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1 Introduction
As all branches of industry, food industry intends to gain
money by selling products. Most food products are offered to
individual consumers. By choosing a product and buying it at a
certain price the consumer defines its market value. To
maximize sales, one of the key targets in food industry
therefore is designing the products according to the consumers' needs. This review intends to present a concept of
designing food emulsions. First, the principles of product
design will be presented. Then, we will concentrate on
emulsion and emulsification basics. Based on these basics,
emulsion property and emulsification process functions will
be given. While property functions are rarely known for food,
the process functions in emulsification have been widely
investigated within the last years. Using these functions, three
examples of emulsion product design will finally be given for
products of different functionalities.
[*]
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process functions in food industry usually is the target of
process engineers and food technologists. Process functions
enable engineers to choose the best type of machine, to
optimize process parameters, and to scale up the process.
oil-in-water (o/w)
emulsifier:
water-in-oil (w/o)
small molecular
weight: surfactants
hydrophilic
surfactant only
high molecular
weight, e.g. protein
lipophilic
protein only
O
W
emulsifiers (in food industry these are most often proteins) are
used. Depending on the molecular structure of an emulsifier,
different adsorption mechanisms are found, both depicted in
Fig. 1. Besides stabilizing an emulsion, the emulsifier often
influences product properties, such as its viscosity. This will be
shown in chapter 5.
Thickeners are high-molecular weight molecules that are
solved in the continuous phase, thus enhancing its viscosity.
They stabilize emulsions by slowing down droplet mobility.
Flocculation, sedimentation or creaming, and coalescence are
either slowed down or inhibited at all. Typical thickeners used
in food industry are (modified) starches and proteins. Since
they increase continuous phase viscosity, they do not only
stabilize the emulsion, but also change its properties (see
chapter 5).
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rotor-stator-machines, e.g. colloid mill
high-pressure homogenizers
ultrasonic waves
microporous membranes
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1.0
Microfluidizer
60 % vegetable oil in water
c Lac
=
60 g/l
=
c
0 g/l
Tween 80
1,2 g/l
3,5 g/l
7,5 g/l
15 g/l
35 g/l
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
c
Lac
c
=
=
Tween 80
0.0
0
150
1
2
3
4
5
mean droplet diameter x3,2 / m
g/l
g/l
Stang, 1998
(a)
E P
V tres
Dph P
_
V V
(1)
P
V
(2)
(b)
x3,2 / m
x3,2 / m
rotor
speed
number or
diameter of r/s-discs
1
0
4.000
12.000
20.000
0.1
106
107
108
spec. energy Ev / (J/m3)
70
EV
10
1)
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xtres
r
pc
(4)
4c
x
(5)
x EV
(6)
The higher the specific energy applied during emulsification, the smaller the droplets. In addition, smaller droplets are
found for lower viscosities of the droplets.
A similar dependency is also found for droplet disruption
due to sound-induced cavitation (ultrasonic emulsification)
[13,14]. This depicts that similar droplet break-up mechanisms
are effective in high turbulent flow and sound-induced
cavitation.
In laminar elongational flow, however, no dependency of
the mean droplet diameter on the droplet viscosity is found
[5,10,22,23]. The mean droplet diameter after disruption in
laminar elongational flow is given by [7,22]:
and
with
We
pc
0:3
(3)
We > Wecr
tdef;cr
gd
r pc
C2 Pv
2=3
(7)
gd
(8)
1=2
crd x
2=5
(9)
1=4
(10)
x EV
0:25 :::
(11)
0:4
gd
0 ::: 0:75
(12)
(13)
0:25 :::
0:4
ftres gd
0 ::: 0:75
(14)
btres
xt
res !1
(15)
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5.3 Process Functions for Droplet Disruption
Using the specific energy for continuous processes as well as
the power density for batch processes, process functions can
be defined for emulsification (Eqs. (12) to (15)). For each
formula, the proportional constants as well as the exact
exponents can then be determined using this diagram. The
required specific energy for a target mean droplet diameter
may be determined by the resulting equation. Process
parameters, such as homogenizing pressure, or power input
for a given throughput, can then be calculated.
Fig. 5 gives mean droplet diameters for emulsions of 30 % of
rapeseed oil in water as a function of specific energy. The
emulsions were stabilized using a very fast adsorbing
surfactant (a lauryl alcohol, LEO-10), that allows to have a
low re-coalescence rate. Thus, disruption governs the process
of emulsification. For food applications, this emulsifier would
have to be replaced by another small-molecular weight
emulsifier, which is permitted for food by law, e.g. Tween 20.
Using continuous rotor-stator machines or a high-pressure
homogenizer with a standard flat nozzle results in relatively
large mean droplet diameters. If smaller droplet diameters are
required, machines have to be used that induce other flow
patterns as well, e.g., laminar elongational flow or cavitation.
In commercial emulsification machines, this is realized in
high-pressure homogenizers with, for example, the opposing
jet nozzle, such as Microfluidizer, or the simple orifice valve,
or by sound-induced cavitation (ultrasonic emulsification). In
the simple orifice valve, for example, droplets are deformed
mainly by laminar elongational flow, destabilized, and thus
easy to disrupt by the following turbulent flow conditions
[7,29]. This nozzle design is very efficient in droplet disruption,
especially if highly viscous phases have to be finely dispersed
[10]. Similar results are found for the jet disperser [9,10].
Emulsification mainly due to cavitation (continuous ultra-
HPH:
flat nozzle
orifice valve,
opposing jet
r/s-systems
ultrasonic em.
membrane em.
=1%
= 50 %
= 1 50 %
105
106
107
108
10
2
10 % water in
vegetable oil
premix
EV / 107 J/m3
1.5
0.9
3.6
7.0
10
Behrend, 2001
0.5
0
10 -2
10 -1
72
10 0
10 1
10 2
droplet size x / m
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(16)
with
K
p
2 p=15
(17)
p
e=md x
(18)
(19)
RSM
egg yolk
RSM
LEO-10
HPH:
tv = 0.001 - 0.01 s
10
HPH
LEO-10
1
10 4
105
10 6
10 7
RSM:
tv = 0.1 - 10 s
10 8
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6 Product Design
6.1 Target Product Properties
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100
50 % rape seed oil in water
emulsifier: egg yolk
10
x3,2
machine and
process parameters
may be varied
1
106
rotor diameter
dr = 50 mm
rotor diameter
dr = 110 mm
EV
107
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Knowing the property functions, the process has to be
designed based on the process functions. Since the production
quantities are low, a batch process is chosen. During
emulsification the product has to be heated above its melting
point. The product is of high viscosity during production, thus
rotor-stator machines are able to realize the required high
specific energy for the target droplet diameter (xmax 3 lm ).
As low-cost machines are a must for a product of low tonnage
and low price, a rotor-stator machine even is recommended.
The batch process allows heating and cooling to be combined
with the emulsification process. The process functions are
given in Eqs. (14) and (15). A pilot plant trial has to be
performed in order to determine the exponents of power
density, the residence time function, as well as the proportionality constant for this special recipe. Scale-up will then be done
using the same process functions for the rotor-stator machine
(see chapter 5.6).
6.3 Property and Process Functions for a Dressing
The dressing should have a medium viscosity at a medium
fat content and high stability. This requires an o/w-emulsion
type with a fat fraction of 5060 %. As emulsifier, Lacprodan60 has been chosen. A mean droplet diameter below 5 lm
ensures a high stability in this viscosity range. Higher tonnages
per year may be achieved in a semi-continuous process.
1.0
(a)
0.8
0.6
0.4
e x3,2
0.2
0.0
7 Summary
100
(b)
10
toothed
colloid mill
x3,2 Ev
1
105
106
107
Figure 9. Product design for a dressing based on the property function (left-hand
side) and the process function (right-hand side).
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Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the DFG (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) and the AIF/FEI (Arbeitsgemeinschaft Industrieller Forschung/Forschungskreis der Ernhrungsindustrie)
for financial support of parts of this work.
The content of this review was given as lecture at ECCE 3,
Food Technologies, Nuremberg, June 2628, 2001 [40].
Received: July 10, 2002 [CET 1654]
Symbols used
a
b
C
c
d
E
EV
k
K
n
Oh
P
PV
pc
pcoal
Dph
u
V
V_
tdef
tdef,cr
tres
We
Wecr
Weturb
x
x3,2
[]
[]
[]
[s1.m3]
[m]
[J]
[J.m-3]
[]
[]
[m3]
[]
[W]
[W m3]
[Pa]
[]
[Pa]
[m s1]
[m3]
[m3 s1]
[s]
[s]
[s]
[]
[]
[]
[m]
[m]
xmax
xtres!1
[m]
[m]
constant
constant
constant
collision frequency
droplet diameter
energy
volumetric specific energy
constant
collision coefficient
number of droplets per volume
Ohnsorge number
power
volumetric power density
capillary pressure
coalescence probability
homogenizing pressure
droplet velocity
volume
volume flow rate
deformatiom time
critical deformatiom time
residence time
Weber number
critical Weber number
turbulent Weber number
droplet diameter
mean droplet diameter (Sauter
diameter)
maximum droplet diameter
equivalent mean droplet diameter
Greek symbols
e
c
j
gc
gd
[m2 s3]
[N m1]
[]
[Pa s]
[Pa s]
ge
md
rc
rd
r
X
[Pa s]
[m2 s1]
[kg m3]
[kg m3]
[Pa]
[s1 m3]
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