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NAME
MD NAZRE IMAM
ROLL NO
07J61A0429
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Technical Seminar report submitted Graphene: The
futuristic Element. was successfully completed by
NAME
MD NAZRE IMAM
ROLL NO
07J61A0429
SEMINAR SUPERVISOR
(N.S.KHASIM)
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
(Prof.S.V.S.Ramakrishnam Raju)
CONTENTS
1. ABSTRCT..........................................................................................4
2. INTRODUCTION..........................................................................5-8
2.1Carbon vs. Silicon
2.2 Forms of Carbon
3. GRAPHENE................................................................................9-11
3.1 Introduction
3.2 2-D Crystals
3.3 Materials That Should Not Exist
3.4 Discovery of Graphene
4. GRAPHENE FABRICATION...................................................12-13
4.1 Mechanical exfoliation of graphite
4.2 Epitaxial growth on silicon carbide
4.3 Chemicals Vapor Deposition
5. PROPERTIES OF GRAPHENE................................................14-16
5.1 Atomic structure
5.2 Electronic properties
5.3 Optical Properties
5.4 Thermal Properties
5.5 Mechanical Properties
6. POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS.................................................17-20
6.1 Graphene nanoribbons
6.2 Graphene Transistors
6.3 Integrated Circuits
6.4 Transparent conducting electrodes
6.5 Solar cells
6.6 Ultra-capacitors
6.7 Graphene Bio-devices
6.8 Single molecule gas detection
7. LIMITATIONS..................................................................................21
8. FUTURE ASPECTS..........................................................................22
9. CONCLUSION...................................................................................23
10. BIBLIOGRAPHY.............................................................................24
Abstract
Materials are the basis of almost all new discoveries in science. The development
of new materials can lead to the uncovering entire new fields of study, as well as new
solutions to problems that may have been thought to be unsolvable. One such material is
graphene, a deceptively simple arrangement of carbon atoms. This new material has leapt to
the forefront of material science and has numerous possible applications. It also allows for
the observation of electrons in an almost zero resistance environment. Graphene may not yet
be commercially viable but in the coming years is almost certainly going to be applied in
many different fields. This paper is a brief review of graphene and some of its properties and
applications. Just one atom thick and less than fifty atoms (a few nanometres) wide, the tiny
transistors made from graphene pave the way for a new breed of computer chips smaller and
faster than those based on silicon.
2. INTRODUCTION
Silicon has provided the electronics industry a solid base of favorable
properties capitalizing on which various advancements in electronics has been made (in terms
of speed and size). But now it seems that silicon is approaching its limits. Most of the
engineers and scientists think that it will eventually become too complex and expensive to
reduce the size of silicon chips. Also, the speeds of silicon chips have stuck in the gigahertz
range. So as the electronics world is looking for new candidate materials, Graphene seems to
offers an exceptional choice. Graphene is a form of carbon. As a material it is completely
new not only the thinnest ever but also the strongest. As a conductor of electricity it performs
as well as copper. As a conductor of heat it outperforms all other known materials. It is
almost completely transparent, yet so dense that not even helium, the smallest gas atom, can
pass through it. Graphene has rapidly changed its status from being an unexpected and
sometimes unwelcome newcomer to a rising star and to a reigning champion. Research on
graphene has electronic properties is now matured but is unlikely to start fading any time
soon, especially because of the virtually unexplored opportunity to control quantum transport
by strain engineering and various structural modifications. Even after that, graphene will
continue to stand out in the arsenal of condensed matter physics. Research on graphene has
non-electronic properties is just gearing up, and this should bring up new phenomena that
may well sustain, if not expand, the graphene boom.
MEMS are finding applications in a wide array of products. Silicon fabrication processes and
equipment are readily available due to the microelectronics boom making silicon a natural
choice for MEMS.
But is silicon the best choice? A potential alternative to silicon is carbon which forms several
distinct structures that have superior electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties to silicon.
2.2.1 Diamond
The three dimensional form of carbon is diamond. It is sp3 bonded forming 4 covalent bonds
with the neighboring carbon atoms into a face-centered cubic atomic structure. Because the
carbon-carbon covalent bond is one of the strongest in nature, diamond has a remarkably high
Youngs modulus and high thermal conductivity. Un-doped diamond has no free electrons
and is a wide band gap (~5.5 eV) insulator. The exceptional physical properties and clever
advertising such as Diamonds are forever contribute to its appeal as a sought after gem. When
Properly cut and polished, it is set to make beautiful pieces of jewelry. The smaller defective
crystals are used as reinforcement in tool bits which utilize its superior hardness for cutting
applications. The high thermal conductivity of diamond makes it a potentially useful material
for microelectronics where heat dissipation is currently a major problem. However,
diamonds scarcity makes this unappealing. To this end, scientists and engineers are trying to
grow large diamond wafers. One method to do so is chemical vapor deposition (CVD) where
solid carbon is deposited from carbon containing gases such as methane or ethylene. By
controlling the growth conditions, it is possible to produce defect free diamonds of limited
size. Currently research is ongoing to scale the technology up to wafer size diamond growth.
It is only with such large scale growth that diamond will make any technological impact
beyond its current industrial uses in the machining industry.
a lot of attention from the research community and dominated the scientific headlines during
the1990s and early 2000. This interest in nanotubes was partly responsible for the resurgent
interest in graphene as a potentially important and interesting material for electrical and
mechanical applications.
3. GRAPHENE
3.1 Introduction
Graphene is the name given to a flat monolayer of carbon atoms tightly packed into a two
dimensional (2D) honeycomb lattice, and is a basic building block for graphitic materials of
all other dimensionalities. It can be wrapped up into 0D fullerenes, rolled into1D nanotubes
or stacked into 3D graphite. Theoretically, graphene (or 2D graphite) has been studied for
sixty years, and is widely used for describing properties of various carbon-based materials.
Forty years later, it was realized that graphene also provides an excellent condensed-matter
analogue of (2+1)-dimensional quantum electrodynamics, which propelled graphene into a
thriving theoretical toy model. On the other hand, although known as an integral part of 3D
materials, graphene was presumed not to exist in the free state, being described as an
academic material and was believed to be unstable with respect to the formation of curved
structures such as soot, fullerenes and nanotubes. Suddenly, the vintage model turned into
reality, when free-standing graphene was unexpectedly found three years ago and especially
when the follow-up experiments confirmed that its charge carriers were indeed mass-less
Dirac
fermions.
So,
the
graphene
gold
rush
has
begun.
bi-layer has simple electronic spectra: they are both zero-gap semiconductors (they can also
be referred to as zero-overlap semimetals) with one type of electron and one type of hole. For
three or more layers, the spectra become increasingly complicated: Several charge carriers
appear, and the conduction and valence bands start notably overlapping. This allows single-,
double- and few- (3 to <10) layer graphene to be distinguished as three different types of 2D
crystals (graphenes).
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identified bits of graphene turned out to have high crystal quality and to be chemically stable
even at room temperature. The experimental discovery of graphene led to a deluge of
international research interest. Not only is it the thinnest of all possible materials, it is also
extremely strong and stiff. Moreover, in its pure form it conducts electrons faster at room
temperature than any other substance. Engineers at laboratories worldwide are currently
scrutinizing the stuff to determine whether it can be fabricated into products such as
supertough composites, smart displays, ultrafast transistors and quantum-dot computers.
Since its discovery in 2004, graphene has been viewed as a promising new electronic material
because it offers superior electron mobility, mechanical strength and thermal conductivity.
These characteristics are crucial as electronic devices become smaller and smaller, presenting
engineers with a fundamental problem of keeping the devices cool enough to operate
efficiently.
Figure 6: Folded sheets of graphene on a silicon plate. The image was made with a
scanning electron microscope, magnified about 5000 times.
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4. GRAPHENE FABRICATION
The most common method of graphene fabrication is exfoliation which finds its roots
with a technique that has been around for centuries writing with a graphite pencil. By writing
with a pencil you create many graphene sheets spread over your paper. Unfortunately this
method is uncontrollable and you are typically left with many sheets of varying thicknesses.
If you want to study a single graphene sheet you need to locate it. The problem amounts to
trying to find a needle in a haystack.
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in a bath similar to that used for etching. The technique which currently seems to have the
greatest potential for mass production is the direct growth of graphene. There are some other
methods such as Graphite oxide reduction and Pyrolysis of sodium ethoxide which are
quite economical but they lead to poor quality graphene crystals.
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5. PROPERTIES OF GRAPHENE
5.1 Atomic structure:
The atomic structure of isolated, single-layer graphene was studied by transmission
electron microscopy (TEM) on sheets of graphene suspended between bars of a metallic grid.
Electron diffraction patterns showed the expected hexagonal lattice of graphene. Suspended
graphene also showed "rippling" of the flat sheet, with amplitude of about one nanometer.
These ripples may be intrinsic to graphene as a result of the instability of two-dimensional
crystals, or may be extrinsic, originating from the ubiquitous dirt seen in all TEM images of
graphene.
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the Dirac equation forspin1/2 particles. Hence, the electrons and holes are called Dirac
fermions.
5.2.3 Low resistivity and better current capacity & temperature conductivity:The resistivity of the graphene sheet can be as low as 0.01cm. This is less than the
resistivity of silver, the lowest resistivity substance known. Graphene nanoribbons exhibit an
impressive breakdown current density that is related to the resistivity. Graphene is being
studied as apotential replacement for copper in on-chip interconnects, the tiny wires that are
used to connect transistors and other devices on integrated circuits. In addition to the high
current carrying capacity, graphene nanoribbons also have excellent thermal conductivity.
5.2.4
Highly
modifiable
electrical
properties:-Despite
being a
zero-band
gap
semiconductor will extremely low resistivity, Graphene can be tweaked to takeon all the three
roles of conductor, semi-conductor and even insulator(as graphene oxide).
5.2.5 High frequency operation:- Graphene is estimated to operate at terahertzfrequencies
i.e. trillions of operations per second.The key advantage ofgraphene technology is that
electrons move at a very high velocity, thusallowing to obtain high speed and high
performance transistors
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been achieved by graphene-based saturable absorber. Due to this special property graphene
has wide application in ultrafast photonics.
5.4 Thermal properties:The near-room temperature thermal conductivity of graphene was recently measured to
be between (4.840.44) 103 to (5.300.48) 103W/mK. These measurements are in excess of
those measured for carbon nanotubes or diamond. The ballistic thermal conductance of
graphene is isotropic.
5.5 Mechanical properties:As of 2009, graphene appears to be one of the strongest materials ever tested.
Measurements have shown that graphene has a breaking strength 200 times greater than steel,
a bulk strength of130GPa. However, the process of separating it from graphite, where it
occurs naturally, will require some technological development before it is economical enough
to be used in industrial processes.
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6. POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS
The possible practical applications for graphene have received much attention. Sofar, most of
them exist only in our fantasies, but many are already being tested, also by Geim and
Novoselov themselves. Graphenes conducting ability has spurred a great deal of interest.
Graphene transistors are predicted to be substantially faster than those made out of silicon
today. In order for computer chips to become faster and more energy efficient they have to be
smaller. Silicon hits a size boundary where the material ceases to function. The limit for
graphene is even lower, so graphene components could be packed on a chip more tightly than
today. One milestone was passed a few years ago when its key component, a graphene
transistor, was presented that was as fast as its silicon counterpart. So far, graphene
computers are nothing but a distant dream, although paper-thin transparent computer
monitors that can be rolled up and carried in a hand bag have already appeared in
commercials for tomorrows consumer electronics. Since graphene is practically transparent
(up to nearly98%) while simultaneously being able to conduct electricity, it would be suitable
for the production of transparent touch screens, light panels and maybe even solar cells. Also
plastics could be made into electronic conductors if only1% of graphene were mixed into
them. Likewise by mixing in just a fraction of as per mile of graphene, the heat resistance of
plastics would increase by 30 C while at the same time making them more mechanically
robust. This resilience could be utilized in new super strong materials, which are also thin,
elastic and lightweight. In the future, satellites, airplanes, and cars could be manufactured out
of the new composite materials
6.1 Graphene nanoribbons:Graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) are essentially single layer s of graphene that are cut in
a particular pattern to give it certain electrical properties. Depending on how the un-bonded
edges are configured, they can either be in a zigzag or armchair configuration. Experimental
results show that the energy gaps do increase with decreasing GNR width. Their 2D structure,
high current capacity and thermal conductivity, and low noise also make GNRs a possible
alternative to copper for integrated circuit interconnects.
Fig 10: GNRs with their corresponding atomic force microscopic image
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6.2 Graphene transistors:Due to its high electronic quality, graphene has also attracted the interest of technologists
who see it as a way of constructing ballistic transistors. Graphene exhibits a pronounced
response to perpendicular external electric fields, allowing one to build FETs (field-effect
transistors). Facing the fact that current graphene transistors show a very poor on-off ratio,
researchers are trying to find ways for improvement.
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6.4 Transparent conducting electrodes:Graphene's high electrical conductivity and high optical transparency make it a
candidate for transparent conducting electrodes, required for such applications as touch
screens, liquid crystal displays, organic photovoltaic cells, and organic light-emitting diodes.
In particular, graphene's mechanical strength and flexibility are advantageous compared to
indium tin oxide, which is brittle, and graphene films may be deposited from solution over
large areas. A power conversion efficiency (PCE) up to1.71% was demonstrated, which is
5.2%
of
the
PCE
of
control
device
based
on
indium-tin-oxide.
6.5 Solar cells:The USC Viterbi School of Engineering lab reported the large scale production of highly
transparent grapheme films by chemical vapor deposition three years ago. The USC team has
produced graphene/polymer sheets ranging in sizes up to150 square centimeters that in turn
can be used to create dense arrays of flexible OPV(organic photovoltaic) cells. It may
eventually be possible to run printing presses laying extensive areas covered with inexpensive
solar cells, much like newspaper presses print newspapers (roll-to-roll).
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6.6 Ultra-capacitors:Due to the extremely high surface area to mass ratio of graphene, one potential application is
in the conductive plates of ultra capacitors. It is believed that graphene could be used to
produce ultra capacitors with a greater energy storage density than is currently available.
6.8 Single molecule gas detection:Graphene makes an excellent sensor due to its 2D structure. The fact that its entire volume is
exposed to its surrounding makes it very efficient to detect adsorbed molecules. Molecule
detection is indirect: as a gas molecule adsorbs to the surface of graphene, the location of
absorption experiences a local change in electrical resistance. While this effect occurs in
other materials, grapheme is superior due to its high electrical conductivity (even when few
carriers are present) and low noise which makes this change in resistance detectable.
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7. LIMITATIONS
Despite so many fruitful promises in the field of electronics, the graphene based ICs,
microprocessor, etc. are unlikely to appear for the next10-15 years. For more practical
applications one would like to utilize the strong gate dependence of graphene for either
sensing or transistor applications. One of the major problem lies in the production of high
quality graphene having sufficient reproducibility. Also despite being almost similar to
silicon, even a-bit better in terms of most of the characteristics graphene lacks the ability
work as a switch. Without this, a chip will draw electricity continuously, unable to turn off.
Unfortunately, graphene has no band gap and correspondingly resistivity changes are small.
Therefore, a graphene transistor by its very nature is plagued by a low on/off ratio.However
one way around this limitation, is to carve graphene into narrow ribbons. By shrinking the
ribbon the momentum of charge carriers in the transverse direction becomes quantized which
results in the opening of a band gap. This band gap is proportional to the width of the ribbon.
This effect is pronounced in carbon nanotubes where a nanotube has a band gap proportional
to its diameter. The opening of a band gap in graphene ribbons has recently been observed in
wide ribbon devices lithographically patterned from large graphene flakes and in narrow
chemically synthesized graphene ribbons.
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8. FUTURE ASPECTS
The free-state existence of graphene has paved in ways for a large variety of
applications in the field of electronics, material sciences, photonics and many other fields.
One engineering direction deserves special mention: graphene-based electronics. It has been
emphasized that the charge carriers in graphene move at high speed and lose relatively little
energy to scattering, or colliding, with atoms in its crystal lattice. That property should make
it possible to build so-called ballistic transistors, ultrahigh-frequency devices that would
respond much more quickly than existing transistors do. Even more tantalizing is the
possibility that graphene could help the microelectronics industry prolong the life of Moores
law. Gordon Moore, a pioneer of the electronics industry, pointed out some 40 years ago that
the number of transistors that can be squeezed onto a given area doubles roughly every18
months. The inevitable end of that continuing miniaturization has been prematurely
announced many times. The remarkable stability and electrical conductivity of graphene even
at nanometer scales could enable the manufacture of individual transistors substantially less
than10 nanometers across and perhaps even as small as a single benzene ring. In the long run,
one can envision entire integrated circuits carved out of a single graphene sheet. After just 6
years of the first reported existence of graphene, a remarkable progress has been made. But
still a lot more work is to be done to put the above theories into practical being.
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9. CONCLUSION
Finally we conclude that This new material has leapt to the forefront of material
science and
electrons in an almost zero resistance environment. Graphene may not yet be commercially
viable but in the coming years is almost certainly going to be applied in many different fields.
This paper is a brief review of graphene and some of its properties and applications. Just one
atom thick and less than fifty atoms (a few nanometres) wide, the tiny transistors made from
graphene pave the way for a new breed of computer chips smaller and faster than those based
on silicon.
And if we use the graphene in the electronics and its different area then it is very helpful
for reduce the size of electronics equipment and its weight also. Main advantage it is form of
carbon then it is cheaper than the other metals.
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10. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Geim, A. K. and Novoselov, K. S. (2007). "The rise of graphene". Nature
Materials6
Mechanical And Electrical Properties Of Graphene Sheets by Joseph
Scott Bunch(Cornell University)
Drawing Conclusions from Graphene.Antonio Castro Neto, and
Nuno Miguel Peres inP hysics World,Vol.19
Wikipedia
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphene Graphene-the
perfect atomic lattice. The Nobel Prize In Physics 2010, Jannik Meyer,
Science vol. 324,15 May 2009
Flat Carbon-Faster Than Silicon for Electronics.SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN,April-2008.
www.google.co.in
www.scribd.com
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