1.

Vehicles do not typically travel at a constant speed

Motion:
There are two types of motion
a) Uniform motion: constant speed or velocity
e.g. 3m/s or 0km/hr
b) Non- uniform motion: This is acceleration a<o and deceleration a>o
e.g. for free falling objects
a=g=9.8ms-2
1.1
Identify that a typical journey involves speed changes
Very rarely a journey will take place at a constant speed for the entirety of the
journey; a typical journey involves speed changes along the way.
A car may slow down as it reaches a corner, approaches a speed bump, speed up as it
goes down a hill, and accelerates from traffic lights.
Even when it turns, it might be at constant speed but it is experiencing speed change.
Example: Driver gets into a car starts the engine and moves of, the driver speeds up,
slows down, maintains a steady speed changes direction all on the way to another
destination
1.2 Distinguish between the instantaneous and average speed of vehicles and other bodies
There are two types of speed:
Speed is a measure of the time rate of change at which an object moves over a
distance.(Scalar)(ms-1)
Average speed= distance
Time
Instantaneous speed is the speed at a particular instant of time. It is calculated in a
small margin, speed equals a change in speed over a change in time.

1.3

Distinguish between scalar and vector quantities

Scalar quantities specify size (magnitude), but not direction e.g. speed, distance
Vector quantities require both a size (magnitude) and direction to e.g. displacement,
velocity
Vectors
Scalar

1.4

Force

Mass

Velocity

Speed

Displacement

Distance

Acceleration

Work

Momentum

Energy

Compare instantaneous and average speed with instantaneous and average velocity

Velocity is not the same as speed because one is a vector while the other is a scalar.
Instantaneous speed: the speed of an object at a particular instant of time

Average speed: the average rate which an object moves over a distance

Instantaneous velocity: the velocity of an object at a particular instant of time

Average Velocity = Displacement/Time is the time rate of change of the displacement.

o Vav= r
t
r= is the displacement.: is the measure of the change in position of an object.(vector)

2. An analysis of the external forces on vehicles helps to understand the effects of acceleration and
deceleration
2.1

Describe the motion of one body relative to another

Motion occurs when an object changes its position relative to other or some co-ordinate system (a frame
of reference).
The relative velocities of two moving objects can be found by subtracting vectors. The relative velocity
of A to B = Va Vb = Va+ (-Vb)
2.2Identify the usefulness of using vector diagrams to assist solving problems
Provides a diagrammatic interpretation of the question, therefore simplifying the question
Adding vectors
1. Draw the vector lines.
2. Draw the resultant line from the beginning of the first vector to the end of the second.
Example: What is the resultant displacement if a ship moves 8km due East then 6km due North?
The resultant displacement is found by
Pythagoras Theorem and trigonometry.

? km
6
km

8
km

Tan = 6/8 r2 = 82 + 62
= 37o
r = 10
The resultant displacement is:
10 km east 37o north

Vectors Subtraction
It can be used:
1) when finding relative velocity
2) when finding the change in a quantity
change in velocity V = Vfinal - Uinitial
change in momentum = final - initial
To subtract one vector from another we reverse the direction of the vector being
subtracted and add it to the first vector.
Example: A ball is bounced back from the wall. Find the change in velocity.

v=
-15m/s
u=

V = v- u
= -15+ (-20)
= -35m/s
(-) means move to left

2.3 Explain the need for a net external force to act in order to change the velocity of an object
A force is a push or pull.

It can start or end a motion

Force is denoted as F and it is in Newtons

It is a vector quantity which means it needs direction as well as magnitude.

Newtons first law of motion: An object will remain at rest or move at a constant
velocity unless acted upon by a net external unbalanced force (Inertia is the tendency of
an object to resist a change in motion)
Newtons Second Law of motion: F=ma
F=force (N)
m= mass (kg)
a= acceleration (ms-2)
To every action there is an equal and opposite action

According to Newtons 1st law of motion, a body will stay in a state of uniform motion unless
acted on by an external force. So to change a bodys state of motion, you need an external
force to change the velocity because an object will remain constant however if acted by a
external force its velocity can be altered.
2.4 Describe the actions that must be taken for a vehicle to change direction, speed up and
slow down
In order for a vehicle to change direction, speed up or slow down an unbalanced net force has
to act upon the system as Newtons first law states an object will continue in its state of rest
or uniform motion unless acted upon by an external unbalanced net force.

2.5 Describe the typical effects of external forces on bodies including:

*Friction between surfaces
*Air resistance
Friction:
o Friction between surfaces
o Friction is a force that always opposes motion
o Friction arises when two different materials are in contact with each other
o Without friction we could not drive as the tyres would simply slp and get no
traction
o When we turn the steering wheel it is the external force of friction acting on
the tyres that allows the car to turn.
o The tyres exert a force on the road and the road exerts a force back onthe tyres
allowing them to turn
Air Resistance:
o Air resistance is a form of friction
o As a vehicle moves through the air the two materials, chassis and air move
past
The forces acting on a car: Weight - the weight acts through the centre of mass, or balancing point of the car,
generally closer to the front of the car.
Normal reaction force - A normal reaction force pushes on all four wheels. The sum of
these reaction forces is the same size as the weight of the car.
Driving force - this is provided by the rotation of a cars tyres on the road, which is
provided by a cars motor. The tyres push forward on the road, which pushes forward on
the tyres, which allows the car to move forward.
The net force is 0 when the car is at rest or moving at a constant velocity, for the car to
accelerate an unbalanced force must be applied by pushing the accelerator or the brake
or turning the steering wheel.
2.6 Define average acceleration as: v= u+at

Acceleration is a measure of the rate of change of velocity.

Acceleration is a vector quantity.

The units are ms-2 .

2.7 Define the terms mass and weight with reference to the effects of gravity
Mass:
o Is the amount of matter in a substance or an object, this value doesnt change even if it
is put on a different surface.
o Kgs
Weight:
o However is the force of gravity acting on an object. Weight may vary locating to
another( e.g a man on the moon is one sixth of earths gravitational acceleration).
o Newtons
o Force
2.8 Outline the forces involved in causing a change in the velocity of a vehicle when:
Coasting with no pressure on the accelerator
- Gradually the vehicle will slow down until it reaches a velocity of zero. This is caused
by friction from the road and air resistance
Pressing on the accelerator
- The tyres exert a greater force to the road and the road applies an equal and opposite
reaction force to the car. This net force causes the car to accelerate
Pressing on the brakes
- Frictional force is applied to the wheels, the tyres apply a force to the road and the
road applies an equal and opposite force to the car which causes it to slow down. If
we call the direction of motion positive applying the brakes produces a net force on
the car in the negative direction.
Passing over an icy path on the road
- If there is no friction between the road and the tyres the driver cannot apply braking,
accelerating or turning forces to the road. Because there is no net force on the car it
would continue in a straight line at constant velocity
- The car will gradually come to rest after a long time due to air resistance
Climbing and descending hills
- Weight of the car due to gravity, is in direction of motion. This means that that to
maintain a constant velocity the engine must exert a greater force to overcome this
gravitational force pulling it down.
- When descending the force of gravity is acting in the direction of motion, to maintain
a constant speed the brakes must be applied to produce a negative force to counteract
this gravitational force acting down the hill
Following a curve in the road

To drive around a corner a net force must be applied to the car towards the centre of
the corner. Turning the steering wheel to the right causes the tyres to push the road to
the left, so that the resulting reaction force on the car is towards the centre of the
curve and causes the direction of the velocity to change to the right.
Following a curve in the road
Driving force increases towards the direction in which the steering wheel is turned, so it
changes the direction of the car.
This acceleration is caused by centripetal force( net force of an object travelling in a
circular motion. This can be calculated by:
a=

The only net force in here is sideway friction only (friction on the wheel), therefore,
Fc = sideways friction/force =

where m = mass, v = velocity, r =

radius
If drive around the curve with a speed so that

is greater than the sideways

friction, the motion is no longer circular and the vehicle will skid off the road.
2.9 Interpret Newtons Second Law of Motion and relate it to the equation: F = ma
Newtons second law can be expressed in two ways
1. The acceleration of an object will increase when the net force of an object increases.
2. Lighter objects change their velocities at a greater rate than heavier objects
2.10 Identify the net force in a wide variety of situations involving modes of transport and
explain the consequences of the application of that net force in terms of Newtons Second
Law of Motion
Net force is the sum of all the forces acting on a body. In transportation the net forces is in the
direction of where the vehicle is travelling. The net force depends upon the mass and the
acceleration of the vehicle, as stated by Newtons second law of motion. So if the acceleration
is kept the same for all vehicles, heavy vehicles will exert a greater force than lighter ones.

3. Moving vehicles have kinetic energy and energy transformations are an important
aspect in understanding motion.
3.1 Identify that a moving object possesses kinetic energy and that work done on that object
can increase that energy

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. It is a scalar quantity.

Work is done when an object moves in the direction of a force applied to it. The amount
of work done is calculated by the size of the force multiplied by the displacement of the
object in the direction the force was applied. Work is scalar.
W = Fr
W = work
F = Force (Newtons (N)
r = displacement
Kinetic energy is the energy associated with the movement of an object. The change in
kinetic energy of an object is equal to the work done on it by net force. So the change in
kinetic energy of an object is equal to the net force multiplied by the displacement. This
means that the kinetic energy of an object can be expressed as:

Ek =

Ek = Kinetic energy
(Joules (J))

Kinetic energy is the energy an object possesses because it is moving (change in speed).
As work and energy are equivalent, that work done on the object can increase the energy.

3.2 Describe the energy transformations that occur in collisions

When a collision occurs, some kinetic energy is transferred to other objects, but the
remainder of the energy is transformed into other forms of energy.
They are transformed into
Potential energy of deformation. This is stored energy in an object as a result of
changing its shape. Sometimes this energy can be transformed into other forms
when the object returns to original shape. E.g. jack-in-the-box stored energy
turned into kinetic energy then back again
Sound energy. Is transmitted through the air because of vibrating particles. E.g.
sound energy released when two cars collide.
Thermal or heat energy. It is the energy that a substance posses as a result of the
random motion of particles within the substance.
3.3 Define the law of conservation of energy
The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. However
energy can be transferred from one object to another or transformed from one form of energy
to another.

4.Change of momentum relates to the forces acting on the vehicle or the driver
4.1 Define momentum as: p = mv (kinetic energy)

Momentum is the product of the mass of an object and its velocity.

Kg/ms-1

Vector quantity needs direction.

p = mv

inability to stop

it stays constant forever

4.2 Define impulse as the product of force and time

Impulse is the product of the force and the time interval over which it acts. Impulse is a
vector quantity with SI units of N/s
By altering the Newtons 2nd law of
motion:
F = ma
F=m
F.t = mv mu

The rate of change of

momentum is directly
proportional to the magnitude of
the net force and is in the
direction of the net force

F =

4.3 Explain why momentum is conserved in collisions in terms of Newtons Third Law of
motion
The interaction between two cars which collide can be summarised as follows:
- The total momentum of the system of the two cars remains constant
- The total change in momentum is zero
- The change in momentum of the first car is equal and opposite to the change in
momentum of the second car
- The force that the first car exerts on the second car is equal and opposite to the force
that the second car exerts on the first car
The velocity decreases as the mass increases

Momentum is always
conserved.
Total momentum =
Momentum
before collision
collision

Total
after

Newtons 3rd law of motion states:

For every Action force there is an
equal but opposite Reaction force
momentum gain = momentum lost

1 = - 2

(F1 = -F2)

Since the momentum lost by one is

equal to that gained by the other, it
follows that the total amount of
5. Safety devices are utilised to reduce the effects ofmomentum
changing momentum
has not changed, and
therefore that momentum has been
5.1 Define the inertia of a vehicle as its tendency to remain in uniform
motion or at rest
conserved.

Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist change in its motion. Inertia is not a force but it is
a property of all objects. The inertia of an object depends on the objects mass.

A passenger in a moving car to continue to move forward when the brakes are suddenly
applied.
5.2 Discuss reasons why Newtons First Law of Motion is not apparent in many real world
situations
The reason this Newtons first law is not apparent in real world situations because:
A driver of a car on a level road for example still needs to depress the accelerator to move at a
constant speed still needs to depress the accelerator to move at a constant speed. Why does
the car not accelerate? Friction exists between the car and the road (and the car and the air).
Hence the forces in this case are balanced and so the law is valid. To accelerate the car we
need to apply an unbalanced force that is depress the accelerator more, even then we dont
accelerate indefinitely.
Newtons first law is not apparent in real life situations because there will always be other
forces acting upon us or a vehicle
For example. When we are in motion in a vehicle we do not continue at motion and we will
eventually come to a stop
because other forces such as friction, air resistance, that keep us from continuing at motion

5.3 Assess the reasons for the introduction of low speed zones in built-up areas and the
addition of air bags and crumple zones to vehicles with respect to the concepts of impulse and
momentum
Low speed zones, air bags, crumple zones and seat belts have been introduced in hope of
protecting people on the road.
This is done by:
o Reducing the initial momentum and therefore the impulse, by increasing low
speed zones. By driving at lower speeds it minimizes the chance of an accident
and in the event of an accident it reduces the risk of an injury.
o Increasing the time taken during which the impulse of the car and the impulse
of the passenger take place. This is done with the inclusion of padded
dashboards, collapsible steering wheels, crumple zones, air bags and seatbelts.
o All of these safety features are designed to increase the time period over which
a collision takes place so that the impulse exerted on passengers is left to a
minimum.
Modern cars are built with many safety devices such as:
- Seat belts
- Airbags
- Crumple zones
Seatbelts
The belt essentially worked by restraining the user in the event of a collision where intertia
might mean the user coming into contact with the dashboard, steering wheel, windscreen or
other internal vehicle parts due to the sudden stop.
Airbags
The airbag effectively increases the time it takes for the occupants to come to rest and so
lessens the force requires, as the variable time increases other values are decreased such as
force.
Crumple zones
Modern cars are made to crumple in collisions, particularly in front end and rear end ones. By
crumpling the car is brought to rest over a longer time interval and so the forces are reduced,

as time is increased. Between the crumple zones lies a strong central cell that protects the
occupants in the event of a crash
Low Speed Zones and Speed Humps
The speed hump makes it difficult for drivers to speed since they would damage their cars if
they hit the hump to fast
5.4 Evaluate the effectiveness of some safety features of motor vehicles
As above