INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

On
STUDY OF AUTOMATION SYSTEM (PLC)
IN PROCESS INDUSTRY
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree
Of

B.E
IN
ELECTRONICS (INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL)
Batch (2012-2016)
Period of training: JUNE-JULY 2014

Submitted by
ARCHIT GARG
101205012
THAPAR UNIVERSITY
PATIALA ,PUNJAB
Under the supervision of :Mr.VIKAS MANORIA
Chief Manager (Sales)
Siemens India Pvt. Limited
Gurgaon

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am extremely grateful to Siemens Ltd., for giving me the opportunity to pursue

my Summer Internship Program with the company.

I would like to thank Mr. Vikas Manoria (Chief Manager Sales ) for providing
all possible support and guidance in connection with project undertaken. I am
grateful to him for giving me a chance to work closely with his team members
throughout the training period. He also provided me with all the assistance, his
precious time and help whenever I needed access to all the readings and Company
modules.
Thanks and appreciation to fellow staff members at Siemens
Ltd. who helped me to gain knowledge of all the processes and measures taken at
Siemens Ltd.

Mr.Vikas Manoria
Chief Manager (Sales)

Siemens India Pvt Limited

1.1 Company Profile

Siemens was founded in Berlin by Werner von Siemens in
1847.As an extraordinary inventor, engineer and
entrepreneur, Werner von Siemens made the worlds first
pointer telegraph and electric dynamo ; inventions that help
put the spin in the industrial revolution. He was the man
behind the most fascinating success stories of all time-by
turning a humble little workshop into one of the worlds
largest enterprises.
Siemens is today a technology giant in more than 190
countries, employing some 362,000 people worldwide. Their
work in the field of energy, industry, communications,
information, transportation, healthcare, components and
lightening has become essential parts of everyday life.
Siemens was established in India in 1922 progress and has
12 offices and 5 manufacturing units in the country.
With a presence of more than 190 countries Siemens is a
global powerhouse in electronics and electrical engineering,
operating in the industry, healthcare and energy sectors.

Short

Portrait of Siemens:
Founder- Werner von Siemens
CEO Siemens- Armin Bruck (SIEMENS INDIA)
Headquarters- Berlin, Munic

1.2

Siemens in India

Siemens in India has history dating back to 1867

when the founder Werner von Siemens took a bold
decision to build a telegraph line from London to
Kolkata. This happened within 20 years of companys
foundation in 1847.

1. INTRODUCTION TO PLC (PROGRAMMABLE

LOGIC CONTROLLER)

Process Control

Recognizing
the

Process
the
information

Rules and
guidelines

Actuate the
control
element

Process control consists of three activities

Recognizing the state of the process at all times

Processing the information according to the set rules and
guidelines
Actuating the control elements accordingly

These actions can be taken

Manually with human involvement
In a semiautomatic manner
In a fully automatic manner

1.1 Automation

Automation is basically the delegation of human control functions

to technical equipment aimed towards achieving

Higher productivity
Superior

quality of end product

Efficient usage of energy and raw materials

Improved safety in working conditions

Arrival of microprocessor and associated peripheral chips has

changed the whole process of control and automation
radically.
PLC achieves the desired control and automation through a
program or software. Therefore these controllers are referred
to as Programmable Logic Controllers.
It can be effectively used in applications ranging from simple
control like replacing small number of relays to complex
automation problems like Rolling Mill automation.

Programmable controllers offer a system with computer flexibility:

Suited to withstand the industrial environment

Has simplicity of operation
Maintenance by plant technicians and
Reduce machine down time and provide expandability for
future.

1.2 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)

A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programming memory
for the internal storage of instructions for implementing specific functions
such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic to control through
digital or analog modules, various types of machines or process.

It can be viewed as an industrial computer that has a central processor unit,

memory, input output interface and a programming device.
The Central Processing Unit provides the intelligence of the controller. It
accepts data, status information from various sensing devices like limit
switches, proximity switches, executes the user control program store in the
memory and gives appropriate output commands to devices like solenoid
valves, switches etc.

 Input Output Interface is the communication link between field devices and
the controllers; field devices are wired to the I/O interfaces. Through these
interfaces the processor can sense and measure physical quantities regarding
a machine or process, such as, proximity, position, motion, level,
temperature, pressure, etc. Based on status sensed, the CPU issues
command to output devices such as valves, motors, alarms, etc.
Programmer Unit provides the man machine interface. It is used to enter the
application program, which often uses a simple user-friendly logic.
LEADING BRANDS OF PLC

AMERICAN 1. Allen Bradley

2. Honeywell
3. Texas Instruments
4. General Electric
5. Westinghouse
6. Invensys
EUROPEAN 1. Siemens
2. Schneider Electric
3. ABB
4. Telemecanique
5. Festo
6. Klockner & Mouller
JAPANESE 1. Toshiba
2. Omron
3. Fanuc
4. Mitsubishi

 ADVANTAGES OF PLC
Reduced SpacePLCs are fully solid state and hence extremely compact as
compared to hard-wired controller wherein electromechanical devices are
used.
Energy SavingAverage power consumption is just 1/10th of power
consumed by an equivalent relay logic control.
Ease of Maintenance
Modular replacement
Easy trouble shooting
Error diagnostics with programmer
Economical
One time investment
Cost of PLC recovers within a short period (Low pay back period)
Tremendous Flexibility
To implement changes in control logic no rewiring is required
PLC can carry out complex functions such as generation of time delays,
counting and comparing of arithmetic operations etc.
On Line(i.e. without disturbing the process) as well as Off Line
programming is possible.
High processing speed and greater flexibility in the processing of both
analog and digital signals.
Suitability for closed loop tasks with several loops and high sampling
Frequencies
Greater Life and Reliability
Because of the static devices the moving parts are less and therefore
reduced wear and tear which finally results in longer ON TIME of the
system.
Shorter Project time
In PLC, construction of the controller and wiring are independent of control
program definition. The total hardware is standard and desired control is

achieved through program.

Easier Storage Archiving and Documentation
This is due to its compatibility with PC/AT, printer and floppy disk.
BENEFITS OF PLC OVER COMPUTER
Computers are generally used for data storing or handling purposes where as
PLC are used for Logical processing.
PLCs can handle large number of I/Os.
PLCs interact directly with the process as I/O are a part of PLC, where as
Computer needs special designed I/O for operation.
Programming in PLC is simpler than Computers, and the language is very
user friendly compare to Computers.
Computer cant sustain in industrial environment where high noise,
temperature, vibration and humidity is present.
APPLICATIONS OF PLC
Manufacturing / Machining
Food / Beverage
Metals
Power
Mining
Petrochemical / Chemical

2. SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

3. HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A PLC

POWER SUPPLY
Provides the voltage needed to run the primary PLC components
I/O MODULES
Provides signal conversion and isolation between the internal logic- level
signals inside the PLC and the fields high level signal.

 PROCESSOR
Provides intelligence to command and govern the activities of the entire
PLC systems.
PROGRAMMING DEVICE
used to enter the desired program that will determine the sequence of
operation and control of process equipment or driven machine.
Also known as:
- Industrial Terminal ( Allen Bradley )
- Program Development Terminal ( General Electric )
- Programming Panel ( Gould Modicon )
- Programmer ( Square D )
- Program Loader ( Idec -Izumi )
- Programming Console ( Keyence / Omron )
Types:
-Hand held unit with LED / LCD display
-Desktop type with a CRT display
-Compatible computer terminal

3.1 FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS BLOCKS

3.1.1 INPUT MODULE
o

Acts as an interface between the field control inputs and the CPU.
o The voltage or current signals generated by the sensors, transducers, limit
switches, push buttons etc. are applied to the terminals of the input
module.
o The main purpose of the I/O interface is to condition the various signals
received from or sent to the external input and output devices.
o Input modules convert signals from discrete or analog input devices to
logic levels acceptable to PLCs processor.
o Depending upon the nature of input signal coming from the field the input
module could be Analog Input Module
Digital Input Module
DC INPUT MODULE

AC INPUT MODULE

 OUTPUT MODULE
o Acts as a link between the CPU and the output devices located in the
field.
o These field devices could be relays, contactors, lamps, motorized
potentiometers, actuators, solenoid valves, dampers etc. These devices
actually control the process.
o The output module converts the output signal delivered by CPU into
an appropriate voltage level suitable for the output field device which
is applied to the respective output terminals.
o An output module could be an analog or digital. The selection is based
on the voltage rating of the field output devices.
o Typical analog output modules have the ratings of 4 to 20 mA or 0 to
10 V and the digital output modules have 24V DC, 115V AC, 230V
AC or relay output.

DC / AC OUTPUT MODULE

DIFFERENT TYPES OF I/O CIRCUITS

1. Pilot Duty Outputs
Outputs of this type typically are used to drive high-current electromagnetic loads
such as solenoids, relays, valves, and motor starters.
These loads are highly inductive and exhibit a large inrush current.
Pilot duty outputs should be capable of withstanding an inrush current of 10 times
the rated load for a short period of time without failure.
2. General - Purpose Outputs
These are usually low- voltage and low-current and are used to drive indicating
lights and other non-inductive loads. Noise suppression may or may not be
included on this types of modules.

3. Discrete Inputs
Circuits of this type are used to sense the status of limit switches, push buttons, and
other discrete sensors. Noise suppression is of great importance in preventing false
indication of inputs turning on or off because of noise.
4. Analog I/O
Circuits of this type sense or drive analog signals.
Analog inputs come from devices, such as thermocouples, strain gages, or pressure
sensors, that provide a signal voltage or current that is derived from the process
variable.
Standard Analog Input signals: 4-20mA; 0-10V
Analog outputs can be used to drive devices such as voltmeters, X-Y recorders,
servomotor drives, and valves through the use of transducers.
Standard Analog Output signals: 4-20mA; 0-5V; 0-10V
5. Special - Purpose I/O

Circuits of this type are used to interface PLCs to very specific types of circuits
such as servomotors, stepping motors PID (proportional plus integral plus
derivative) loops, high-speed pulse counting, resolver and decoder inputs,
multiplexed displays, and keyboards.
This module allows for limited access to timer and counter presets and other PLC
variables without requiring a program loader.

 DISCRETE INPUT
A discrete input also referred as digital input is an input that is either ON
or OFF is connected to the PLC digital input. In the ON condition it is
referred to as logic 1 or a logic high and in the OFF condition maybe
referred to as logic o or logic low.

 ANALOG INPUT
An analog input is an input signal that has a continuous signal.
Typical inputs may vary from 0 to 20mA, 4 to 20mA or 0 to10V.
Below, a level transmitter monitors the level of liquid in the tank.
Depending on the level transmitter, the signal to the PLC can
either increase or decrease as the level increases or decreases.

ANALOG OUTPUT

An analog output is an output signal that has a continuous signal.

Typical outputs may vary from 0 to 20mA, 4 to 20mA or 0 to10V.

3.1.2 PROCESSOR
The processor module contains the PLCs microprocessor, its supporting
circuitry, and its memory system.
The main function of the microprocessor is to analyze data coming from
field sensors through input modules, make decisions based on the users
defined control program and return signal back through output modules to the
field devices. Field sensors: switches, flow, level, pressure, temperature
transmitters, etc. Field output devices: motors, valves, solenoids, lamps, or
audible devices.
The memory system in the processor module has two parts: a system memory
and an application memory.
Memory Map Organization

 Memory Designs
-VOLATILE
A volatile memory is one that loses its stored information when power is
removed.
Even momentary losses of power will erase any information stored or
programmed on a volatile memory chip.
Common Type of Volatile Memory
RAM - Random Access Memory (Read/Write)
Read/write indicates that the information stored in the memory can be retrieved
or read, while write indicates that the user can program or write information
into the memory.

The words random access refer to the ability of any location (address) in the
memory to be accessed or used. Ram memory is used for both the user
memory (ladder diagrams) and storage memory in many PLCs.
RAM memory must have battery backup to retain or protect the stored
program.
-NON-VOLATILE
Has the ability to retain stored information when power is removed,
accidentally or intentionally. These memories do not require battery back-up.
Common Type of Non-Volatile Memory
ROM - Read Only Memory
Read only indicates that the information stored in memory can be read only
and cannot be changed. Information in ROM is placed there by the
manufacturer for the internal use and operation of the PLC.

Other Types of Non-Volatile Memory

PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory
Allows initial and/or additional information to be written into the chip.
PROM may be written into only once after being received from the PLC
manufacturer; programming is accomplished by pulses of current.
The current melts the fusible links in the device, preventing it from being
reprogrammed. This type of memory is used to prevent unauthorized program
changes.
EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
Ideally suited when program storage is to be semi-permanent or additional
security is needed to prevent unauthorized program changes.

The EPROM chip has a quartz window over a silicon material that contains the
electronic integrated circuits. This window normally is covered by an opaque
material, but when the opaque material is removed and the circuitry exposed to
ultra violet light, the memory content can be erased.
The EPROM chip is also referred to as UVPROM.
EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
Also referred to as E2PROM, is a chip that can be programmed using a
standard programming device and can be erased by the proper signal being
applied to the erase pin.
EEPROM is used primarily as a non-volatile backup for the normal RAM
memory. If the program in RAM is lost or erased, a copy of the program stored
on an EEPROM chip can be down loaded into the RAM.

BUS SYSTEM
Bus system is a path for the transmission of signals. In the
programmable controllers, it is responsible for the signal
exchange between processor and input / output modules.

The bus comprises of several signal lines i.e. wires / tracks.

There are three buses in a PLC:

Address bus - Enables the selection of a memory location

Data bus Carries the data from memory location / modules
to processor and vice versa
Control bus Transfers control and timing signals for the
synchronization of the CPUs activities within the
programmable controller

4. PLC OPERATION
Basic Function of a Typical PLC
Read all field input devices via the input interfaces, execute the user program
stored in application memory, then, based on whatever control scheme has been
programmed by the user, turn the field output devices on or off, or perform
whatever control is necessary for the process application.
This process of sequentially reading the inputs, executing the program in
memory, and updating the outputs is known as SCANNING.
While the PLC is running, the scanning process includes the
following four phases, which are repeated continuously as
individual cycles of operation:

PHASE 1 Input Status scan

A PLC scan cycle begins with the CPU reading the status
its inputs.

of

PHASE 2 Logic Solve/Program Execution

The application program is executed using the status of the

inputs.
PHASE 3 Logic Solve/Program Execution

 Once the program is executed, the CPU performs diagnostics

and communication tasks.
PHASE 4 - Output Status Scan

An output status scan is then performed, whereby the stored

output values are sent to actuators and other field output
devices. The cycle ends by updating the outputs.
As soon as Phase 4 are completed, the entire cycle begins again
with Phase 1 input scan.

The time it takes to implement a scan cycle is called SCAN TIME.

The scan time composed of the program scan time, which is the
time required for solving the control program, and the I/O
update time, or time required to read inputs and update
outputs. The program scan time generally depends on the
amount of memory taken by the control program and type of
instructions used in the program. The time to make a single
scan can vary from 1 ms to 100 ms.

5. SPECIFICATIONS

Several factors are used for evaluating the quality and

performance of programmable controllers when selecting a unit
for a particular application. These are listed below-:

NUMBER OF I /O PORTS

This specifies the number of I/O devices that can be connected

to the controller. There should be sufficient I/O ports to meet
present requirements with enough spares to provide for
moderate future expansion.

MEMORY CAPACITY

The amount of memory required for a particular application is

related to the length of the program and the complexity of the
control system. Simple applications having just a few relays do
not require significant amount of memory. Program length tend
to expand after the system have been used for a while. It is
advantageous to a acquire a controller that has more memory
than is presently needed.

OUTPUT-PORT POWER RATINGS

Each output port should be capable of supplying sufficient

voltage and current to drive the output peripheral connected to
it.

SCAN TIME

This is the speed at which the controller executes the relayladder logic program. This variable is usually specified as the
scan time per 1000 logic nodes and typically ranges from 1 to
200 milliseconds.

6. SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

PLC, like computer, is software driven equipment. User program decides the way
PLC should control the process.
Depending upon the process control requirement the user prepares the program
i.e. writes the instructions. These instructions are then stored in the User
Memory or Program memory of CPU in the form of machine code.
The CPU sequentially reads these instructions and operates the control elements
taking into consideration the input status and the program instructions.

The user program can be written in the following three forms: Ladder Diagram (LAD)
Function Block Diagram (FBD)
Statement List (STL)
Among these three forms well be studying Ladder diagrams and
Functional Block
Diagrams.

Ladder diagram is a graphic programming language

derived from the circuit diagram of directly wired relay
controls. The ladder diagram contains contact rails to the left
and the right of the diagram; these contact rails are
connected to switching elements (normally open / normally
closed contacts) via current paths and coil elements.
In the function block diagram , the functions and
f u n c t i o n b l o c k s a re re p re s e n t e d g r a p h i c a l l y a n d
interconnected into networks. The function block diagram
originates from the logic diagram for the design of electronic
circuits.

6.1 LADDER DIAGRAMS

As an introduction to ladder diagrams, consider the simple wiring

diagram for an electrical circuit in Figure 11.1a. The diagram
shows the circuit for switching on or off an electric motor. We can
redraw this diagram in a different way, using two vertical lines to
represent the input power rails and stringing the rest of the circuit
between them. Figure 11.1b shows the result. Both circuits have
the switch in series with the motor and supplied with electrical
power when the switch is closed. The circuit shown in Figure 11.1b
is termed a ladder diagram.

With such a diagram the power supply for the circuits is

always shown as two vertical lines with the rest of the circuit
as horizontal lines.
The power lines, or rails as they are often termed, are like
the vertical sides of a ladder with the horizontal circuit lines
like the rungs of the ladder.

 The horizontal rungs show only the control portion of the

circuit; in the case of Figure 11.1 it is just the switch in series
with the motor.

In drawing a ladder diagram, certain conventions are adopted:

1. The vertical lines of the diagram represent the power rails

between which circuits are connected. The power flow is taken to
be from the left-hand vertical across a rung.

2. Each rung on the ladder defines one operation in the control

process.

3. A ladder diagram is read from left to right and from top to

bottom, Figure 11.3 showing the scanning motion employed by
the PLC. The top rung is read from left to right. Then the second
rung down is read from left to right and so on.

When the PLC is in its run mode, it goes through the entire ladder
program to the end, the end rung of the program being clearly
denoted, and then promptly resumes at the start. This procedure
of going through all the rungs of the program is termed a cycle.
The end rung might be indicated by a block with the word END or
RET for return, since the program promptly returns to its
beginning.

4. Each rung must start with an input or inputs and must end with
at least one output. The term input is used for a control action,
such as closing the contacts of a switch, used as an input to the
PLC. The term output is used for a device connected to the output
of a PLC, e.g., a motor.

5. Electrical devices are shown in their normal condition. Thus a

switch, which is normally open until some object closes it, is
shown as open on the ladder diagram. A switch that is normally
closed is shown closed.

6. A particular device can appear in more than one rung of a

ladder. For example, we might have a relay that switches on one
or more devices. The same letters and/or numbers are used to
label the device in each situation.

6.1.1

DIFFERENT SYMBOLS USED IN LAD ARE :-

1. Normally Open Contact

This can be used to represent any input to the control logic

- a switch or sensor, a contact from an output, or an internal output.
When "solved" the referenced input is examined for an ON (logical
1) condition. If it is ON, the contact will close and allow power
(logic) to flow from left to right. If the status is OFF (logical 0), the
contact is Open, power (logic) will NOT flow from left to right.

2. Normally Closed Contact

When solved the referenced input is examined for an OFF

condition. If the status is OFF (logical 0) power (logic) will flow
from left to right. If the status is ON (logical 1) power will not flow.

3. Normally Open Coils

This can be used to represent any discrete output from the control logic.
When "solved" if the logic to the left of the coil is TRUE, the
referenced output is ON (logical 1).

4. Normally Closed Coil

When "solved" if the coil is a logical 0, power will be turned on to

the device. If logical 1, power will be OFF .

6.1.2

LOGIC FUNCTIONS

1. AND OPERATION

Each rung or network on a ladder program represents a logic

operation. In the rung above, both inputs A and B must be true
(1) in order for the output C to be true (1).

2. OR OPERATION

In the rung above, it can be seen that either input A or B is be

true (1), or both are true, then the output C is true (1).

3. NOT OPERATION

In the rung above, it can be seen that if input A is be true (1),

then the output C is true (0) or when A is (0), output C is 1.

4. NAND OPERATION

Both the inputs A and B have to be 0 for there to be a 1 output.

There is an output when input A and input B are not 1.

5. NOR OPERATION

The combination of OR and NOT gates is termed a NOR gate.

There is an output when both input A and input B is 0.

6. XOR OPERATION

When input A and input B are not activated then output is

0.When just input A is activated, then the upper branch results
in the output being 1. When just input B is activated, then the
lower branch results in the output being 1. When both input A
and input B are activated, there is no output.

7. XNOR OPERATION

When both the inputs are same, output is high else output is low.

6.1.3

TIMERS AND COUNTERS

Many times we will want to take action in a control program

based on more than the states of discrete inputs and outputs.
Sometimes, we will want to turn something on after a delay, or
count the number of times a switch is hit. To do these simple tasks, we
will need Timers & Counters.

1. Simple Timers (TIM)

A timer is simply a control block that takes an input and changes
an output based on time. There are two basic timer types we
will deal with initially (there are other advanced timers,
but we will start with the basics first) - On-Delay Timer and the
Off-Delay Timer.

o On-Delay Timer
- This timer takes an input, waits a specifi c amount of
time, then turns ON an output (or allows logic to flow after
the delay).

o Off-Delay Timer
- This timer takes turns ON an output (or allows logic to flow) and
keeps that output ON until the set amount of time has passed,
then turns it OFF (hence off-delay) .

2. Simple Counter (CNT)

A counter simply counts the number of events that occur on an input.
There are two basic types of counters- Up counter and a Down counter.

Up Counter
- As its name implies, whenever a triggering event occurs,
an up counter increments the counter. .

o Down Counter
- Whenever a triggering event occurs, a down counter decrements the
counter.

EXAMPLES:-

1.
We can simulate this same circuit using Ladder Diagram as shown
below:-

2. We are controlling lubricating oil being dispensed from a tank.

This is possible by using two sensors. We put one near the
bottom and one near the top, as shown in the fig. below.

Here, we want to fill the motor to pump lubricating oil into the
tank until the high level sensor turns on. At that point we want to
turn off the motor until the level fails below the low level sensor.
Then we should turn on the fill motor and repeat the process.

This is the ladder diagram for the above example:-

These are the steps of the Ladder diagram shown above:-

These were some of the examples that show how the ladder
programming is done for PLCs.

6.2 FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAMS

The term function block diagram (FBD) is used for PLC programs
described in terms of graphical blocks. It is described as being a
graphical language for depicting signal and data flows through
blocks, these being reusable software elements.

 A function block is a program instruction unit which, when

executed, yields one or more output values.
A function block is depicted as a rectangular block with inputs
entering from the left and outputs emerging from the right.

6.2.1 LOGIC GATES

Programs are often concerned with logic gates. Figure shows the
effect of such functional blocks in PLC programs.

FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAMS

EXAMPLES

1. Figure shows a ladder diagram involving the output having

contacts acting as an input. The function block diagram
equivalent can be shown as a feedback loop.

2. Consider the development of a function block diagram and

ladder diagram for an application in which a pump is required
to be activated and pump liquid into a tank when the start
switch is closed, the level of liquid in the tank is below the
required level and there is liquid in the reservoir from which it
is to be pumped. What is required is an AND logic situation
between the start switch input and a sensor input which is on
when the liquid in the tank is below the required level. We
might have a switch that is on until the liquid is at the required
level. These two elements are then in an AND logic situation
with a switch indicating that there is liquid in the reservoir.
Suppose this switch gives an input when there is liquid. The
function block diagram, and the equivalent ladder diagram, is
then of the form shown in Figure.

These were some of the examples that shows how the functional
block programming is done for PLCs.

7. NETWORKING AND COMMUNICATION

7.1 NETWORK TOPOLOGY:

Network topology is the name given to the way in which the
devices (called nodes) are physically connected in a network.
There are two basic categories of network topologies.

1.Physical topologies
2.

Logical topologies

o The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration

of cables, computers, and other peripherals.
There are SIX types of network topologies:1. Bus
2. Ring

3. Star
4. Mesh
5. Tree
6. hybrid

1.

BUS TOPOLOGY
All the nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) on a
bus topology are connected by one single cable.
A bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a
terminator at each end. All nodes (file server, workstations,
and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.
Popular on LANs because they are inexpensive and easy to
install.

ADVANTAGES

Easy to install and implement

Cheaper than other topologies
Failure of one node does not affect the rest of network.
Used when networks are small, temporary and simple.

DISADVANTAGES

If a break in main cable ,entire network shuts down

 Heavy network can slow a bus

Difficult to troubleshoot
Limited cable length and devices
2.

RING TOPOLOGY
In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbours for
communication purposes.

All messages travel through a ring in the same direction.

A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take
down the entire network.

To implement a ring network we use the Token Ring

technology.

A token, or small data packet, is continuously passed around

the network. When a device needs to transmit, it reserves the
token for the next trip around, and then attaches its data
packet to it.

ADVANTAGES

Very orderly network where every device has access to the

token and the opportunity to transmit
allows error checking and acknowledgement
less expensive
performs well under heavy load
DISADVANTAGES
a single break in network can disrupt the entire network
The movement or changes made to network nodes affects
the performance of the entire network
difficult to troubleshoot
addition of every node makes communication delay

3.

STAR TOPOLOGY

 In a star network, each node (file server, workstations, and

peripherals) is connected to a central device called a hub.
The hub takes a signal that comes from any node and passes
it along to all the other nodes in the network.
Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or
concentrator before continuing to its destination.
The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all
functions of the network.
The star topology reduces the chance of network failure by
connecting all of the systems to a central node.

ADVANTAGES
easy to implement and can be extended

adding a new device is easier than in bus or ring topologies

easy to troubleshoot
provided for centralized management
DISADVANTAGES
if host fails , entire network fails
long cable length required
requires a dedicated server
maintenance cost may be higher
More expensive because of the cost of the concentrators

4.

MESH TOPLOGY
In mesh topology each computer are connected to each other
by separate cables.
Implementing the mesh topology is expensive and difficult.
In this type of network, each node may send message to
destination through multiple paths.

 While the data is travelling on the Mesh Network it is

automatically configured to reach the destination by taking the
shortest route which means the least number of hops.
On large scales multiple LANs using mesh can be connected
generally used in military.

ADVANTAGES
because of dedicated links no traffic between the devices
failure of one node does not affect the rest of the network
privacy and security are guaranteed

point to point link makes fault identification and its isolation easy
It has multiple links, so if one route is blocked then other routes can be used
for data communication.
DISADVANTAGES
high level of redundancy
difficult implementation
costly for practical networks
There is mesh of wiring which can be difficult to manage.

5.

Installation is complex as each node is connected to every node.

TREE TOPOLOGY
A tree topology (hierarchical topology) can be viewed as a
collection of star networks arranged in a hierarchy.
This tree has individual peripheral nodes which are required to
transmit to and receive from one other only and are not
required to act as repeaters or regenerators.
The tree topology arranges links and nodes into distinct
hierarchies in order to allow greater control and easier
troubleshooting.
This is particularly helpful for colleges, universities and
schools so that each of them connect to the big network in
some way.

ADVANTAGES
point-to-point wiring for individual segments
supported by several hardware and software venders
All the computers have access to the larger and their
immediate networks
DISADVANTAGES

 overall length of each segment is limited by the type of

cabling used
if the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down
more difficult to configure and wire than other topologies

6. HYBRID TOPOLOGY
Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more
topologies in such a way that the resulting network does not
exhibit one of the standard topologies
A hybrid topology always accrues when two different basic
network topologies are connected.
It is a mixture of above mentioned topologies. Usually, a
central computer is attached with sub-controllers which in
turn participate in a variety of topologies

ADVANTAGES
it provides a better result by it
it is flexible i.e. it can be designed in many ways for various purposes
DISADVANTAGES
it is costly
difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.

7.2 PLC Communications

Common Uses of PLC Communications Ports:-

o Changing resident PLC programs - uploading/downloading

from a supervisory controller (Laptop or desktop computer).
o Forcing I/O points and memory elements from a remote
terminal.
o Linking a PLC into a control hierarchy containing several
sizes of PLC and computer.
o Monitoring data and alarms, etc. via printers
Interface Units (OIUs).

or Operator

Serial Communications
PLC communications facilities normally provide serial transmission
of information.

Common Standards

RS 232
o Used in short-distance computer communications, with
the majority of computer hardware and peripherals.
o Has a maximum effective distance of approx. 30 m at
9600 baud.

Local Area Network (LAN)

o Local Area Network provides a physical link between all

devices
plus
providing
overall
data
exchange
management or protocol, ensuring that each device can
talk to other machines and understand data received
from them.
o LANs
provide
the
common,
high-speed
data
communications bus which interconnects any or all
devices within the local area.
o LANs are commonly used in business applications to allow
several users to share costly software packages and
peripheral equipment such as printers and hard disk
storage
RS 422 / RS 485
o Used for longer-distance links, often between several PCs
in a distributed system. RS 485 can have a maximum
distance of about 1000 meters.

7.3 DIFFERENT STATIONS

1.

ENGINEERING STATION (ES)

You configure and download all system components of PLC with
the engineering station.

Engineering stations are PCs on which the PLC engineering

software is installed for the configuration of a PLC.

2.

OPERATING STATION (OS)

The operator station is used to operate and monitor the PLC
system in process mode.
You connect the operator station to the plant bus to enable the
required data communication with the automation system.

Operator stations are PCs on which the PLC OS software is

installed.

The operator station can be designed as a single station system

for smaller plants and less stringent requirements. In larger
plants with more stringent requirements, the OS can be
designed as a multiple station system with OS servers and OS
clients.

8. CLIENT SERVER ARCHITECTURE

Network architecture is defined as the design of a computer
network for the purpose of allowing various systems to
confabulate with each other. There are various components
of the network architecture of a computer.
There are servers, proxies, clients, server modules, cores
and command consoles.

 The basic purpose of network architecture is to assist you so

as to get a glitch free network.
There are many types of network architecture that are
present and among these, there is a very prominent one that
is known as client server architecture.

Definition of Client Server Architecture

The Client Server Architecture is a kind of network
architecture in which each computer that is present on the
network is either a client or the server.
The server, as we know, is the more powerful of the two and
has to perform various duties. There are various kinds of
servers such as file servers, network servers, print severs
etc. Each serves has to take care of a job that corresponds to
its name.
For example, printers that are present in the network will be
managed by the print server and the disk drives are
managed by the file servers.
The clients that are present in the network are dependent on
the server that is present, for all their resources and also for
the purpose of processing power.

 The Client Server structure is also known as a two-tier

structure.
Server provides the service
Client is considered as the customer requesting the
service
The server service can be shared among a number of
clients
Clients must request or initiate the service
The location of the server in the network is transparent
to clients
The server is centrally maintained where as clients are
independent of each other

Characteristic features of the Client Server structure

The Client server structure is used in many systems and
mostly in automated library system. The structure basically
segregates the functions of an application into two or more
parts.
Thus there are two major sub-systems, namely the client and
the server, of which the client is the one that asks for a
particular service, while the server is the one that renders
the service.
The client and the server are distinct from each other and
they can be easily made out because of the duties that they
perform.
There may be more than one server for a given set of clients.

 The client and the server are connected to each other but at
the same time, they are separate entities and either of them
can be upgraded without having any effect on the other.
The client is the one to break the ice between as it requests
for a certain set of services from the server and only then
will the server respond to the request that has been made.
Client Server Structure is desirable keeping mind the present
scenario. The network has a modular structure and it is much
more flexible than the other network structures that are
present. The human computer interaction is an important
part of the network structure and this become easier with
the client server structure.
The Client Server Structure was basically developed as a
solution to the problem of limited file sharing architecture
that requires a large amount of bandwidth and causes the
traffic in the network to get blocked. Thus, the Client Server
structure no doubt eases the traffic of the network.

9. SAFETY MEASURES

9.1 HAZOP ANALYSIS:

What is HAZOP?

 Systematic technique to IDENTIFY potential Hazard and

Operating problems
A formal systematic rigorous examination to the process and
engineering facets of a production facility

A qualitative technique based on guide-words to help provoke

thoughts about the way deviations from the intended operating
conditions can lead to hazardous situations or operability
problems

HAZOP is basically for safety

- Hazards are the main concern

- Operability problems degrade plant performance (product

quality, production
rate, profit)

Considerable engineering insight is required - engineers working

independently could develop different results

OBJECTIVE OF HAZOP

For identifying cause and the consequences of perceived mal

operations of equipment and associated operator interfaces
in the context of the complete system.

It accommodates the status of recognized design standards

and codes of practice but rightly questions the relevance of

these in specific circumstances where hazards may remain

undetected.

HOW AND WHY HAZOP IS USED?

HAZOP identifies potential hazards, failures and operability

problems.
Its use is recommended as a principal method by professional
institutions and legislators on the basis of proven capabilities
for over 40 years.
It is most effective as a team effort consists of plant and
prices
designers,
operating
personnel,
control
and
instrumentation engineer etc.

It encourages creativity in design concept evaluation.

Its use results in fewer commissioning and operational
problems and better informed personnel, thus confirming
overall cost effectiveness improvement.
Necessary changes to a system for eliminating or reducing
the probability of operating deviations are suggested by the
analytical procedure.
HAZOP provides a necessary management tool and bonus in
so far that it demonstrates to insurers and inspectors
evidence of comprehensive thoroughness.
HAZOP reports are an integral part of plant and safety
records and are also applicable to design changes and plant
modifications,
thereby
containing
accountability
for

equipment and its associated human interface throughout

the operating lifetime.
HAZOP technique is now used by most major companies
handling and processing hazardous material, especially those
where engineering practice involves elevated operating
parameters :
- oil and gas production
- flammable and toxic chemicals
- pharmaceuticals etc
Progressive legislation in encouraging smaller and specialty
manufacturing sites to adopt the method also as standard
practice.

HAZOP STUDY PROCEDURE

Procedure in HAZOP study consists of examining the process
and instrumentation (P&I) line diagram, process line by
process line.
A list of guide words is used to generate deviations from
normal operation corresponding to all conceivable
possibilities.
Guide words covering every parameter relevant to the
system under review i.e. flow rate and quality, pressure,
temperature, viscosity, components etc.
Flowchart for application of HAZOP is shown in figure.

Move
on to
next
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What
ion

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Selec
t Line
Select
deviatio
Isnmore
flow
e. g
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it
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or
flow
does it
Will the
prevent
operator know
efficient
What
changes
that there is
operation
in
plant or?
more flow ?
method will
Is
the cost
prevent
the of
the change
deviation
or
justified
?
Agree
make
itchange
less
(s)
likely or
Agree
protectwho
Follow
up tois
responsible
for
against
thehas
see
action
action
consequences
been
taken ?

Consi
der
othe
r
caus
Consid
eres of
more
other
flow
change
(s) or
agreed
to
accept
hazard

HAZOP STUDY
HAZOP study is applied during:

Normal operation
Foreseeable changes in operation, e.g. upgrading, reduced
output, plant start-up and shut-down

 Suitability of plant materials, equipment and instrumentation

Provision for failure of plant services, e.g. steam, electricity,
cooling water
Provision for maintenance

STRENGTH OF HAZOP
HAZOP is a systematic, reasonably comprehensive and
flexible
It is suitable mainly for team use whereby it is possible to
incorporate the general experience available
It gives good identification of
identification of critical deviations

cause

and

excellent

The use of keywords is effective and the whole group is able

to participate

HAZOP is an excellent well-proven method for studying large

plant in a specific manner
HAZOP identifies virtually all significant deviations on the
plant; all major accidents should be identified but not
necessarily their causes.

 WEAKNESS OF HAZOP
HAZOP is very time consuming and can be laborious with a
tendency for boredom for analysts
It tends to be hardware-oriented and process-oriented,
although the technique should be amenable to human error
application
It tends to generate many failure events with insignificance
consequences and generate many failure events which have
the same consequences
It stifles brainstorming although this is not required at the
late stage of design when it is normally applied
HAZOP does not identify all causes of deviations and
therefore omits many scenarios
It takes little account of the probabilities of events or
consequences,
although
quantitative
assessment
is
sometime added. The group generally let their collective
experiences decide whether deviations are meaningful
HAZOP is poor where multiple-combination events can have
severe effects

 It tends to assume defects or deterioration of materials of

construction will not arise
When identifying consequences, HAZOP tends to encourage
listing these as resulting in action by emergency control
measures without considering that such action might fail. It
tends to ignore the contribution which can be made by
operator interventions

9.2 SAFETY INSTRUMENT LEVEL (SIL)

Safety Integrity Level (SIL) is defined as a relative level of
risk-reduction provided by a safety function, or to specify a
target level of risk reduction
In simple terms, SIL is a measurement of performance
required for a safety instrumented function (SIF)
To categorize the safety integrity of a safety function the
probability of failure is considered in effect the inverse of
the SIL definition, looking at failure to perform rather than
success
It is easier to identify and quantify possible conditions and
causes leading to failure of a safety function than it is to
guarantee the desired action of a safety function
Two classes of SIL are identified, depending on the service
provided by the safety function

 For safety functions that are activated when required (on

demand mode) the probability of failure to perform correctly
is given, whilst
for safety functions that are in place continuously the
probability of a dangerous failure is expressed in terms of a
given period of time (per hour)(continuous mode)
The higher the SIL level, the greater the impact of a failure
and the lower the failure rate that is acceptable.

There are different types of SILS:

SIL 1 it means only a comparable low risk reduction is
necessary.
SIL 2 it means require a greater degree of risk reduction.
SIL 3

9.3 REDUNDANCY

Redundancy is a common approach to improve the reliability

and availability of a system
Adding redundancy increases the cost and complexity of a
system design and with the high reliability of modern electrical

and mechanical components, many applications do not need

redundancy in order to be successful
However, if the cost of failure is high enough, redundancy may
be an attractive option

Models of Redundancy
While there are various methods, techniques, and terminologies
for implementing redundancy, the following models represent the
more common ones used in industry. The three main models are
Standby Redundancy, N Modular Redundancy, and 1:N
Redundancy .

N Modular Redundancy
N Modular Redundancy, also known as Parallel Redundancy, refers
to the approach of having multiply units running in parallel. All
units are highly synchronized and receive the same input
information at the same time. Their output values are then
compared and a voter decides which output values should be
used.
This model typically has faster switchover times, thus the system
availability is very high, but because all the units are powered up
and actively engaged with the DUC, the system is at more risk of
encountering a common mode failure across all the units.

In N Modular Redundancy, there are three main typologies:

Dual Modular Redundancy (DMR)

Triple Modular Redundancy (TMR)
Quadruple Modular Redundancy (QMR)
Flexible Modular Redundancy (FMR)

Dual Modular Redundancy

Dual Modular Redundancy (DMR) uses two
equivalent units, thus either can control the DUC

functional

The most challenging aspect of DMR is determining when to

switch over to the secondary unit
Because both units are monitoring the application, you have
to decide what to do if they disagree
You either need to create a tiebreaker vote or simply
designate the secondary unit as the default winner,
assuming it is more trustworthy than the primary unit
You may be able to trust the secondary unit more if the
primary is normally in control and if regular diagnostics are
run on the secondary to help insure its reliability, but this is
very application specific
The average cost increase of a DMR system is about twice
that of a non-redundant system, factoring in the cost of the

additional hardware and the extra software development

time

Triple Modular Redundancy

Triple Modular Redundancy (TMR) uses three functionally
equivalent units to provide redundant backup
This approach is very common in aerospace applications
where the cost of failure is extremely high
TMR is more reliable than DMR due to two main aspects. The
most obvious reason is that you now have two standby
units instead of just one
The other reason is that in TMR, you commonly see a
technique
called
diversity
platforms
or
diversity
programming applied
In this technique, you would use different software or
hardware platforms on your redundant systems to prevent
common mode failure

Quadruple Modular Redundancy

 Quadruple Modular Redundancy (QMR) is fundamentally

similar to TMR but using four units instead of three to
increase the reliability
The obvious drawback is the 4X increase in system cost

Flexible Modular Redundancy

FMR enables the assembly of extremely fault-tolerant
architectures
Unlike traditional leg-based architectures, where the failure
of a single component causes shutdown of an entire leg of
the system
Flexible Modular Redundancy delivers higher levels of
availability than traditional dual and triple redundant
architectures
At the same time, the flexibility of the architecture allows
redundancy only where it is needed, providing a more
attractive and cost-effective solution than traditional onesize-fits-all architectures
Benefits with Flexible Modular Redundancy:
Highest flexibility to choose the redundancy levels to fit the
Safety Instrumented Function (SIF)
Field device redundancy can be designed to achieve safety
and availability goals

 I/O and field device redundancy can be matched to:

- Minimize cost
- Maximize availability
Multiple fault-tolerance
- Fieldbus architecture allows system to tolerate multiple
faults without interruption
- I/O redundancy independent of CPU redundancy
All components rated for SIL3
- No degraded mode
- Safety not dependent on redundancy

10. CONCLUSION

In the present industrial world, a flexible system that can be controlled by user
at site is preferred. Systems, whose logic can be modified but still, used without
disturbing its connection to external world, is achieved by PLC. Utilizing the
industrial sensors such as limit switches, ON-OFF switches, timer contact, counter
contact etc., PLC controls the total system.
The above said controlling elements (normally called as
inputs of PLCs) and controlled elements (called as outputs of
PLCs) exist abundantly in any industry. These inputs, outputs,
timers, counters, auxiliary contacts are integral parts of all
industries.

The PLC offers a compromise between advance control

techniques and present day technology. It is extremely difficult to
forecast the rate and form of progress of PLCs, but there is strong
evidence that development is both rapid and cumulative. Though

a PLC is not designed to replace a computer, it is useful and cost

effective for medium sized control systems. With the capability of
functioning as local controllers in distributed control systems.
PLCs will retain their application in large process plants.

A further development of PLCs leads to the development of programmable

function controller (PFC) is compatible to PCs and directly controls the desired
functions.
In India every process industry is replacing relay control systems by PLCs
and will go for PFCs in near future. In the near future every flats and offices may
possess PFCs to control room temperature, as elevator controller, maintain water
tank levels, as small telephone exchange etc.

11. REFERENCES

www.siemens.co.in
www.wikipedia.com
www.google.com
Manuals provided by the co-ordinator
Old Project Reports and Seminars