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305
Method
Kinematic data were obtained from the functional and
anatomically based elbow models, using a mechanical
arm that replicated forearm motion (e.g., varying levels
of Ad-Ab), and a series of movement tasks performed
by 10 male cricketers (mean age = 23.5 years SD =
2.7, mean height = 180.5cm SD = 7.9). All human test
protocols were approved by the University of Western
Australia Human Research Ethics committee, and each
participants written, informed consent was obtained
before data collection.
The functional 2-df upper-limb model was compared
with an anatomically based 3-df Cardan ZXY angle
decomposition method model as proposed by the ISB
(ANAT model). Both measurement models were validated and compared by analyzing kinematics of known
magnitudes and ranges using a mechanically constructed
arm. The mechanical arm could replicate possible forms
of axis misalignment and was used to assess F-E crosstalk associated with P-S and Ad-Ab motion.
The arm was constructed to represent the upper-limb,
with an elbow allowing the forearm 3 df: F-E, P-S and
Ad-Ab (Figure 1). These three axes had known locations
and orientation, bisecting each other at a known location, and the elbow could be fixed in certain postures.
The forearm could be flexed through a range of 135
and had a P-S range of 180. Two methods of forearm
abduction (carry angle) were employed: (1) abduct the
forearm such that the F-E axis of the elbow remained in
the same orientation, and (2) allow the F-E axis to be
completely abducted by 10 or 20, thus giving the F-E
axis an abduction (frontal plane) tilt.
The same marker set was used for both the mechanical arm and human trials. Position and orientation of
the upper-arm, forearm and hand was determined using
clusters of retro-reflective markers (16 mm in diameter)
placed on each segment in an adoption of the CAST
method (Cappozzo et al., 1995). Additional markers were
placed at the wrist and shoulder (Figure 2), and a pointer
device used to identify medial and lateral epicondyles
of the elbow (ME and LE respectively), to allow the
upper limb joint centers (JCs) to be determined. Static
trials were then performed to establish each segments
technical coordinate system (TCS) such that ACSs and
JCs could be defined relative to these TCSs. The upperarm TCS was constructed from the locations of a triad
of markers placed bilaterally on the upper-arm (Figure
2). As suggested by Anglin and Wyss (2000) the forearm
TCS was created from the location of markers placed on
the distal end of the forearm, just above the wrist where
the radius rotates the most around the ulna. The forearm
triad consisted of markers mounted on a rigid aluminum
T-bar to allow sufficient distance between markers placed
on the lateral and medial aspects of the forearm.
In addition to the static trials already described,
functional calibration trials were performed. In the F-E
calibration trial, used to establish the elbow F-E axis,
Figure 1 The mechanical arm used to validate the model with markers attached. The arm was able to have a neutral flexionextension abduction offset (A), an abducted flexion-extension axis (B), or an abducted forearm segment while the flexion-extension
axis remained in the neutral position (C).
Figure 3 Flexion-extension (F-E) task to obtain the F-E helical axis. Subjects started with the upper arm parallel to the floor,
with the forearm in maximum flexion (1) and with their hand in a neutral position (at 90). Subjects then extended the forearm
to full extension (24) before returning to the starting position (maximum flexion) while keeping the forearm in the same neutral
position. Five continuous cycles were performed.
Figure 4 Pronation-supination (P-S) task to obtain the P-S helical axis. Subjects started with the upper arm parallel to the floor
at shoulder width, with the forearm remaining at 90 flexion (1) and with their hand in maximum pronation. Subjects then moved
the forearm through a full range of supination (24) before returning to the starting position (pronated). Five continuous cycles
were performed.
Forearm
Abduction
Angle ()
F-E Axis
Abduction
Angle ()
Forearm
Position
F-E
Neutral
P-S
Neutral
F-E
10
Neutral
F-E
10
Supinated
Trial
P-S
10
Neutral
F-E
20
Neutral
F-E
20
Supinated
P-S
20
Neutral
F-E
10
Neutral
10
F-E
10
Supinated
11
P-S
10
Neutral
12
F-E
20
Neutral
13
P-S
20
Neutral
Table 2 Upper-arm and forearm anatomical coordinate system (ACS) segment definitions used in
the ANAT and helical axis method (HAM) models
ACS
Segment Name
ANAT Model
UAAnatomical
Origin: aEJC
Y-axis: unit vector from aEJC to SJC (superior positive)
X-axis: cross-product of Y-axis and unit vector from LE and ME (anterior positive)
Z-axis: orthogonal to X-Y plane (positive left to right)
HAM Model
UAHAM
Origin: hEJC
Z-axis: mean F-E helical axis (positive left to right)
X-axis: cross-product of the unit vector from SJC to hEJC and Z-axis (anterior positive)
Y-axis: orthogonal to the X-Z plane (superior positive)
Forearm
ANAT Model
FAanatomical
Origin: WJC
Y-axis: unit vector from WJC to aEJC (superior positive)
X-axis: cross-product between Y-axis and unit vector from LW to MW (anterior positive)
Z-axis: orthogonal to the X-Y plane (positive to right)
HAM Model
FAHAM1
Origin: WJC
Z-axis: mean F-E helical axis (positive to right)
X-axis: cross-product of Z-axis and vector from hEJC to WJC (positive anterior)
Y-axis: orthogonal to X-Z plane (positive superior)
FAHAM2
Origin: WJC
Y-axis: mean P-S helical axis (superior positive)
X-axis: cross-product of Y-axis and F-E helical axis (positive anterior)
Z-axis: orthogonal to X-Y plane (positive to right)
FAHAM3
Origin: WJC
Y-axis: mean P-S helical axis (superior positive)
X-axis: cross-product of Y-axis and unit vector from MW to LW (positive to right)
Z-axis: orthogonal to X-Y plane (positive to right)
Results
The HAM F-E axis obtained from the mechanical arm
was on average 2.6 (SD = 0.6) from the ANAT F-E
axis. These axes also intersected the upper-arm sagittal
plane at a mean of 4.8 mm (SD = 2.3) apart. The HAM
P-S axis was an average of 3.8 (SD = 1.7) from the long
axis of the forearm, and these two vectors intersected on
average 17.5 mm (SD = 8.2) apart in the transverse plane
Figure 5 Kinematics for a flex-extend task performed with the mechanical arm, with the forearm in a neutral position. A large
range of pronation-supination (P-S) and adduction-abduction (Ad-Ab) movement was recorded with the ANAT model despite the
forearm remaining in a constant neutral position of 90 while being flexed and extended.
Discussion
This study developed and validated a functionally based
2-df elbow model to measure forearm rotations using a
marker based motion analysis system. This model was
validated by analyzing kinematic data to that of known
angles and RoM. Furthermore, the functionally based
model was compared with an anatomical model based
on Cardan ZXY angle decomposition in vivo.
312
Human Subjects
Mechanical Subject
Test
Model
10
10
20
20
0
0
0
F-E
F-E
F-E
F-E
F-E
F-E
F-E
N/A
N/A
F-E
Bowling
Mean (SD)
Forearm Abd
Angle ()
F-E
Tested
Motion
N/A
N/A
20
10
10
N/A
Neutral
Neutral
Supinated
Neutral
Supinated
Neutral
Supinated
Neutral
Neutral
Forearm
Position
0.72
0.65
0.12
0.65
0.81
0.00 (0.72)
0.99
0.85
0.83
0.19
0.90
0.47
0.30
0.67
0.67 (0.51)
0.99
0.99
0.77
0.49
0.40
0.81
0.90
Anatomical Model
0.00
0.00
0.00 (0.02)
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.02
0.08
0.61
0.39 (0.58)
0.31
0.40
0.20
0.90
0.80
0.83
0.90
0.56
HAM Model
Table 3 Cross-talk by the anatomical and helical axis method (HAM) models for the various mechanical arm and subject trials
Figure 7 Upper-limb kinematics from one bowling trial from one subject for functionally (HAM) and
anatomically (ANAT) based models. The curves move
in the same direction however there is no constant
similarity between angular outputs.
313
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge and thank Tony Roby
at the School of Sport Science, Exercise and Health, UWA, for
his assistance with the design and manufacture of the mechanical upper limb.
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