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Lectures 31 35:
Concept of Nonlinearity,
Material Nonlinearity,
Geometric Nonlinearity,
Contact Nonlinearity,
Nonlinearity,
Contact
Nonlinearity,
Concept
STRUCTURAL NONLINEARITIES
of
Introduction
Solution of many engineering problems is based on linear approximations. In structural
analyses, these approximations are represented by consideration that
..(1)
where K is the stiffness matrix of the structure, d is the nodal displacements vector and
F is the external nodal force vector. Characteristics of solution of this linear problem is
that
the stiffness of the structure is independent on the value of the load level.
In reality, behavior of structures is nonlinear, but divergences from linear response are
usually small and may be neglected in most practical problems.
On other hand, solution for many engineering problems needs abandonment of linear
approximations. For example, displacements of slender structures (like crane towers,
masts etc.) may be so large that changes of the structure shape (or configuration
changes) cannot be neglected. Many materials behave nonlinearly or linear material
model cannot be used if stress exceeds some value. Moreover, loads may change their
orientations according to displacements and supports may change during loading.
Consequently, structure behaves nonlinearly. If these phenomena are included in a FEA,
the set of equilibrium equations becomes nonlinear and instead of set of linear
equations (1) we obtain a set of nonlinear algebraic equations
..(2)
o
o
o
nonlinear elastic,
elastoplastic,
viscoelastic,
viscoplastic.
Boundary nonlinearities, i.e. displacement dependent boundary conditions.
The most frequent boundary nonlinearities are encountered in contact problems.
Consequences of nonlinear structural behavior that have to be recognized are:
The principle of superposition cannot be applied. Thus, for example, the results of
several load cases cannot be combined. Results of the nonlinear analysis cannot be
scaled.
Only one load case can be handled at a time.
The sequence of application of loads (loading history) may be important.
Especially, plastic deformations depend on a manner of loading. This is a reason for
dividing loads into small increments in nonlinear FE analysis.
The structural behavior can be markedly non-proportional to the applied load.
The initial state of stress (e.g. residual stresses from heat treatment, welding,
cold forming etc.) may be important.
Concept of time curves
For nonlinear static analysis, the loads are applied in incremental steps using time
curves. The time variable represents a pseudo time, which denotes the intensity of
the applied loads at certain step.
For nonlinear dynamic analysis and nonlinear static analysis with time dependent
material properties, time represents the real time associated with the loads
application.
As an example, time curves of forces
and
loading simple beam are displayed
inFigure- 1. Values of forces at any time are defined as
..(3)
where
and
are input values of forces and
functions of time t.
and
..(4)
..(5)
Assume that material is linearly elastic with Youngs modulus E. The assumption of
small strains means here that changes of the bar cross sectional area A can be
neglected. Then axial force in the bar is
..(6)
where A0 is the initial cross sectional area and is the engineering strain defined as
..(7)
..(8)
the expression for strain is getting rather complicated. We can overcame this problem
by
introducing Greens
strain defined
as
..(9)
which
for
our
problem
becomes
..(10)
Use of this new measure of strain is possible because we can define strain arbitrarily.
The only condition is that the strain measure must be objective, which means that is
have to be independent on choice of coordinate system and insensitive to a rigid body
movement. From equations (7) and (9), it follows that
..
(11)
Or
..(12)
..(13)
..(14)
..(15)
then
. This means that difference is only 0,1%,
i.e. a value that can be usually neglected. Assuming that strain is small, we can
write
..(16)
Substituting equation (16) to equilibrium equation (5) and assuming that for small strain
is
..(17)
Obviously, the equation is nonlinear with respect to displacement u. That means that
relation between load P and displacement u is represented not by a straight line as it is
when changes of configuration are neglected but by a curve. This nonlinear
characteristic for
shown in Figure- 3.
MPa,
u
is
possible
and
principle
of
virtual displacements has a form
..(18)
where
is virtual strain corresponding to virtual displacement
can be expressed from equation (10) as
(19)
..
are constant over the whole volume V in this case and assuming that changes
, equation (18)
..(20)
..(21)
This is the same equation as the equation of equilibrium (5). After substituting for N
from (16) the equation (17) will be received again.
Utilization of principle of virtual displacements (PVD) is a convenient way to obtain
conditions of equilibrium for complex structures. For general three dimensional case we
have three components of displacement u, v, w and six components of Greens strain
..(22)
In finite element method, displacements are interpolated within the finite elements as
..(23)
where
are nodal displacements and Ni are shape functions. Substituting these
equations into expressions of Greens strain components, we obtain
..(24)
..(25)
and d is matrix of nodal displacements. Matrix BLis the usual small displacement matrix
and matrix BN reflects the fact that Greens strain is a nonlinear function of
displacements. Elements of this matrix are linear functions of nodal displacements d. It
might be shown that virtual strain corresponding to the virtual nodal
displacements d is
..(26)
According to the principle of virtual displacements, virtual work of internal forces must
be equal to virtual work of external forces if the structure is in equilibrium. This is
represented by the equation
..(27)
..(28)
..(29)
..(30)
The last equation is a matrix representation of a set of nonlinear algebraic equations for
unknown nodal displacements d.
..(31)
..(32)
where
..(33)
..(34)
..(35)
..(36)
Or
..(37)
where
..(38)
for new
is called the tangent stiffness. For the particular case of the bar truss, tangent stiffness
can be easily found as
..(39)
..(40)
from which
..(41)
where
..(42)
and
..(43)
where
..(44)
..(45)
Incremental method
The load is divided into a set of small increments Fi. Increments
displacements di are calculated from the set of linear simultaneous equations
of
..(46)
..(47)
steps has to be done that is inefficient. On the other hand, division of loading process
into sufficiently small increments is necessary to model load path dependent behavior
of a structure. Dependence of response on a manner of loading, not only of final values
of loads is typical for problems with plastic deformation and with friction. In these
problems, incremental method is usually combined with one of following methods.
Newton-Raphson method
Suppose that initial displacements d0 are known. The first guess of nodal displacements
for load F is calculated by solving set of linear algebraic equations
..(48)
where
..(49)
..(50)
..(51)
..(52)
..(53)
..(54)
If
the procedure is repeated until the sufficiently accurate solution is
obtained. The iterations are schematically shown in Figure- 5.
This method, known as Newton-Raphson method (NR) is often combined with
incremental method as displayed in Figure- 5.
..(55)
The elastic critical (buckling) load is given by the lowest value of load parameter for
which d 0 when the lateral load
. Physically this means that equilibrium is
possible with very small lateral displacements in the absence of any lateral load. In
mathematical sense, we have to solve the eigenvalue problem
..(56)
where is
the
eigenvalue
and d is
the
corresponding
eigenvector.
It should be noted that due to assumptions accepted the solution represents itself only
an estimation of the upper bound of the structure load capacity.
Large displacement and large strain behavior
When strain is large, it is inadmissible to neglect shape and volume changes of a
structure. For example, in the simple bar example we have to introduce current cross
sectional A instead of initial A0 and current length L instead of initial length L0 in the
equations (16) and (17).
Accordingly, integration in the equation (27) expressing the principle of virtual
displacements has to be taken over the current volume. This brings problems, as the
current volume is unknown, because it depends on displacements that are unknown too
and must be calculated first. To solve this problem, it is necessary to introduce a
transformation so that integrals are taken over known volume. Two possible ways are
briefly
described
bellow:
In a Total Lagrangian (TL) formulation all integrals are calculated with respect to the
initial undeformed configuration of the structure
..(57)
where
is the initial volume. Due to transformation, new measure for stress so called
..(58)
is Almansi
MATERIAL
NONLINEARITIES
Introduction
Linear elastic FE analysis is based on linear constitutive stress-strain equations
..(59)
in which the terms of material matrix D are expressed as functions of constant values of
modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio. The constant D matrix leads to a constant
stiffness matrix K, which is for strain-displacement relationship
..(60)
given by
..(61)
Departure from linear elasticity implies that the linear elastic constitutive equations are
no longer valid, as the material matrix is no longer constant. The non-constant material
matrix Drepresents nonlinear constitutive equations corresponding to the adopted
nonlinear material model. Consequently, the conditions of equilibrium derived in FEM
from principle of virtual displacements are nonlinear like equations (30) and (31).
Solution of these equations is based on the same methods as in geometrically nonlinear
case. Usually it is necessary to divide load into increments and perform equilibrium
iterations (e.g. by MNR or NR method) for each increment. Moreover, for each load
increment there must be performed stress iterations, as the material matrix is function
of strain. The strain is unknown a priori and will be computed only.
Material nonlinearities
nonlinearities.
are
often
combined
with
geometrical
and/or
boundary
Nonlinear
elasticity
models
Nonlinear elastic behavior of materials can be formulated in several ways. The simplest
is total formulation, where the stress and strains are defined in terms of the secant
modulus of elasticity Es, see Figure- 9.
..(62)
In hypo-elastic formulation, the relationship between the increments of stress and strain
are defined by the tangential modulus of elasticity
..(63)
The nonlinear elastic material law can also be formulated in terms of hyperelastic
formulation, which assumes the existence of strain energy density function U and the
corresponding complementary energy density function
such
..(64)
Material models for multiaxial states of stress are usually based on generalization of
linear problem concepts. For example, in a hyperelastic formulation components of
stress tensor are computed as
..(65)
that means
..(66)
..(66)
and
perfectly plastic. If
material model assumes strain hardening. (2 In a design
process, the real material curve is usually unknown, only basic values like yield stress
etc. are available. Moreover, the material properties slightly differ by different
supplies. )
..(67)
In engineering practice, two following conditions for yielding are most frequently used:
..(68)
where 1, 2 and 3 are principal stresses. Thus, yield occurs when the effective
stress
..(69)
..(70)
The largest difference between these two classical yield criteria is about 15% for the
pure shear stress state. For other stress states is the difference less. Hence, both
criteria are frequently considered as equivalent in engineering practice.
Any yield condition that is function of stress tensor components and material
parameters
..(71)
defines a yield surface in principal stress space, see Figure- 13. Stress points that lie
inside the yield surface are associated with elastic stress states whereas those that lie
on the surface represent plastic stress states. No stress point can be outside the yield
surface.
..(72)
..(73)
..(74)
In multi-axial (other than isotropic cases) cases, subsequent loading after first yield
produces further plastic deformation that can result in a modification of the shape
and/or position of the yield surface.
For a perfectly plastic material, the yield surface remains unchanged during plastic
deformation. For a strain hardening material, plastic deformation produces a change in
shape and position of the yield surface. This means that initial yield surface is gradually
replaced by the subsequent yield surfaces. A modified yield function is adopted which
has a form such as
..(75)
This yield function depends on the stresses but also the plastic strains and a hardening
parameter K. The way in which the plastic strains modify the yield function is defined
byhardening rules:
An isotropic hardening law implies that the yield surface increases in size but
maintains its original shape under loading conditions. Schematic representation of
isotropic hardening for uniaxial and biaxial stress state is shown in Figure- 15.
The combination of the two principal hardening laws leads to a mixed hardening
law, where the initial yield surface both expands and translates as a consequence of
plastic flow.
..(76)
or in matrix form as
..(77)
where d is a scalar value (to be determined) and Q is a scalar valued function of stress
components called plastic potential.
For metals, the called associated flow rule, in which the plastic potential surface
coincides
with
the
yield
surface,
i.e.
..(78)
can be adapted to model plastic flow. For some other materials, non-associated flow rule
in which
has to be used to model plastic flow adequately. In the following text we
will deal with associated flow rule
..(79)
Consider a uniaxial stress state first. The plastic behavior of material is described as
..(80)
where
is constant for a bilinear material as obvious from the equations (72) and (73).
In a multi-axial (other than isotropic cases) stress state, we can formulate a similar
constitutive equation
..(81)
where tangential material matrix DT can be derived from known stress tensor , strain
tensor and constitutive matrix D from equation (59) in following way:
The first step is strain decomposition into elastic
..(82)
..(83)
hence
..(83)
..(84)
where
..(85)
..(86)
..(87)
..(88)
..(89)
Or
..(90)
..(91)
..(92)
and substituting this expression for d into equation (87) we finally obtain
..(93)
When compare the last equation with equation (81) we can see that
..(94)
..(95)
In FE analysis we need to work with finite increments and for which is the relation
above approximate only, so if we use relation
..(96)
..(97)
..(98)
To obtain correct results, various stress increment integration schemes that differ in the
degree of approximation have been developed. Frequently used are the following
schemes:
Generalized trapezoidal rule
Consider that we know stress
Then at step n+1
, total strain
at time step n.
..(99)
..(100)
..(101)
..(102)
..(103)
..(104)
For
..(105)
..(106)
..(107)
It is obvious that in difference with forward scheme, we deal with values defined at the
end of the increment, which are unknown at start of it. Hence, the procedure is of an
iterative nature. This means that at beginning of the increment, the trial stress is
estimated by assuming elastic deformation and computed values are then checked
whether consistency condition and constitutional equation are satisfied. If not, the
process is repeated with improved values until the conditions are satisfied.
Numerical procedures
The tangential material matrix DT is used to form a tangential stiffness matrix KT. When
the tangential stiffness matrix is defined, the displacement increment is obtained for a
known
load
increment
..(108)
integration point must be included. The iteration process continues until both,
equilibrium conditions and constitutive equations are satisfied simultaneously. The
converged solution at the end of load increment is then used at the start of new load
increment.
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The theory of linear elasticity is useful for modelling materials which undergo
small deformations and which return to their original configuration upon
removal of load. Almost all real materials will undergo
some permanent deformation, which remains after removal of load. With
metals, significant permanent deformations will usually occur when the
stress reaches some critical value, called the yield stress, a material
property.
Elastic deformations are termed reversible; the energy expended in
deformation is stored as elastic strain energy and is completely recovered
upon load removal. Permanent deformations involve the dissipation of
energy; such processes are termed irreversible, in the sense that the
original state can be achieved only by the expenditure of more energy.
The classical theory of plasticity grew out of the study of metals in the
late nineteenth century. It is concerned with materials which initially deform
elastically, but which deformplastically upon reaching a yield stress. In
metals and other crystalline materials the occurrence of plastic deformations
at the micro-scale level is due to the motion of dislocations and the migration
of grain boundaries on the micro-level. In sands and other granular
materials plastic flow is due both to the irreversible rearrangement of
individual particles and to the irreversible crushing of individual particles.
Similarly, compression of bone to high stress levels will lead to particle
crushing. The deformation of micro-voids and the development of microcracks is also an important cause of plastic deformations in materials such as
rocks.
A good part of the discussion in what follows is concerned with the plasticity
of metals; this is the simplest type of plasticity and it serves as a good
background and introduction to the modeling of plasticity in other materialtypes. There are two broad groups of metal plasticity problem which are of
interest to the engineer and analyst. The first involves relatively small
plastic strains, often of the same order as the elastic strains which occur.
Analysis of problems involving small plastic strains allows one to design
structures optimally, so that they will not fail when in service, but at the
same time are not stronger than they really need to be. In this sense,
plasticity is seen as a material failure.
The second type of problem involves very large strains and deformations, so
large that the elastic strains can be disregarded. These problems occur in
the analysis of metals manufacturing and forming processes, which can
involve extrusion, drawing, forging, rolling and so on. In these latter-type
problems, a simplified model known as perfect plasticity is usually
employed (see below), and use is made of special limit theorems which
hold for such models.
Plastic deformations are normally rate independent, that is, the stresses
induced are independent of the rate of deformation (or rate of loading). This
is in marked contrast to classical Newtonian fluids for example, where the
stress levels are governed by the rate of deformation through the viscosity of
the fluid.
Materials commonly known as plastics are not plastic in the sense
described here. They, like other polymeric materials,
exhibit viscoelastic behaviour where, as the name suggests, the material
response has both elastic and viscous components. Due to their viscosity,
their response is, unlike the plastic materials, rate-dependent. Further,
although the viscoelastic materials can suffer irrecoverable deformation,
they do not have any critical yield or threshold stress, which is the
characteristic property of plastic behaviour. When a material undergoes
plastic deformations, i.e. irrecoverable and at a critical yield stress, and
these effects are rate dependent, the material is referred to as
being viscoplastic.
Plasticity theory began with Tresca in 1864, when he undertook an
experimental program into the extrusion of metals and published his famous
yield criterion discussed later on. Further advances with yield criteria and
plastic flow rules were made in the years which followed by Saint-Venant,
Levy, Von Mises, Hencky and Prandtl. The 1940s saw the advent of the
classical theory; Prager, Hill, Drucker and Koiter amongst others brought
together many fundamental aspects of the theory into a single framework.
The arrival of powerful computers in the 1980s and 1990s provided the
impetus to develop the theory further, giving it a more rigorous foundation
based on thermodynamics principles, and brought with it the need to
consider many numerical and computational aspects to the plasticity
problem.
Observations from Standard Tests
In this section, a number of phenomena observed in the material testing of
metals will be noted. Some of these phenomena are simplified or ignored in
some of the standard plasticity models discussed later on.
At issue here is the fact that any model of a component with complex
geometry, loaded in a complex way and undergoing plastic deformation,
must involve material parameters which can be obtained in a straight
forward manner from simple laboratory tests, such as the tension test
described next.
The Tension Test
Consider the following key experiment, the tensile test, in which a small,
usually cylindrical, specimen is gripped and stretched, usually at some given
rate of stretching. The force required to hold the specimen at a given stretch
is recorded, Fig. 8.1.1. If the material is a metal, the deformation remains
elastic up to a certain force level, the yield point of the material. Beyond this
point, permanent plastic deformations are induced. On unloading only the
elastic deformation is recovered and the specimen will have undergone a
..(1)
..(2)
in which F and A are both changing with time. For very small elongations,
within the elastic range say, the cross-sectional area of the material
undergoes negligible change and both definitions of stress are more or less
equivalent.
Similarly, one can describe the deformation in two alternative ways.
Denoting the original specimen length by l0 and the current length by l, one
has the engineering strain
..(3)
Alternatively, the true strain accounts for the fact that the original length is
continually changing; a small change in length dl leads to a strain
increment d= dl / l and the total strain is defined as the accumulation of
these increments:
..
(4)
The true strain is also called the logarithmic strain or Hencky strain.
Again, at small deformations, the difference between these two strain
measures is negligible. The true strain and engineering strain are related
through
..(5)
..(6)
The stress-strain diagram for a tension test can now be described using the
true stress/strain or nominal stress/strain definitions, as in Figure 2. The
shape of the nominal stress/strain diagram,Figure 2(a), is of course the same
as the graph of force versus displacement (change in length) in Figure
1. A here denotes the point at which the maximum force the specimen can
withstand has been reached. The nominal stress at A is called the Ultimate
Tensile Strength (UTS) of the material. After this point, the specimen
necks, with a very rapid reduction in cross-sectional area somewhere about
the centre of the specimen until the specimen ruptures, as indicated by the
asterisk.
Note that, during loading into the plastic region, the yield stress increases.
For example, if one unloads and re-loads (as in Figure 1), the material stays
elastic up until a stress higher than the original yield stress Y. In this respect,
the stress-strain curve can be regarded as a yield stress versus strain curve.
, and plastic,
..(7)
The stress and plastic strain increments are related by the plastic
modulus H:
..(8)
..(9)
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