. L. Melvin.)
Pulse compression
Pulse compression is a special case of matched filtering
Relation to high sensitivity in detecting targets and high range
resolution
The transmitted energy increases : Target detectability improves
The transmitted waveforms instantaneous bandwidth increases : Range
resolution improves
Example) Constant-frequency rectangular envelope pulse as its transmitted
waveform, then the pulse is lengthened
- Increase the transmitted energy Increasing the target detectability
- Decreases its instantaneous bandwidth Degrading the range resolution
Pulse compression
Pulse compression
- Provides a way out of this dilemma by decoupling the waveform bandwidth
from its duration
- Design a modulated waveform
- Common choice is the linear frequency modulated (linear FM, LFM, or chirp)
Pulse compression
Matched filter
- Designed to maximize the SNR at its output
- Impulse response of the filter
: Turns out to be a replica of the transmitted waveforms modulation function
(reverse in time and conjugate)
-Thus, the impulse response is matched to the particular transmitted waveform
modulation
Pulse compression
-A single point scatterer concentrated most of its energy in a very short duration
-Thus, provide both the good range resolution and the high transmitted energy
of a long pulse
-The 3-dB width of the main lobe in time is approximately 1/ seconds,
where is the instantaneous bandwidth of the waveform used
c
Range resolution R =
2
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Clutter filtering
- Moving Target Indication, or MTI
- Simply pulse-to-pulse highpass filtering of the radar echoes , which are
assumed to be due to nonmoving clutter
Doppler processing
- Use of the fast Fourier transform algorithms, or occasionally some other
spectral estimation technique
- Due to their different Doppler shifts, the target is detected and separated
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1.5.4 Imaging
Radar
- Produce blips on a screen to represent targets
- Detect and track moving targets
- Compute high-resolution images of a scene
Radar image
- Monochromatic
- Less detail
- Exhibit a speckled texture
- Image a scene through clouds and inclement weather due to the superior
propagation of RF wavelengths
- Image equally well 24 hours a day
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Imaging
Comparison of optical and SAR image
Fig 1.27 Comparison of optical and SAR image of the Albuquerque airport. (a) Ku band (15 GHz)
SAR image, 3-m resolution. (b) Aerial photograph (Images courtesy of Sandia National Laboratories.)
Imaging
Comparison of optical and SAR image on rainy night
Fig 1.28 National images of the Albuquerque airport that might be obtained if the experiment of
Fig. 1.27 were repeated on rainy night (a) Radar image. (b) Simulated aerial photograph. (Radar
image courtesy of Sandia national Laboratories.)
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Imaging
Obtain high-resolution imagery
- High-bandwidth waveforms in the range dimension
- Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) technique in the cross-range dimension
(1.22)
1.5.5 Detection
Signal processor
- Analyze the total received signal
- Determine the desirable target echo
Threshold detection
- Detection of target echoes in the presence of competing interference signals is
a problem in statistical decision theory
- The technique of threshold detection is the optimal performance
- The magnitude of sample of the radar echo signal (after conditioning and
interference suppression) is compared to a precomputed threshold
signal amplitude < threshold : Interference signals only
signal amplitude > threshold : Presence of a target echo in addition to the
interference Detection or hit is declared
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Detection
False alarm
- A noise spike could cross the threshold, loading to a false target declaration
- False alarm is smaller SIR is larger
Detection
Pulse compression
- The matched filter maximizes the SIR, providing the best threshold detection
performance
- Thus, the technique of pulse compression is important so that high resolution
can be obtained while maintaining good detection performance
1.5.6 Postprocessing
Postprocessing operation is referred to as data processing
Tracking
- Detect the presence of targets
- Estimate the range and angle of the target
- The angle measurements are obtained using angle tracking techniques,
especially monopulse tracking
- Provide a snapshot of the target location at one instant in time
- Track filtering describes a higher-level process of integrating a series
(such measurements to compute a complete trajectory of the target motion)
Radar Principles
- Author : Peyton Z. Peebles
- Publisher : Wiley-Interscience (September 29, 1998)
- ISBN : 0471252050
- Contents : Recent, comprehensive introduction
Radar Principles
- Author : Nadav Levanon
- Publisher : Wiley-Interscience (May 5, 1988)
- ISBN : 0471858811
- Contents : Analyses of many basic signal processing functions
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