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Energy Field of Study, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology,
P.O. Box 4, Klongluang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand
b
Energy Research Institute, National Development and Reform Commission, 1415 B, Guohong Dasha, Muxidi Beilli,
Xicheng District, Beijing 100038, China
c
Centre for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
d
Institute of Renewable Natural Resources, College of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of the Philippines Los Banos, College,
Laguna, Philippines
e
University of Moratuwa, Katubedda, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
f
Bureau of Energy Research, Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency, Thailand
Received 10 June 2004; received in revised form 20 January 2005; accepted 30 March 2005
Available online 11 July 2005
Abstract
This paper presents a synthesis of assessment of the energy potential of non-plantation biomass resources in ve
Asian countriesChina, India, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand, and is based on the detailed national-level studies
carried out in these countries under the Asian Regional Research Programme in Energy, Environment and Climate
(ARRPEEC). The national level studies were undertaken to estimate the energy potential of: (i) primary residues, (ii)
secondary and processing residues (iii) animal manure, (iv) municipal solid wastes (MSW), (v) fuelwood released
through efciency improvement and substitution by other fuels. The sustainable potential of non-plantation biomass
resources in 2010 in China, India, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand is estimated to be about 8.90, 8.77, 0.97, 0.14
and 0.82 EJ, respectively; the potential is estimated to be about 17, 45, 34, 33, and 14% of the projected total energy
consumption in 2010, respectively, in the countries.
r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Conservation; Energy potential; Non-plantation biomass; Residues; Sustainable energy
Corresponding author. Tel.: +66 2 524 5403; fax: +66 2 524 5439.
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Nomenclature
A
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Energy use factor the fraction of residue presently being used as fuel
Residue production ratio the ratio of the
amount of residue generated to the
total amount of agricultural product
produce
1. Introduction
The term biomass refers to all organic materials
that originate from living organisms e.g. wood,
agricultural residues, animal manure etc. Biomass
sources are therefore diverse. Biomass has always
been a major source of energy for mankind, and
accounts for about 14% of the worlds total energy
supply.
In recent years interest in biomass as a modern
energy source, especially for electricity generation
has been growing worldwide. The main reasons for
this include: (i) recent developments relating to the
conversion technology and biomass production
that have made bioenergy competitive with fossil
fuel based energy generation in some situations,
(ii) environmental benets provided by the modern
biomass energy, (iii) enhancement of energy
security and diversity of energy supply, (iv)
employment generation and rural development,
and (v) restoration of degraded lands as a result of
plantation and possibility of increase in biodiversity.
Although trees and plantations are the main
sustainable sources of biomass, a number of other
sources of biomass also exist. These include
agricultural residues, animal manure, municipal
solid wastes (MSW), industrial wastewater etc. In
addition to the above sources, there are indirect
means of generation of biomass energy, e.g. (i)
saving of fuelwood from substitution by other
fuels; as an example, switching from fuelwood to
LPG for cooking reduces the consumption of
fuelwood for cooking, and (ii) saving of fuelwood
through efciency improvements of current energy
systems. These indirect sources of biomass too can
be utilized for modern bioenergy applications.
A regional programme titled Asian Regional
Research Programme in Energy, Environment and
155
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(1)
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Table 1
Industries producing wastewater suitable for anaerobic digestion
Industries
Wastewater amount
Brewery
Distillery
Fruit & vegetable
Cannery
Cane sugar
Milk processing
Coffee
Bakery
Pulp
26 m3 m3 milk
15.1 m3 t1 fruit
100125 m3 t1 pulp
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Table 2
Performance of anaerobic processes
Process
Chemical oxygen
demand (COD) (kg m3)
Hydraulic
retention time (h)
1.55.0
5.015.0
210
412
0.482.40
4.0012.01
7590
7585
10.020.0
2448
0.964.81
7585
Table 3
Maximum methane producing capacity (Bo) of wastewater
Type of waste water
References
Paper mill
Tissue factory
Paper mill
Paper mill
Pulp mill
Paper mill
Board mill
1.62.0
0.92.0
2.0
2.5
20.0
2.53.5
7.0
0.20
0.18
0.15
0.20
0.19
0.20
0.19
Hack [5]
Sweat whey
Sweat whey permeate
Sweat whey permeate
Acid whey permeate
Wheat starch wastewater
Molasses
Whey permeate
58.5
28.7
62.1
55.1
35.2
8.79.5
13.2
12.3
35.4
0.20
0.21
0.21
0.24
0.20
0.25
0.22
0.20
0.20
Table 4
Ultimate analysis of black liquor based on wood species
Type of black liquor Ultimate analysis (wt% dry)
Cl
45.8
34.2
63.9
4.49
4.1
6.2
25.8
38
25.8
1.29
0.2
0.8
0.55
4
1.7
0.018
0.2
Source: http://www.ecn.nl/cgi-ecn/ecn/phyllis.pl?cgi-bin/DataTable.asp.
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159
(4)
where,
ABPmanure S DMR VS Y biogas ,
(5)
DMR DM NA FR 365.
(6)
Table 5
Percentage of composition of MSW
Location
Vegetable &
putrescible
US cities
JakartaIndonesia
Port of Spain
Delhi-India
26
74
41
8
6
6
17
4
8
8
44
57
26
6
3
3
18
6
6
5
3
23
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Table 6
Density and moisture content of MSW
Location
Moisture (%)
Remarks
US cities
Europe
Developing countries
Some South Asian cities
100
150
250350
Up to 500
25
60
60
Table 7
MSW generation rate for selected Asian countries
Country
India
China
Malaysia
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
0.52
1.04
0.71
0.50
0.75
1.09
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161
Table 8
Default degradable organic carbon (DOC) values for major
waste streams
Waste stream
Percent DOC
(by weight)
40
17
15
30
Table 9
Degradable organic carbon (DOC) of MSW (% of fresh MSW)
Country
Paper
Textile
Wood
Food
Total
India
China
Malaysia
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
0.53
2.29
7.08
3.91
3.52
5.10
0.71
0.18
0.51
0.27
0.11
1.46
5.71
0.93
4.39
2.20
0.06
4.26
8.45
5.50
7.61
5.65
9.84
6.48
16.90
7.96
18.15
13.23
13.91
17.09
(10)
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(11)
2.5.1.2. Potential of fuelwood release from industrial sector. The energy efciency improvement
of the following devices are considered in this
study: (i) bakery ovens, (ii) wood red boilers, (iii)
furnaces, (iv) kilns.
Potential of fuelwood released from industrial
sector, due to energy efciency improvement, is
estimated by
FWis FW FCS.
(12)
(13)
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Table 10
Energy potential of primary and secondary residues in the selected Asian countries (PJ)
Primary and secondary residues
India
2005
2010
Paddy straw
1010
924
845
Paddy husk
Sugarcane top
Maize stalks
Palm oileld residues
Wheat
1360.1 1199.7 1167.4
Corn
1684.8 2423.8 2323.4
Beans
227.2 173.6 160.5
Tubers
128.9 124.4 118.2
Sorghum
58.8
56.8
53.9
Coarse grains
74.4
71.8
68.2
Oil bearing
348.5 422.4 384.8
Cotton
111.5 115.6 105.3
Jute
Bajra
Red gram
Gram
Other pulses
Ground nut
Rape seed
Other oil seeds
Mulberry
Coffee+tea
Coconut empty bunches & frond
Cassava
Bagasse
232.2
77.1
80.4
Maize cob
Palm oilprocess residues
Coconut shell
Coconut husk
Coir dust
Saw dust
Total
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
532
842 1443
69
80
115
750
235
0
176
121
222
284
189
249
45
51
18.5
45.6
22.7
54.6
2005
2010
61.1
70.2
129.2
66.6
72.9
139.3
97.7
125.8
13.2
13.2
13.2
278
835
88
18
145
176
215
384
330
371
50
59
2.17
0.09
2.17
0.10
2.17
0.10
300
6.73
9.24
0.09
3.59
7.28
9.98
0.10
3.67
7.64
9.37
0.11
3.71
62.9
64.6
3.84
4.49
4.95
3.2
3.2
3.2
0.53
0.58
0.60
5.45
5.45
5.45
11.0
9.63
8.88
90.7 102.2 110.1
16.3
19.5
21.8
19.40 29.0
37.4
2.96
2.96
2.96
6.7
6.7
6.7
479.1
557.9
619.8
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3.2. Wastewater
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4. Concluding remarks
As shown in Table 11, large amounts of nonplantation biomass resources are available for
modern energy applications in the selected Asian
countries. The estimated sustainable non-plantation bioenergy potential in 2010 in China, India,
Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand is about 8.90,
8.77, 0.97, 0.14 and 0.82 EJ, respectively. The
potential is estimated to be about 17, 45, 34, 33,
and 14% of the projected total energy consumption in 2010 respectively in these countries.
Primary and secondary residues are the major
non-plantation biomass energy sources accounting
about 60, 75, 45, 46, and 75% of the total nonplantation biomass energy sources in China, India,
Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand in 2010,
respectively. Fuelwood saving potential through
substitution by other fuels is estimated to be about
10% of the total non-plantation biomass energy
potential in 2010 in the selected countries except
Philippines; in Philippines the saving potential is
26% of the total. The fuelwood saved through
efciency improvement of the biomass energy
systems in present applications can potentially
play a signicant role in meeting energy demands
in other applications in Philippines and Sri Lanka.
The estimated fuelwood saving potential is about
24 and 35 of the total non-plantation biomass
energy in Philippines and Sri Lanka respectively.
Acknowledgement
Total
6.4
4.5
50.8
7.8
6.3
3.7
51.3
2005
1997
2005
1997
2005
1997 2010 1997
1997
2010
India
China
Types of biomass
Table 11
Total non-plantation bioenergy potential in the selected Asian countries (PJ)
Philippines
2010
2010
Thailand
Sri Lanka
2005
2010
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