Naval Auxiliary Machinery

1
NAVAL AUXILIARY MACHINERY
NAVAL AUXILIARY MACHIN

Revised 1952
ADEMY
UNITED STATES NAVAL AACND
ANNAPOLIS, MARYL
COPYRIGHT 1946,
1950, AND 1952
by
UNITED STATES NAVAL INSTITUTE

REPRINTED DECEMBER 1953
REPRINTED OCTOBER 1956
REPRINTED MARCH 1957
PREFACE
"Naval Auxiliary Machinery" is a revision of
Naval Auxiliary Machinery, published by the
United States Naval Institute, 1950. The revision
was necessary in order to eliminate treatment of
obsolete units and to incorporate the latest design
features and operating principies.
This text has been prepared primarily for use
by Midshipmen of the United States Naval
Academy. The subject matter emphasizes the
details of construction, and the operating principies, of the amriliesy machinery used aboard
modem naval vessels. Coverage includes supporting systems such as the refrigeration plant,
compressed air systems and lubrication oil puiification system.
The subject matter has been presented in a
descriptive manner to familiarizo the student
with the machinery he will encounter aboard
ship, and to provide a background for the theoretical studies he will encounter in subsequent
courses in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics.
C. E. TnEscorr,
Captain, U. S. Navy,
Head of Department of Marine Engineering
Annapolis, Maryland
May, 1952.
fi
Bowl Type Centrifugal Purifier. 12-6 Disc

Type Centrifugal Purifier. 12-6 Discharge
Rings. 12-7 Operational Characteristics.
struetion. 7-8 Vapor Compression Type

Distilling Plant.
CHAPTER 8
Feed Water Systems.
8-1 Essential Elements of the Feed Water
System. 8-2 Drain Disposal. 8-3 Development of Naval Feed Water Systems.
8-4 Open, Semiclosed, and Vacuum-Closed
Feed Systems. 8-6 The Pressure-Closed
Feed System. 8-6 Direct Contact Type
Deaerating Feed Tanks.
CHAPTER 13
Control Instruments.
13-1 General. 13-2 Thermometers and
Pyrometers. 13-3 Superheater Temperature Alarm. 13-4 Superheater Low Flow
Protective Devices. 13-5 Pressure Gauges.
13-6 Gauge Testing Apparatus. 13-7 Tachometers. 13-8 Propeller Revolution In13-9 Fluid Meters.
dicator Systems.
13-10 Tank Level Indicator. 13-11 Salinity Indicator& 13-12 Combustion Control
Equipment.
CHAPTER 9
Fuel Oil System.
9-1 Introduction. 9-2 Fuel Oil Tanks. 9-3
Piping Systems. 9-4 Fuel Oil Pumps. 9-5
Heaters. 9-6 Strainers. 9-7 Measuring
Devices. 9-8 Miscellaneous Fittings. 9-9
A Typical Elementary Fuel Oil Service Sys-
CHAPTER 14
Machinery Outside the Engineering Spaces.
tem.
14-1 General. 14-2 Steering GearsGeneral. 14-3 Electro-Hydraulic Steering Gear.

14-4 Anchor Windlasses. 14-5 Winches and
Capstans. 14-6 Cranes. 14-7 Elevators.
14-8 Heating, Cooling and Ventilation.
14-9 Emergency Diesel Driven Auxiliaries,
CHAPTER 10
Refrigeration Equipment.
10-1 General. 10-2 Vapor Compression
System in General. 10-3 Refrigerants.
10-4 Refrigeration Plant RatingTon of
Refrigeration. 10-5 EvaporatorsDirect
and Indirect Systems. 10-6 Compressors.
10-7 Condensers. 10-8 Pre-coolers and
Heat Interchangers. 10-9 Operation of
Typical Freon System. 10-10 Reversed
Cycle Heating. 10-11 Vacuum Refrigeration.
Boat Engines and Electrical Equipment.

CHAPTER 15
Fire-Fighting Equipment.
CHAPTER 11
Compressed Air Systems.

11-1 Classification of Systems. 11-2 Pneumatic Main. 11-3 Air Receivers. 11-4
CompressorsGeneral. 11-5 Compressor
Details. 11-6 Typical Low Pressure Type
Air Compressor. 11-7 High Pressure Air
Compressor.
CHAPTER 12
Centrifugal Oil Purifiers.

12-1 General. 12-2 Principie of a Balaneed
Column Settling Tank. 12-3 Principie of
the Centrifugal Purifier. 12-4 Tubular
viii
15-1 General. 15-2 Fire-Fighting Agents.

15-3 Types of Fire-Fighting Equipment.
15-4 Supplementary Fire-Fighting Aida
15-5 The Fire Main. 15-6 Fire Hose and
Fittings. 16-7 Strainers. 16-8 All Purpose
Nozzle. 15-9 Fog Tips, Fog Heads, and
15-10 Sprinkling Systems.
Applicators.
16-11 Fog Systems. 15-12 FoamGeneral.
15-13 The Continuous-Type Generator.
15-14 The Accumulator or Pressure-operated Generator. 15-15 The Mechanical
Foam Nozzle. 16-16 The Duplex Pressure
Proportioner.
15-17 Portable, Interna'
Combustion Engine-Driven Pumps. 15-18
Installed CO2 Systems. 15-19 Portable Fire
Extinguishers. 15-20 Steam Smothering
Systems. 15-21 Inert Gas Systems. 15-22
Personnel.
APPENDIX
for Closed Fireroom Use. A2-3 Centrifugal
Type Blower.
CHAPTER Al
Additional Pumps.
A1-1 Introduction. Al-2 Condenser Air
Pump. A1-3 Rotating Flunger Pump.
A1-4 Moving Vane Pump.
CHAPTER A2
Additional Forced Draft Blowers.
A2-1 Introduction. A2-2 Propeller Blower
CHAPTER A3
Additional Feed Water Systems and Attendant
Units.
A3-1 Introduction. A3-2 Open Feed System A3-3 Semiclosed Feed System. A3-4
Vacuum-closed Feed System. A3-5 Att,endant Units.
INDEX
Mate A
INTRODUCTION TO NAVAL AUXILIARY MACHINEgY

A GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF A STEAM PROP1TLSION PLANT
The primary function of any marine engineering plant is to convert the chemical energy of a
fuel hito useful work and to employ that work in
the propulsion of the ship. Other functions include
the production of power for steering, lighting,
ventilating, heating, cooking, refrigeration, operation of various types of electrice] equipment
including radio and other electronic devices, and,
in naval vessels, the power for loading, aiming
and firing the ship's guns.
The fuel from which the power is derived takes
many forms, such as coal, wood, oil, gasoline, hydrogen, etc. This fuel is burned in the furnaces of
boilers to generate heat which is transferred to
water, generating steam which serves to carry the
heat energy to the engines for conversion into
useful work. In some cases, the fuel is burned
within the engines themselves to develop the
power required. Engines of the latter type are
termed internal combustion engines.
The most common form of fuel used in naval
and merchant marine vessels is oil, which may be
classed as: (1) bunker fuel oil (commonly called
"fuel oil"), for use in boilers, and (2) diesel oil,
for use in internal combustion engines which
operate on the diesel, or compression-ignition
principie.
The externa]. combustion engine, or steam propulsion plant is, with but few exceptions, used
in combatant ships of and aboye the destroyer
clase. The following discussion will, theref ore,
deal with an elementary steam driven marine engineering plant, illustrated schematically in
Pide A, which is appended in the back of the
book.
In any steam driven plant, marine or shore installation, turbine or reciprocating, there is a similarity of basic cycle. Water is heated in a boiler,
generating steam which acta as the vehicle for
conveying thermal or heat energy to the engines.
The engines convert the thermal energy into mechanical energy or work, the exhaust steam being
condensed hito water and returned to the boiler
for repetition of the cycle. In some cases, most
common of which is the railroad steam locomotive
engine, the step of condensing the exhaust steam
is omitted since it la easier to carry sufficient water to allow throwing away the exhauat than it is
to carry condensing equipment. On board ship,
however, and in stationary shore plante, it
more economical to use the same water over and
over again, condensing the steam after eaoh eyek
through the engine and in addition the condenan
permita the attainment of very low exhaust mesure thereby increasing power output and efeciency of the plant. In addition to the there main
boiler, embaelements mentioned aboye,
condenser, there are additional machina known
as auxiliaries which serve the cycle in varias
ways either by increasing efficiency or by *Ming
in the ease of operation. These are feed nufitps to
force water into the boiler, feed heaters to pro-:
heat the water before it entera the boiler, conde*.
sate pumps to draw the condenaste (exhauat
steam condensed to water) out of the condensen
superheaters to add additional heat to the skarn,
economizers to increase the pteheating of feed
water, booster feed pumps to assist the leed pump
and air ejectors to assist in maintaining vaeuum.
In addition, there may be not one but several engines through which the steam pasees, eaeh in
turn using the exhaust steam of the engine
it. Piale A shows the diagramnaatic a
of units f ound in the basic Steam Cycle of a
ern naval vessel. The actual location of some of
the units may differ with types of /tipo. In addition, the cruising turbine sean fu the plata is not
installed in larger ships.
The basic steam cycle may be divided luto two
parta; in one part the units of the system contain
water, in the other part, steam. Breaking clown
the system further, it may be divided into the following:
A. Main cycle
1. Main steam system
Generation
Expansion
2. Condensate system
3. Feed system
Referring to Piale A, the main steam system starts with the bollera and ende at
the exhaust trunk from the low premie
si

turbine. The condensate system starts with
water is nearly always used f or this. The
the main condenser and ende in the deaerating feed tank known as the DA tank. The
feed system starts in the DA tank and ende;
at the outlet of the internal feed pipe in the
boiler steam drum. An important part of
this system which is not shown in the plate
is the make-up feed system.
B. Auxiliary or supporting systems to the main
cycle.
Auxiliary steam.
A separate steam system used to drive
the auxiliary machinery units which
serve the main cycle.
Auxiliary exhaust.
A system which collects the exhaust
steam from auxiliarles and returns it to a
condenser or some apparatus which utilisee thermal energy.
3. Cooling or circulating system.
A system of cooling water which cools
condensers, engines, or oil coolers. Sea
system includes pumps, piping, valves

and coolers.
Lubricating oil systems.
A system to supply lubricating oil to the
bearings of the main engines and reduction gears. The system includes tanks,
piping, valves, pumps, coolers, strainers
and purifiers.
Fuel oil systems.
A system to supply fuel oil to the boiler
furnaces. The system includes tanks,
piping, valves, pumps, heaters, strainers, meters and combustion apparatus.
XII
Each of the aboye systems is distinct and separate in itself. Each one has a definite function to
perform in order that the basic steam cyele may
operate. If there is mal-operation or failure of any
one system, its effect on the whole will be noticed,
either in lowered efficiency or outright failure of
the plant as a whole.

REVISED 1952
CHAPTER
1. Piping, Fittings and Valves

Packing and Heat Insulating Materials
Pumpa and Air Electora
Blowers
Heat Exchanger Equipment
Condensen
Distilling Plants
Feed Water Systems
Fuel Oil Systems
Refrigeration Equipment
Compressed Air Systems
Centrifugal Oil Purifiers
Control Instruments
Machinery Outside the Engineering Spaces
Fire Fighting Equipment
APPENDIX
CHAPTER Al. Additional Pumps

Additional Poseed Draft Blowers
Additional Feed Water Systems and Attendant Units
tu
THE BUREAU OF SHIPS MANUAL

Reference to the Bureau of Ships Manual is
frequently made in the text. Individual copies of
the various chapters of the manual can be purchased in paper-bound form at a cost of a few
cents per chapter from the Superintendent of
Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington 25, D.C.
CHAPTER 1
PIPING, FITTINGS AND VALVES

1-1. PIPING-GENERAL.
Piping is used aboard ship to convey salt

water, fresh water, steam at various pressures
and temperatures, oil, gasoline, compressed air
and certain gases. The varied natures of the substances carried in the pipes, as well as the varying
nature of the services performed, make it neceesary to use a variety of materials, sizes, and designe of piping and attached fittings.
$tandardization is desirable. The tables of
prescribed materials, test pressures, sises and
joints for various services are found in the Bureau of Ships Schedule for Piping Systems
furnished to all builders and piping manufacturing contragiors. General instructions as to cara,
repairs, t tification, operation, testing, etc.,
are contained in the Bureau of Ships Manual,
and in the booklet, Description and Operation of
Piping Systems which is furnished by builders for
each individual ship.
To avoid confusion in the use of the terms,
"pipe," "piping" and "tubing," the Bureau of
Ships has standardized their definitions in the
following manner:
(1) Pipe is material purchased by standard
iron pipe sise designations usually abbreviated
"I.P.S." for nominal size and as standard, extra
strong, or double extra strong for wall thiekness.
Pipe 4 primarily intended for assembly by threaded
joints.
Sises of standard steel pipes are designated by
nominal inside diameters from 1C to 12' inclusive. (Aboye 12 inches the designating dimension is the outside diameter.)
Pipe is known as "standard," "extra strong,"
and "double extra strong," according to whether
it is for normal, high, or very high pressure
service. The difference lies in wall thicknesses.
Outside diameters are the same for any given
nominal size. For example: " standard, I '
extra strong, and I" double extra strong pipes,
all have the same outside diameters, but have different inside diameters. The I ' standard pipe has
slightly over inside diameter. The others have
lesser inside diameters due to their greater si

thickness. This permite standardization in pipe
dies and pipe tape. Pipe size designation has an
interesting history which will aid in
ing the confusing differences in
nominal pipe sises. Originally, pipas were
by actual bielde diameters and each size
definite wall thickness sufficient to wi
pressures common with the systems of
Pipe tape and dies were made for cutting
on pipes and fittings of the various sin. As
rials improved it became poesible to
having thinner walls, thus saving in
cost. However, if the outside diameter?
L D. pipe, had been decreased, new
would have had to be made, and abolle:tad,
and it would have become expansiva to
repairs to piping made up of the oit tia
Therefore it was decided to keep the
diameters the same, and increase
ameters of the pipes, retaining the
of the former pipe to conform with
newer type having the same outside
thinner walls. Thus expensive reavoided.
Tubing is material purchased'
outside diameters, with wall thic
thousandths of an inch. (Some
is given by the pate gauge number.) T
tened is intended for fabricatian by
than threading, such as jlanging, rol ing
soldering. Individual seetions of tubing are
quently referred to as "tubes." The actual
side diameters of tubing used by thaNavy ci
cide with I.P.S. outside diarneters.
Piping is an assembly of
ar
and fittings, forming a whole or a
a system used for transferring
Complete information on size and
can be found in manufacturen' catal
engineer's handbooks. The use of suela publica.
tions in conjunction with the Bureau of Sh
Manual will lead to the solution of alrneat any
piping problem.
1-1
PLUG
GROUND SURFACE JOINT
TAIL PIECE
LONG NIPPLE
CROSS
.1
- ,
90 ELBOW
RETURN BENO
FIG. 1-1. Standard Pipe Fitting Nomenclature, Threaded Joint Series
1-2
45 ElBOW
PIPING, FITTINGS AND V ALVES

1-2. PIPINGMATERIALS.
Materials most commonly used in the manufacture of pipe and tubing for naval usage are
steel and low alloy steels, copper, brass, and
various cupro-nickel alloys. The non-ferrous
piping la used for services other than high-pressure high-temperature steam, namely for systems of the following types: condensate, fresh
and salt water, lubricating and fuel oil, hydraulic
drive, compressed air, and refrigeration. Highpressure high-temperature steam is earried in
carbon molybdenum alloy steel piping.
In designing piping systems, and in the repair
of systems already installed, materials must be
carefully chosen from the Bureau of Ships
Schedule for Piping Systems. As an example, it
pointed out that 7' steel tubing for carrying 400
n.s.i., 650F. steam will appear about the same to
the naked eye as 7' steel tubing for handling 600
p.s.i., 850F. steam. However the former may be
carbon steel whereas the latter must be a molybdenum allgy steel capable of resisting high temperature cep. (Creep may be defined as a slow
plastic deformation at high temperatures and
14
under constant loads which are considerably

than the normal yield strength of the metal.)
14. PIPING JOINTS.
Piping systems are made up of straight sectiona

of pipe and tubing of the proper size and material connected by various standard joints and
fittings, plus, in some cases, specially formed pipe
or tube sections. The standard nomenclature of
some of the standard fittings is given in Fig. 1-1.
Expansion is provided for by the inclusion in the
piping layout of U-bend sectiona and/or standard
types of expansion joints. The required chape and
configuration of the system la obtained by bending and the use of "fittings." The entire
made up of small sections or "subassem
which are generally fabricated in a shop
their instafiation. The various units whieh
prise these subassemblies are united by either
threaded or flanged j oints, by welding or by silver
brazing. The use of threaded joints (Fig. 1-1)
is kept at a minimum They are used only for low
pressures. The majority of the joints found in
subassemblies are made by welding the joints
UPPER HALF OF JOlNT

USUALLY SAME AS
LOWER HALF
GASKET
HIGO PRESSURE UPE VAN STONE IR UPPED
LOW PRESSURE UPE WITH RING GASKET
WELD
METAL
SUP-ON FUNGE
VELO@ FUE AND RACK
WELOMG HECK FUNGE

WITT-WEIDED TO TUSE
FIG. 1-2. Plange Type "Take-Down" joints.
1-3
4"
1-3
NAVAL AUXILIARY MACRINERY
Welded jointa are particularly suited to join highpressure, high-temperature otee] piping and
Besides the aboye types of gasket seals for

flanged joints, plastic gasket sealing compounds
such high-pressure Unes as feed water systems. are available commercially which can be spread
The subassemblies terminate in "take down" on metal to metal joints in the manner of a paste
joints of the flanged or union type (Fig. 1-2) which hardens and creates an effective seal.
The welded joint is now generally used in
which permit ease in their installation or remaking the joints of subassemblies of high-presmoval.
The threaded joint is the simplest type. sure piping systems. The welding is performed in
It is common in ordinary plumbing. Threaded accordance with a set of specifications which dejoints and fittings (Fig. 1-1), with the exception fine the materials to be used and the applicable
of the union, find very little application on board techniques. These joints (Fig. 1-3) fall hito two
the modem chip. The union is much used in general classifications: (1) butt-weld and (2) filletpiping systems up to 2 size. The tubing ends con- weld. Butt-welding consists of beveling the two
necting to the union are threaded or more gener- ends, lining up, and welding. The "backing" ring
a silver brazed or welded into the "tail pieces" illustrated is used to prevent the formation of
and then the two ende are joined by setting up on welding "icicles." These backing rings are bored
the union ring. The male and female connecting out after welding, when they are accessible. In
ende of the tan pieces are carefully ground to the fillet-weld joint, one end laps over the other
and is welded outside of the lap. Socket welding
make a tight metal to metal fit with each other
It will be notad that with this joint when the fittings have a recess into which the tubing is intubing is welded or silver brazed bato the tail serted for fillet welding to the fitting. Note that
pieces there is no contact of the carried gas or deep sockets are provided to allow some end play
' g.
in making up the joints, thus eliminating the
(luid with the threadin
The bolted flange joint is suitable for
necessity of extreme accuracy in cutting the
practical pressures at present in use. Flanged piping.
joints are also specified for use in systems which
Silver brazing has become the most comordinarily operate under a vacuum. Flanges are mon method used for joining nonferrous piping
attached to tubing by welding, brazing, rolling in the pressure and temperature range where its
and beading into suitable recesses, or, in some use is practical. These factors limit its employcases, for low pressure pipes by screw threads. ment to use in making up steam piping systems
The most common types of flanged joints are whose working conditions do not exceed 200 p.s.i.
shown in Fig. 1-2. The same standard fitting or 425F. For "cold" services silver brazed fitabaneo as found in the threaded type fittings tings are used for pressures up to 3000 p.s.i. Spe(such as the tee, the croes, the elbow, the "Y" cial fittings employed in silver brazing assemblies
bend, etc.) are manufactured with flanged joints. are castings of copper, tin, and zinc alloys. They
The Van Stone type flanged joint, illustrated are machined to close tolerantes to permit the
in Fig. 1-2, is extensively used for high pressures development of the silver brazed joint. The fitwhere the piping is subjected to high tempera- tings (Fig. 1-4) most frequently used are furtures and heavy expansion strains. The ground nished with an insert of the silver brazing alloy of
apherically-seated (swiveled) lower flange seen a specified grade for the particular system. The
in this figure makes for self alignment of the method of the development of the joints by the
flanges. Bolted flange connections are sealed by brazing process is also performed in accordance
the use of gaskets of specified material for each with specified techniques. The alloy is melted by
service. Gaskets, which are described in detall heating the joint with a welder's gas torch (Fig.
in Chapter 2, are of three principal types as 1-4) and the molten metal fills the few thousandths of an inch annular space, between the
follows:
(1) Fibrous gaskets made of asbestos com- tube and fitting, by capillary action.
pounds, (2) Metal gaskets made of monel or soft
iron which may be plain faced or serrated at the 1-4. EXPANSION JOINTS AND EXPANSION BENDS.
Expansion joints or slip joints are installed in
point where the flange pressure will be taken, and
long steam fines because of the expansion and
(3) Metallic-asbestos spiral wound gaskets.
1-9
BUTT-WELD JOINT
FILIET-WELO JOINT
BACKING RING
WELDING SLEEVE JOINT
45 dei
BUTT-WEIDING ELBOW
BUTT-WELDING TEE
TUBE
COMPLETED JON
USE BEING INSERTED

SOCKETWELDING FITTINGS
FIG. 1-3. Welded John&

1-5
1-4
AREA OF HEATING
SILVER NAZIS ALLOY INSERT
BAND
SHOULDER STOP
CLEARANCE
GAP
CLEARANCE
GAP
SCRIBE LINE,
DEPTH OF SOCKET
AREA OF
PLUS In
HEATING
BUS
SILVER BRAZING
TORCH FUME POINTING AT
AN ANCLE TOWARDS TUSE
ALLOY
SILVER BRAZING
ALLOY INSERT
DEPTH OF SOCKET
FLANGE
FIG. 1-4. Silver-Brazed Joints.
contraction of metal when subjected to a wide

temperature range. Expansion joints are fitted at
suitable intervals along a piping line. Figure 1-5
illustrates a typical slip joint. It consists of the
stuffing box, the packing gland, the mate sliding
tube, and stop bolis, fitted to prevent separation
of the line in the expansion joint. The stuffing
box and mate tube have fianges, for connecting
the assembly to the piping main. The stuffing box
is packed with packing, set up by means of the

gland, with its studs and nuts, while the entering pipe is free to move in and out for a
limited distante and yet remain steam-tight, due
to the compression of the packing material by
the gland.
With the use of high-pressure and high-temperature steam, the slip joint method of caring
for expansion has lost favor. The use of U-bend
F
STOP BOLT
STUFFING BOX
STUFFING BOX
aposibm'aug
STOP BOLTS
"1111~~'
amm
arrex-c_ontwa,-,,,,,te&
722,19'->
e
141195151111
411 .10,
MALE SEU:11HG TUBE

GLAND
VERTICAL SECTION THRU "F"
FIG. 1-5. Slip Type Expansion Joint.
1-6
-1,2>
.1.1f
Jira wn
'ffiliffierler""Ag "nr
y'y
GLAND
FLANGE
PACKING

sections and corrugated sections is the designer's
answer to the high temperatures and pressures
now prevailing in marine installations. As the
name implies, the U-bend section is nothing more
than a section of piping bent in the form of a U.
Itere the expansion is taken up in changing the
curvature of the bend. For medium and high
pressures and temperatures, corrugated and bellows types of expansion joints are used. They are
illustrated in Figs. 1-6 and 1-7. The principie of
such expansion joints is obvious, relative movement being absorbed by the changing curvature
of the corrugations or bellows similar to the operation of an accordion. The internal sleeves in
these joints serve to prevent excessive turbulence
and erosion of the corrugations or bellows. The
internal sleeves are free to slide axially as the
joints expand or contract.
To provide for relative displacement of the
piping with respect to the bulkheads through
which it must pass, a bulkhead expansion joint
must be provided. Early attempts were made to
obtain such flexibility by using a bulkhead slip
joint or packing gland to provide a water tight
joint having axial freedom of motion. Such an
DUERME SLEEVE
CENTERING RING
FIG.
Corrugated Type Bspansion Joint, for

Medium Pressures.
STAINLESS STEEL
MULTI-DISC
Ellen
INTERNAL SLEEVE
COMPRESSION
UMIT STOP
EXTENSION
UMIT
EXTERNAL DIRT GUARO
ELME
FIG. 1-7. Bellows Type Expandan Joint,

for High Presaure.
arrangement, however, was found to be insufficient, because its radial flexibility was negligible.
Experience has shown that the piping must be
free to move both radially and axially with respect to the bulkhead. Figure 1-8 illustrates a
corrugated bulkhead expansion joint designed to
accommodate displacement of the piping with
respect to the bulkhead. The bulkhead ring of
the joint is welded into the piping hole in the
bulkhead. The corrugated section, having from
two to six corrugations depending upon the
amount of expansion which must be handled,
terminates in a flange. After the piping has been
installed and insulated as illustrated, the split
filler piece and split flange are bolted to the expansion joint flange. The pipe alampe are then
slipped over the piping alongside the split flange
as shown. Between the pipe clamps and the piping is a double layer of asbestos cloth. The pipe
clamps are set up tightly with bolis, after which
the halves of the split flange are welded together;
then the halves of the clamps are welded to the
split flange, completing the water-tight joint.
With this arrangement the expanding piping will
extend the corrugated expansion piece rather
than straining the bulkhead and, to a limited extent, the bulkhead may be displaced without
damage to the piping.
1-7
1-0

2 TO 6 EXPANSIN
CORRUGATIONS
FLANGE
BULKHEAD
ASBESTOS CLOTH
GASKET BETWEEN
PIPE CLAMP AND
PIPING
SPLIT
FLANGE
BULKHEAD
RING
INSULATION
, INSULATION
GUARD
SPLIT
FILLER PIECE
WELD
PIPE
CLAMP
(WELDED TO SPLIT
FLANGE)
FIG. 1-8. Bulkhead Expansion Joint for Main Steam Piping.

1-5. VALI/ESGENERAL.
It is often necessary to stop or control the flow

of a fluid, into, through, or from a pipe line. This
is accomplished by means of a valve; a device
consisting of a body containing an orifice with a
suitable means of tightly closing the orifice by
closing a valve disc, or plug, against a seating
surface surrounding the orifice. The various
typee of valves described below will illustrate this
point.
There is a great diversity in valve design because of the wide range of fluida handled, the
variety of conditiona such as pressures and temperatures, and the variety of automatic features
required for special purposes.
1-6. THE STOP VALVE.
In this type of valve the closing member (disc

or wedge) is moved on or off the seat by the
motion of an attached stem.
Stop valves may be of either the "gate,"
"globe," "piston" or "plug cock" type.
(1) Gate valves. This type, illustrated by Fig.
1-9, is used when straight fine flow is desired,
without throttling requirements. When the valve
disc (or gate) is wide open there is little resistan ce

to flow and a minimum of pressure drop. The gate
type valve is not suitable to a throttling operation as the velocity of flow against a partially
opened wedge can cause chattering, damage to
seating surface and undesirable erosive effects
called "cutting."
If the valve is so designed that the stem is restrained from turning, and is threaded hito the
hand wheel (or its bushing), the stem will be
raised or lowered when the wheel is operated. The
valve, then, is known as a rising stem, outeide
screw-and-yoke type. This type of gate valve is
illustrated in Fig. 1-9 (a). Sometimes the valve is
designed so that the wheel and stem both rise as
the wheel is turned; the stem being threaded hito
the bonnet. It is then known as a rising stem, inside screw type. When the stem rotates in the
bonnet, but is restrained from rising or lowering,
and is threaded into the gate, as shown in Fig.
1-9 (b), so that the gate goes up or down when the
wheel is turned, the valve becomes a non-rising
stem type. However, regardless of the valve type,
the valve stem type or the arrangement of any
remote operating gear, the threads on the stem
1-8
INDICATOR
YO
YOKE SI.EEVE
STEM
PACKING
GLAND
STUFFIN
80X

GLAND FLANGE
VALVE
FIG. 1-9(a). Gate Valve, Rising-Stem, Outside Screw Type. (b) Gate Valve, NonRising-Stem, Inside Screw Type.
VALVE
VALVE SEAT
BOU
VALYE
DE
SPIDER CUIDE
ANCLE GLOBE VALVE
STRAICHT CLOIE BOE
FIG. 1-10. Globe Stop Valves.
1-9
1-6
are alwaye so cut (right-hand or left-hand) that

the operator must, in every case, turn the operating wheel in a clockwise direction to close the
valve. This promotes standardization and preventa errors in judgment by operating personnel.
The nomenclature used in Fig. 1-9 is common
to most valves.
(2) Globo valves. The narre of this valve
comes from the globular shape of the body. The
direction of flow of the fluid is changed as it
pasees through a valve of this type, but it is
ideally suited to frequent operation and has excellent throttling (controlling) characteristics.
Figure 1-10 shows a straight globe stop valve
and an angle globe stop valve. The disc is raised
and lowered by means of the threaded stem.
Both the disc and seat can be quickly re-ground
or replaced. To prevent leakage of the fluid
where the stem pasees through the bonnet, a
recesa called a stuffing box is provided to receive
packing material to prevent leakage while allowing freedom of motion of the stem. A packing
gland can be forced down against the packing by
turning the packing nut until the desired degree
of tightness is attained.
Figure 1-11 shows diagrammatically two types
of main steam stop valves. The arrangement of

each is identical except for the operating mechanism; the valve of Fig. 1-11(a) having a threaded
stem and that of Fig. 1-11 (b) having a toggle (or
cantilever) type operating mechanism. A toggle
device is useful in closing such a valve against a
high pressure. As the handwheel is turned clockwise the trunnion nuts approach each other,
causing the leverage to increase; reaching its
maximum as the valve disc is forced into contact
with the seat.
The yoke of this valve is made high to provide
space for the cooling chamber construction below
the stuffing box. This space around the spindle
fills with condensate or cooler steam, which protects the packing from the higher temperatures
of the superheated steam. The spindle has a beveled shoulder which seats against the bottom face
of the bonnet when the valve is open. This prevents leakage of the high-pressure steam into the
cooling chamber and, after pressure in the cooling
chamber has been relieved by a pet cock, the
valve can be packed while under pressure.
For the heavy duty type valve, the bonnet is
TRUNNIONS
COMPOUND
SCREW
DARME.
,HANDWHEE1
111\110111111011/1/1/1/.WIP
YOKE
PACKING GIAND
CORING CHAMBER
YOKE
BONNET
STEM
BODY
DISC
SEAT RING
A
(h) TOGGLE-OPERATED TYPE
(a) THREADED-STEM TYPE
FIG. 1-11. Steam Stop Valve Operating Gear.

1-10

SEAT
RING
DISC
"V"-THREAD
BODY
FIG. 1-12. Screwed-In Seat Ring.
connected to the body with double-ended studs

and two nuts. A shoulder on the body flange
Sta into a recess of the bonnet, and a gasket fits
around this shoulder to make the joint tight.
The seat ring is replaceable. It consiste of a
ring which has been machined to form the valve
orifice and seating surface. It is threaded externally for screwing into the valve body. Figure
1-1.8 shows the manner in which the seat ring is
connected to the body in this type of valve. For
high pressure, high temperature services, the
valve seat ring is either serewed into the valve
body and sealed againet leakage by welding or
silver brazing, or the ring is pressed into a
14
recess bored in the body and then seal-welded.

For severe service such as main steam valves,
the contact faces of both the seat ring and the
dise are overlaid with a mnimum thickness of
3/32" of cobalt-chromium composition (commercially known as Stellite). This material is
extremely hard and has excellent resistance to
abrasion and erosion.
The ordinary globe valve may appear in many
forms. Three specific body types are shown in
Fig. 143.
(3) Piston valve. A piston type valve is sometimes used to close the orifiee when the use of a
FIG. 1-14. Pistan Valve.
CROSS
FIG. 1-13. Types of Gleba Valve Bodies.
dise type valve would be inadvisable. The average stop valve will give satisfactory service when
used fully open or completely closed. When, however, such valves are used to regulate the flow in
high-pressure linee, the valve disco and wats, unlees made of special ahoye, are apt to be scored
by the wire-drawing action of steam, under which
conditions it is difficult to obtain a complete
shut-off, and regrinding at too frequent intervals
becomes necessary. To overcome these difficuldes in piping systems where routine overhaul is
1-6
drical or truncated cone-shaped plug which

free to turn about its axis within a closely fitting
hollow cylinder. A passage is bored through the
plug at right angles to its axis. When the plug is
turned so that its passage is lined up with porte in
the cylinder wall, passage is effected from the
inlet port to the outlet port. Turning the plug 90,
about its axis, from this position, results in closing
is desirable to positively prevent any chance of a valve failing to

open or close, the piston valve was adopted. This
valve is shown in Fig. 1-14. Shut-off is obtained
by a cylindrical pisto sliding vertically through
two special parking rings which are separated by
a bronze cage having ports through which flow
may proceed when the valve is open. A standard
not Temible, and where it
STOP
LUBRICANT
SCREW
PLUG
SUPPORT SPRINC
NON-LUBRICATER VALVE
PLUG
LUBRICATED VALVE
FIG. 1-16. Plug Cocks.
handwheel and stem are used to regulate the positio of the pisto. The stuffing box and its
gland nut provide a means of compressing the
packing rings to insure a close fit around the sliding pisto.
A pisto type boiler bottom-blow valve is used
on older, low pressure boilers.
In modem construction, the development of
erosion resisting alloys, such as Stellite, for seat
and disc surfaces has resulted in the exclusion of
the pisto type valve.
(4) Plug cocks. Figure 1-16 illustrates two
variations of the plug cock type stop valve.
Essentially, a plug coek consiste of a solid cylin-
the ports. Other variations of the plug cock are

three-way and four-way cocks by means of which
the routing of the fluid may be selected.
1-7. CHECK VALVES.
It is often desirable and necessary to use a
valve which will permit flow in one direction only.
Such a valve is known as a check valve. The following descriptions will illustrate those types in
common use.
(1) Swing check valve. Figure 1-16 shows a
basic design of check valve which permite
straight flow in one direction only. The bridge
wall is tilted in relation to the line of flow. The
1-12

DISC HUT
ANGEL
PLUG
CAP
HINGE PIN
Arim

DISC
BOO
FIG. 1-16. Swing Check Valva.
FIG. 1-17. 1.11t Check Valva.
swinging disc has a gravity controlled tendency

to remain seated because of the tilt of the bridge
wall and seat. The disc can swing open in one
direction only. The disc opens only when the
force exerted by the pressure against its under
side exceeds the force exerted by gravity and by
the preseure on its upper vide.
The dise has a stem which fits Ioosely in a hole
in the hinge arm so that the disc is free to turn
and thus adjust itself to the seat. The end of the
stem is smaller in diameter and is threaded to receive the dise nut which serves to prevent the
diem from separating itself from the hinge arm.
The upper end of the stem is slotted to receive a
screw driver bit. By removing the angle plug,
a screw driver can be inserted and used to turn
the disc back-and-forth over the seat when
grinding in the seating audaces with an abrasive
grinding compound.
Lift check valve. Figure 1-17 illustrates a
check valve, which permite flow from below only.
The disc has guide fine at its upper and lower ex~idee to hold it in its proper place and to prevent canting. The cap provides access for grinding-in.
Stop check valve. Figure 1-18 illustrates a
check valve, the amount of opening of which can
be controlled by adjusting the position of the
FIG. 1-18. Stop Check Valva.
1-13
1-7

The function of the floating piston valve is to
eliminate the chattering characteristic of an ordinary stop check valve, when there is intermittent
flow. The piston in this case acts to check the
rapid movement of the disc and as a balancing
piston to assist in holding the valve open. It
should be noted, in connection with this action,
that the equalizing orifices are of comparatively
small diameters. The plugged hole in the body
near the valve seat is for the insertion of a tool
to tighten the seat, which is locked in position
by the set screws shown below this hole.
FLOATING
PISTON
1-8. THROTTLE VALVES.
FIG. 1-19. Nonreturn Vetee.
threaded stem. As shown the valve stem is at its

lowest position which prevente any opening of
the valve disc. This position permits the valve to
serve as a stop valve. When the valve stem is
releed the disc can be opened by pressure on the
inlet side. The amount of opening is limited by
the position of the stem thus controlling the
amount of flow through the valve. Flow in the
reverse direction is prevented by the spring which
will seat the disc when pressure on the inlet side
drops below that on the discharge side plus the
pressure created by the spring. This valve is called
a stop check valve.
(4) The nonreturn valve, shown in Fig. 1-19,
ie suitable for high pressure and high temperatures and combines many of the features of construction used in the stop-check valve. When the
valve stem is lifted and the pressure on the discharge side is lower than that of the inlet side, the
piston will lift and the pressure will equafize on
the two lctea of both the disc and piston. The
valva will remain open so long as the pressure under the disc exceeds the sum of the discharge
pressure and the weight of the floating piston. At
other times it doses and serves as a check valve.
A throttle valve must provide for quick control in starting and stopping a steam turbine or
engine, as well as a means of regulating the flow
of steam to the engine. This necessitates some
method of balancing the valve, especially if it is
operated by hand. The object of balancing the
valve is to remove the strain due to steam pressure under the disc from the stem, so that its
operation can be effected quickly and with little
effort. Two types of valves will be described.
(1) The double-poppet throttle valve is shown
in Fig. 1-5W and consists of two valve discs, A and
B, rigidly connected together and secured to the
valve stem by a collar and nut. Connection la
mace at the lower end of the valve stem to a system of levers, by means of which the valve can be
opened and closed from the engine-room plat-
1-14
BY-PASS CONNECTION
FIG. 1-20. Double-Poppet Throttle Wire.

forro. The two valves are slightly different in
&meter, in this case the upper one, B, being the
larger and therefore affording greater surface for
oteara presente to create a tendency to doce the
valve. The steam entering at O prenses downward
on A and upward on B, so that the valve is balanced, termites but little power to move it by
hand and can be opened and closed quickly.
A rectangular handhole (not shown), in the
back of the valve chamber, permito examination
of both valve disco. The valve dice B may be removed when desired for repairs through this
opening, while for the removal of A the lower
bonnet must be removed. P' and P are openings
for an outside by-pass pipe and valve connecting
the two sides of the chamber. This by-pass is used
to allow a small quantity of steam to by-pass the
main valve in order to warm up linee and equipment.
(2) Balance piston type tbrottle valve. The
construction of another type of balanced throttle
valve is based upon the principie of a loose-fitting
pisto formed integral with the valve disc. This
aval& the usual construction of the two parallel
1-10
seate of the double-poppet type which are difficult to keep tight. A valve illustrating the principies common to the majority of balanced throttle valves s shown in Fig. 1-21. The pisto aboye
the dice is loose-fitting and contains a small
auxiliary or pilot valve attached to the stem
which opens in advance of the opening of the
main valve. Thus, the pressure aboye the pistan
and below the valve dice is equalized, and little
effort is required to open the main valve; at the
same time the pilot valve answers the same purpose as a by-pass. The several proportions of
ateas are such that a slight over-pressure le maintained aboye the pisto to give the valve at sil
times a closing tendency.
The first movement of the handwheel opens
the pilot valve ander the stem and relieves the
pressure in the space aboye the pisto; thus balancing the valve. As the piston is loose-fitting,
when the valve s closed steam is permitted to
leak by it slowly filling the space aboye the piston. When the pilot valve is opened, the steam
aboye the pisto escapes faster than it can enter
around the loosely fitted piston, decreasing the
pressure aboye the pisto and balancing the
valve. Alter this, the opening of the main valve
may be controlled at will, thus facilitating control of the flow of steam.
Throttle valves of special machinery often
have an automatie closing feature, whereby the
valve, normally hand operated, is released from
its hand operating gear and closed automatically
by an emergency governor. There are many types
which embody such features. They will not be described here as they are usually designed for a
particular type of service and involve only a combination of principies which are explained in this
text. Some of these devices are described in
Naval Turbin,es.
LOOSELY FITTING
BALANCE PISTON
AUX. OR PILO!
VALVE
I STEAM KET
MAIN VALVE
DISC
STEAM
OUTLET
1-9. AUTOMATIC PRESSURE CONTROL VALVESGENERAL.
There are many types of the presente control

valves, ranging from the simple relief valve which
functions when the total pressure on a valve disc
exceeds the fixed presente of a spring, to the more
complex pressure reducing and regulating valves
and pump governor valves. Anides 1-10 to 1-12,
incl., will describe a few such valves.
1- 10. RELTI&F
VALVES.
Relief valves are automatic valves used o
FIG. 1-21. Balance Pistan Type Throttle Valve.
1-15

atoara, water, and oil linea as well as on many
forma of machinery in order to prevent buildingup an excessive presaure due to sudden closing of
outlet valves, failure of regulating or reducing
valves, or other causes.
ADJUSTING NUT
YOKE
SPRING
SPRING PUYE
SIEN
setting. Relief valve dises sometimes are fitted

with a projecting lip or shoulder to provide
"popping" and "blow-down" features somewhat
similar to those of boiler safety valves of the
huddling chamber type.
A relief valva is designed to be of sufficient
size to reduce the pressure built up within the
chamber which it relieves. Small spring-loaded
valves, operating under the same principie and
having the same features as relief valves, are
often installed, not to relieve the dangerous pressure, but to give warning of its existence. Such
valves are properiy called sentinel valves.
It is a matter of interest to note that a boiler
safety valva is a special type of relief valva having an adjustable blow-down feature. Boiler
safety valves are described in detail in Naval
Boilers.
1-11. REDLICING VALVES.
DISC
011TIET
VALVE BOO?
FIG. 1-22. Relief Valve.
le pf operation is illustrated in Fig.

1consiste of a valve body containing a v
the stern of which terminates in
a spring Plate. gonted between the yoke and
the spring plato'fis a heavy spring, the compression of which tends to huid the valve down on its
seat. Adjusting and lock nuts on the yoke columns permit adjustment of the valva spring compression to the desired pressure. The inlet of the
valve is connected to the pipe or machinery unit
to be protected, while the outlet is open to the
atmosphere (in the case of steam or air), or led
back to the suction side of the pump (in the case
of water or oil discharge Enes). When the total
pressure in the relief valva inlet exceeds the resistance of the spring on top of the valve, this exceso pressure forces the valve open, relieving the
pressure until it falls again below the relief valva
Reducing valves are automatie valves used in

many places where a steady pressure, less than
boiler pressure is desired, as on cylinder jackets,
gland seals, air ejectors, the galley steam fine,
heating systems and many other connections.
These valves can be set to any desired delivery
pressure within limits of the particular valva,
after which the valve maintains this pressure automatically, regardless o changes in the pressure
of the supply, and as long as the supply presaure
is at least equal to the desired delivery pressure.
Reducing (or pressure regulating) valves may
be classified as to method of operation as:
Spring-controlled (spring-loaded) and
Pneumatic-pressure contraed (air or gasloaded).
(1) Spring-controlled reducing valve. Figure
143 is a view of a spring-loaded pressure reducing
valva. Such a valve is installed in a steam line
when the line pressure is to be reduced to a eertain desired lower pressure to operate machinery
or heat exchanger apparatus requiring lower
pressures than that of the steam source.
Steam, at the auxiliary steam line (source)
pressure, enters at A. It tends to flow through the
main valve and out at B; the pressure at the exit
depending on the amount of opening of the main
valva. Since this valve seats upward, the high
pressure steam at A and the main valva spring
compression act to clase it, but the same high
pressure steam is led through the high oree-
1-16
ALIUSTINS SCAN
LOCK NUT
ADJUSTRIG SPRING
CONTROWNS
AUXILIAR' VALVE
PISTON STEAM PORT
AUXILIAR VALIE SPROISI'
PISTON
101V PIRRE
POR
UUIN PRESSURE
PIM
MAIN VALVE SPRING
MI KW
ORM CONNECTION
VIO. 1-23. Spring-Loaded kedueing Valva.
1-17
1-11
cure steam port so that t may be admitted

through an auxiliary valve, to the top of a piston
fitting loosely over the main valve stem. The
area of the top of this piston is largor than the
area of the main valve disc and hence, with the
admission of steam at proper pressure, this piston
will force the main valve downward and opon.
The auxiliary valve is operated by the downward pressure of the metal diaphragm abo ye it,
acting to opon it, and the upward compression of
the auxiliary valve spring below, acting to close
it. The initial pressure of the diaphragm is regulated by the compression put into the adjusting
spring by turning the adjusting screw down or
up a desired amount.
To set up a means whereby the reduced pressure at B may be controlled, steam at this
pressure is led hito the chamber beneath the
diaphragm either through a low pressure port
located in the valve body, as shown, or through
a small line outside the body and leading from a
more remoto connection in the discharge line, B,
to the chamber beneath the diaphragm. Sucia a
line is called a remoto controlling line, meaning
that the valve is thus arranged to regulate the
pressure at a point in the line remote from the
valve. Alter proper adjustment of the adjusting
spring has been made and the valve is operating,
the forces tending to close the main valve balance
the forces tending to opon it. Then if, for any
reason, sueh as reduced demand, the steam pressure at B risas, this additional pressure will
create a new force under the diaphragm which
will raise the diaphragm permitting the small
spring below the auxiliary valve to move it toward the closed position.
The rings of the pisten are loosely fitted and
when the auxiliary valve clases the high steam
pressure aboye the pisten is relieved by leakage
past these rings. Then the main valve tends to
d'ose, under the steam pressure at A and the
main valve spring compression, and the pressure
at B drops to the predetermined, set value. Reduced pressure at B, caused by increased demand or by over-action of the main valve, will
produce the opposite action.
When originally setting this valve, a elockwise movement of the adjusting screw will increase pressure at B and a counterclockwise
movement will decrease that pressure. Once the
valve is adjusted to maintain the reduced prez-
cure desired, the adjusting screw can be locked

by means of the lock nut.
Spring-controlled pressure regulating valves
can be used in vapor, gas or liquid linea
(2) Pneumatic pressure controlled reducing
valves. This clase of pressure regulating valve is
dvided into two types, to wit; those designed to
regulate low temperature fluids such as air, water, or oil, and those made to regulate high temperature fluids such as steam or hot water. Both
types operate on the same basic principie; that
the pressure of a gas at a constant temperature
vares inversely as its volume. The difference in
design is made necessary because of the effect
that varying temperatures vvould have upen the
controlling gas used. They will regulate at the
set pressure uniese the temperature of the controlling gas is changed, in which case the valve
must be re-adjusted by adding or bleeding-off
some of the controlling gas.
(a) Pneumatic pressure controlled regulating
valve for low temperature fluids. Referring to Fig.
1-24, this reducing valve consiste of the valve
body which contains an inlet opening (located in
the rear of the body and not shown in Fig. 1-24)
which leads under the valve seat, which in turn
connects to the outlet passage abo ye the valve
seat. The seat is removable, and is held in place
by the threaded cage. The valve disc is integral
with the stem, which serves to guide the disc.
Two forces tend to close the valve upward against
the seat, to wit; the pressure of the incoming
high-pressure fluid and the compression of the
valve spring. The valve spring is not adjustable.
It is not installed as a pressure regulating feature,
but as a positive means of moving the valve upward whenever the diaphragm plate, which is not
integral with the valve guide-stem, moves upward, away from the valve.
The valve body is capped by the dome. When
the dome is tightly in place, it clamps the circular, synthetic rubber diaphragm tightly between
a shoulder on the dome and a mating recess in
the valve body, forming a gas-tight seal between
the loading chamber and the actuating chamber.
The actuating chamber is in communication with
the body outlet chamber, through a largo orifice
seen in the division plate which otherwise separatea these two chambera. The circular, rigid,
metal diaphragm plate is then pressed against the
bottom side of the diaphragm by (1) the dia-
1-18
DOME
LOABOIG
CHAMBER
DOME
ORIFICE
SEPARATING
PLATE
MAPHIMMI
DOME NEME
VAL VE
ACTUATING
111APHRAGI1
PEAT!
DIAPHRASM
PLATE
CHAMBER
CHARGING
CONNECTION
REINE VALVE
SPRING
INLET
BODY NEEOLE VALVE
ONTLET
VAL VE SEAT
CACE
VALVE
VALVE SPRMG
OADING CHAMBER GAS

INLET FLUID
011111T FLUID
FIG. 1-24. Gas-Loaded Reducing Valve, for Low Temperature Field.
1-19
MMN
VALVE
REMOTE
OODENSATE
CONTROL
CONNECTION
CLFiEL
CONDENSATION
CHAMBER
SEPARATING
MATE
MARRO
COOLING
FIN
GLYCERME
ORIFICE
TUBE
LEVEL
LOADING
CHAMBER
CHARGING
CONNECTION
FIG. 1-25. Gas-Loaded Reducing Valve for High

Temperature Fluida.
phragm plate spring, (2) the valve stem (i.e., the

forces tending to close the valve) and (3) the pressure o the fluid on the outlet side of the valve
acting againet the lower side of the diaphragm
plate. Any gas in the loading chamber has access
to the total ares of the top of the diaphragm va a
small orfice in the center of the dome plate. The

loading chamber is charged va the dome needle
valve to that pressure which produces the desired
pressure in the outlet. If the valve is installed to
handle a gas, the dome is charged with this gas
using both the dome needle valve and the body
needle valve. If, however, the valve handles a
liquid, the body needle valve is not used for
charging. In this case, the body needle valve is
kept closed and the plug is removed from the
charging connection. A pipe line from a source
of some compressed gas, such as air, nitrogen, or
carbon-dioxide is then fitted to the charging connection. By using the dome needle valve, the
loading chamber is then charged until the valve
regulates the outlet pressure at the desired value.
The valve is so designed that whenever the
outlet pressure exceeds the desired amount, it will
cause the diaphragm to move upward until the
downward force exerted by the gas in the loading
chamber balances the upward forces acting to
raise the diaphragm. As the outlet pressure so
(orces the diaphragm upward, the valve spring
(orces the valve upward with the diaphragm,
reducing the valve opening which causes the outlet pressure to be lowered. As this occurs, the gas
pressure in the loading chamber, (orces the diaphragm downward, opening the valve, to prevent
the outlet pressure from becoming too low. Thus
it can be seen that the valve is constantly acting
to prevent the outlet pressure from (1) becoming
too high and (2) becoming too low. Therefore,
regardless of changes in the rete of flow caused by
the changing demands of the equipment using
the controlled fluid, this reducing valve will
maintain the outlet pressure approximately constant throughout.
(b) Pneumatic pressure controlled regulating
valve for high temperature fluida. The principie of
operation of the low temperature fluid pressure
regulator just described is applicable to high
temperature fluids, if provision is made for preventing the heat from the hot fluid from affecting
the gas in the loading chamber. Figure 1-tfl illustrates such a reducing valve designed to hanclle
steam.
In this case the loading chamber is surrounded
by a finned hood for conducting heat to the surrounding atmosphere, and it is located beneath
the valve Steam from the inlet of the unit being
served (outlet side of the valve) is led to the con-
1-20
PE1i tlia,7111TINGSWID VALVES
densation chamber via the remoto controlling line

and connection. The con densation <lamber is
separated from the loading chamba by the synthetic rubber diaphragm. Alter the valva has
been in use for a short podad, sufficient steam will
have condensed to filt the condensation chamber.
This condenaste then prevente aceces of hot steam
to the atea adjacent to the loading ohtuaber. The
loading chamber contains some glycerine in its
bottom. This liquid la forced by the charging gas
up through the =sil orifice tuba and into the
space between the diaphragm and the separating
plata The glycerine prevente the decomposition
of the synthetio rubber diaphragm which tends to
decompose when exponed to dry heat. The loading chamber la always charged from en outeide
source of compressed gas.
e
111,1
lude to the steameheat of the turhine driving the

pump. Thus a drop in pump dieharge prosas
below the premie for which the governor
resulta in the admission of more steam fa)"
pump turbina which ultimately resulta in a Tose
in the pump's diacharge pretere aa the turbias
responde to the tueste in oteen stp*. Conversely, an inermes in pimp adune presente
aboye the set veloz resulta finan ultimato loareing of that preseure.
1-12. Pian MESURE GOVERNOR VALVES.
The regulating valvas deecribed in the preceding tutela are designad to maintain a constant
reduced preasure in the line into which they discharge. The epring controlled type of reducing
valva is readily adaptable for use as a pump govemor, whereby the gema eupplied to the turbine
or steam pion driving the pump la so regulated
that the ptunp will discharge its Huid at a constant presura. Su& a reducing valve is called a,
conatant prentire pump votarse.
(1) Coruttant preseure pump governor. A pump
governor designed for maintaining a constant
pump discharge presura under varying ratas of
flow la illustrated in Fig. 1-16. It should be notad
that the valva body, the main valva, its piston,
and the auxilian valve are of the same basic design as the apring-losded reducing valva. Howayer, mitotead of exposing the underside of the
controlling diaphragm to the reduced steam pressure at B, it is connected to a line lending from
the pump discharge and 13 thus exponed to the
pump discharge pretere, which pressure it is desired to maintain at a constant predeterminad
valva.
The action is the same as previously described
in the case of the spring controlled reducing
valva except for the difference in actuating fluida.
The croesheads and connecting roda transmit any
movemeat of the controlling diaphragm to the
auldliary vate, which controls the opening of the
main valva so as to admit a *restar or leer
amount of Edema to its outlet line at B, which
PIO.1411. Coratent Presente PM* dentsor.
1-21
1-12
The two lower diaphragms serve as a seal thus
alternately over-correct and under-correct an ex-
obviating the need, for a stuffing box around the

auxiliary valve stm.
cessive amount. Thus the main valve is subjected

to a succession of openings and closings as the
regulator seeks to correct the pump discharge
pressure. As a result the pump discharge pressure tends to surge excessively and this surging
tends to augment the amplitude of the opening
and closing cycle which is called the "hunting"
cycle.
The amplitude of the hunting cycle is materially reduced by leading the reduced steam pressure through the low pressure port to chambers
aboye and below the sealing diaphragms. By
adding a needle valve and a compression chamber in the passage between these two diaphragm
chambers adjustment can be made to control the
flow of steam to and from the top sealing diaphragm, and thus to dampen the reaction of the
auxiliary valve to variations in pump discharge
pressures.
Constant pressure governors are used on most
modern fuel oil service pumps, main feed pumps,
and lubricating oil service pumps.
(2) Excess pressure pump govemor. Figure
1-27 shows a pump governor of the excess pressure type. It is used, in some installations, for
feed pump control where a fixed pressure differential is desired between the feed pump discharge pressure and the boiler pressure. The general design and operating principies of this
governor are similar to those of the constant
pressure type, except that the bollen pressure is
applied aboye an upper controlling diaphragm
opposing the pump discharge pressure applied
below a lower controlling diaphragm. The pressure differential tends to raise the auxiliary valve
through the crossheads and connecting rod.
The amount of pressure differential desired is
adjusted by means of the adjusting screw.
1-13. SPECIAL VALVES.
FIG. 1-27. Excess Pressure Pump Govemor.
Without the use of some means of damping the

action of the controlling diaphragm, constant
discharge pressure would be hard to maintain
because of the time lag of the turbine in responding to changes in steam supply. As a result of this
time lag there is a tendency of the regulator to
The special valve field is a broad one. The following valves are illustrations of but a few of the
special types of valves in maritime use.
(1) Automatic stop valve. On gun installations
equipped with compressed air operated rammers,
it is important that a rupture in the line to one
gun will not be allowed to result in a bleedingdown of the air pressure available at other guns
that are still in commission. To preclude this
possibility, an automatic stop valva is inetalled
1-22

HANOLEVER
PLUNGER
STUFFINC
BOX
VALVE SEAT
SPOOL
ADJUSTING
SCAN
STUFFINC
LOCKING
FORK
BOX
FIG. 1-28. Automatic Stop Valve.
at the root of the air line to each gun. One such

valve is shown in Fig. 1-28. It is designed to
shut off the supply, should a break occur beyond
the valve permitting a greater flow than is normally required under working conditions. The
flow is from below the seat as indicated by the
arrow. Should a break occur there will be an increase in the flow, and the increased pressure differential between the inlet and outlet side of the
valve, caused by this change beyond the rated
capacity, will lift and carry the disc to its seat.
The valve, therefore, doses automatically when
the flow exceeds the predetermined amount, and
remains closed until it is manually re-opened or
until the pressure on the inlet side becomes
negligible. The rated flow may be varied by
changing the vertical position of the adjusting
screw, which controls the amount of opening of
the valve. The valve has a quick-opening feature
in that it can be quickly re-opened alter tripping
by puahing down the hand lever which (orces the
plunger down against the valve disc, forcing it
open.
(2) Quick-closing valve. Generally speaking,
a quick-closing valve consiste of a valve, usually
of the gate type, having a sliding stem which is
1-13
operated through a lever type handle. In some

cases, such as fuel oil quick-closing valves . on
boiler burner manifolds, the `Malve is closed by a
spring when it is released by a trigger mechanism.
The trip can be operated by a cable-pul leading to a remote station such as the boiler checkman's station, or in the fireroom escape trunk.
Pulling the cable disengages the trigger and the
spring compression Gloses the gate.
Another type of remote controlled quick-closing valve is hydraulically operated; the valve
gate or disc being closed by hydraulic pressure
applied through a control tube and acting upon
a bellows type seal, forcing the valve stem finto
the closed position.
(3) Fuel oil pressure regulating valve. Experience has shown that the type pump most
adaptable to use as fuel oil service pumps is
the screw type pump fitted with a constant
pressure pump governor. As discussed in Naval Bailen, large changes in boiler load are
handled from a fuel standpoint by cutting burners in and out. Small changes are handled by
varying the pressure of the oil at the burilen.
This could be done by readjusting the fuel oil
service pump governor to regulate the pump discharge pressure at the required lower point.
However, it is more desirable to maintain the
service pump discharge pressure at a constant
value (usually 300 p.s.i.) and to regulate the
burner manifold pressure by throttling through
a valve having fine regulation characteristics.
This valve is located between the emergency
quick-closing fuel oil valve and the burner manifold. (See Chapter 9.)
Furthermore, the advent of the modern superheat control boiler requires the burning of exact
quantities of oil in each furnace in order to maintain the desired steam output at the desired constant temperature. In order to do this, a fuel oil
pressure regulating valve is necessary to obtain
exact regulation of the quantity (hence pressure)
of the oil passing through the burner manifold of
each furnace.
One design of such a valve, often called a micrometer valve, is illustrated in Fig. 1-29. It la
so constructed that very small changes in the
volume of fuel oil which can pasa through it at
any given constant pump pressure can be securately regulated. This type valva is unlike conventional disc or gate valves. The micrometer
1-23
1-13
HANDLE
POINTER
GRADUATED
DIAL
YOKE
BONNET
SPRING
ROTATING DISC
VIEW 1 (As Viewed
From BeIow)
szaz,
v lit s
i
SECTION B-B'
V4r
OEVELOPMENT OF SPIRAL GROOVE

OF UPPER DISC LONG UNE A-A
OUTLET PORT
INLET PORT
LOWER DISC
SURFACE INTEGRAL
WITH VALVE BODY
FIG. 1-28. Fuel Oil Preasure Regulating Valve.
valve contains two circular discs mounted one on

top of the other. Their adjoining faces are ground
to a nearly perfectly fat surface fit. The upper
dise is free to rotate when so-moved by the valve
handle.
The lower disc is machined integral with the
valve body. The body, with its integral disc, is
made of cast steel, as is aleo the bonnet and handle. The rotating disc is made of bronce. This
disc thus provides a soft and economically replaceable wearing surface. The rotating dise fits
loosely in a shallow cylindrical recess in the valve
bonnet. A small coil spring, together with the oil
pressure on top of the rotating disc, provides
positive mating of the two dices' surfaces. The
upper surface of the rotating dise is machined to
receive lugs on the lower end of the handle shaft,
so that the handle can engage and control the
motion of the dice.
In the center of the fixed lower disc is a 1' dia.
port which is connected to the inlet.passage in the
valve body and is called, the inlet port. Off-set
from the center of the same dise is another 1' dia.
port which is connected to the discharge pasease

in the valve body and is called the outlet
port.
The rotating dice aleo has a 1' dia. hole bored
through its center. Cast in the lower face of this
disc is a spiral groove of decreasing depth and
width culminating in a point. The cross-sectional
area of this grooved passage thus gradually decreases with distance from the central hole in the
disc. The central hole in this disc connects with
the inlet port in the fixed lower disc. The spiral
pasease, when the valve is set anywhere between
the closed and maximum open positions, connects with the discharge port in the face of the
lower disc. 'rumias the upper disc by means of
the handle, controls the position of the spiral
groove with respect to the discharge port, thus
controlling the effective cross-sectional area of
the pasease connecting the inlet and discharge
porta. If the disc is turned until no part of the
spiral groove matches with the discharge port,
no flow can take place. This is the closed position.
A few degrees beyond the closed position is a by-
1-24
1
pase port which has in it a orifica connecting to

the top of the upper disc. If the upper diem is rotated beyond the closed position until the bypass chamber has access to the discharge port of
the lower disc, oil will then flow upward through
the inlet port in each disc to the top of the upper
din and thence downward through the by-pass
orifica to the discharge port. The by-pass orfice
is of such sise as to permit sufficient oil to pase
through the valve to prevent extinguishing the
llames, regardless of the number of burners or
sise of atomisere in use, in the event the valve
lever is inadvertentiy slammed chut.
A pointer on the handle arad a graduated dial
serve to indicate the relativa position of the upper disc. The dial is greduated in degrees up to
120 to indicate the amount the hanffie has been
turned. fe valve is wide opera when the rotating
diem has been turned 120 from the closed poeition.
(4) Automatic unloading valve. Auxiliary exhaust systems are fitted with automatic valves
for the muy ose of "unloading" excessive prossures finto one or more of the main or auxiliary
condensers, thus relieving the exceso preesure
without losing the sten to the &d'acoplada.

Such an unloading valve (or utittexpien tie
as it is frequently called) la illusindadizillti.440.
It consiste of the unloading valva itedf, thq actuating valve, and their connecting pipa arad
valvee. The eteam inlet is aboye the 404 the
unloading valve, which mons urdid when
closing. The valve la diaphragm-opetaked. The
actuating valve is aleo cliaphracm-openitad, and
steam pressure ie led to the top al alija ffiephragm
from the oteara inlet side of the unleadhatnive.
The actuating valve is a doublanated
one
sida of which doses as the otber sido opene.
When premura in the auxiliar/ e=1 Ene
lees than the set
pressur
es, the
sed is
closed and the lower seat le open; the fialve being
held thus by ita diaphragm apring. Steam led
from the line sets on the diaphragra and Also
pasees through the %Salve and then to the bottom
of the unloading valva diaplaragm through .valve.
B. The preesure ading on the deloading valve
diaphragm boldo the unloading valva up and
closed. When preasure in the auxiliary exhaust
line accede the set pressure, the diaphragm in
the actuating valve is displaced downward, closbut
tition/N4
YA1.11
*TER SEM
110111
Int 61
SPDMI
A11.11351106
MAKUPtl. CP/11RK
Vhf.Y1 STEM
Ple. 140. Automatic Uoloadiag Valva.
1-26
1-13

, DISCHARGE STOP VALVE
SUCTION STOP
CHECK VALVE
DISCHARGE
SUCTION
VAIVES
VAIVES
TANK NO. 1
TANK NO. 2
PUMP
TANK NO. 3
DISCHARCE
CONNECTION
TANK NO. 4
POMP SUCTION CONNECTION
FIG. 1-31. Combinad Suction and Discharge Valva Manifold.
ing the lower seat of the actuating valve arad

opening the upper seat. We then have a direct
connection from below the unloading valve dia
phragm through the actuating valve, to the top
of the unloading valve diaphragm. Pressure on
the diaphragm being equalized, the exhaust line
pressure working on the unloading valve disc,
forces it down and open and unloads steam hito
the condenser. The pressure at which the valve
unloads can be adjusted by turning the adjusting
screw and thereby changing the spring tension
against the actuating valve diaphragm. A stem
is inserted in the unloading valve below the dia
phragm to allow for manual operation. This stem
has a mushroom which, when the stem is fully
withdrawn, catches a yoke and pulla down the
diaphragm to open the valve. Screwing the stem
upward causes it to make contact with the diaphragm, forcing the valve closed. In the mid-position the valve is free to operate automatically.
Before shifting from automatic operation, it is
necessary to open the by-pass valve D to equalize
the pressure on both sides of the unloading valve
diaphragm.
1-14. VALVE MANIFOLDS.
In pumping systems, it is frequently necessary

to provide some means of taking suction from
any one of many sources and diseharging to another unit, or units, of the same or another group.
A typical example is the fuel-oil filling and transfer system, in which provision must be made for
transfer of oil from any tank to any other tank,
to the service system or to another vessel. To do
Chis, such systems are provided with valve manifolds, which are units containing a number of
volved compartments eonnected to fines leading
from or to various sources or destinations. A
typical combined suction and discharge manifold
la illustrated in Fig. 1-81.
For the sake of illustration consider the four
bottom flanges to be connected by piping to four
tanks numbered 1 to 4 as illustrated. Consider
the right hand four valves to be in the suction
side of the system and other four, the discharge
side. A pump is, of course, in the line attached by
piping to the two flanges in the front of the view,
so that the pump will take suction from the suction fiange and discharge to the discharge fiange.
1-26
PIPINO, FITTINGS AND VALVES

To arrange for pumping from tank fl to tank
f4 open the rear suction valve and the front discharge valve and leave all others elosed. Fluid
from tank #1 would enter the suction line, go
through the pump, and discharge through the
open discharge valve and thence to tank #4.
Other eombinations could be made as desired.
It is possible to pump from one or more tanks
hito one or more of the remaining tanks. Manifolds may be built to service any desired number
of stations.
Suction manifold valves are often of the stopcheck variety to prevent draining of the pumps
when they are stopped. Some types of pump
would require priming should this occur.
1-15
MIL STEAM TRAPS.
(1) General. From a thermodynamic standpoint, one may consider atoara as the "carrier" of
thermal energy. In engineering installations there
are, broadly speaking, two major demanda for
heat, vis., that for power generating equipment
and that for heat transfer equipment. In both
cases, one problem presented is that of removing
the water which condenses out of the steam without removing any of the steam. Large amounts of
water in steam pipes result in a water hammer
(the concussion of moving water against sides of
piping). Water carried over with the steam into
the power generating equipment may, in reeiprocating engines, cause cracked cylinder heads; or
N'OH PRESSURE STEAM LINE

(500 P.S.17
STOP
VA LVE
IMPULSE
TYPE
STEAM TRAPS
LOW POINT
IN LIN E
TO 'DA'
FEED TANN
AUXILIARY
EX RAU ST
STEAM
(15 Ra.1.1
SOLOSNELL
de,/ EVAPO R ATO II
AUXILIARY
STEAM
00 RS4.)
II
FIRST EFFEOT
TUSE NEST
NEATINC 0011.
IN
FRESN WATER HEATER
FLOAT TYPE
..- "o"
STEAM TRAP
(DRAW RESULATON)
IH ERMOSTATIO TYPE
TO
MAIN CONDENSEN
STEAM TRAP
FIG. 1-32. Location of Typical Steam Trape.

1-27
TO
DR AIN COLLEOTINS
TAN K
1-15
NAVAL AU.KILIARY MACHINERY
may, in a turbine installation, result in damaged

blading. Again, in heat transfer apparatus, it is
desirable to remove the water as it is condensed
from the steam, in order to Marease the rete of
heat transfer. In any case, it le desired to remove
the water without losing any of the steam, which
is the thermal energy carrier. The device used to
accomplish this is the steam trap (or drain regulator).
There are three general clames of trape used in
the U. S. Navy: (a) mechanical trapai*the operation of which dependa upon a bucket or float
mechanism in combination with a suitable valve
arrangement; (b) thermostatie trapa, which depend for their functioning upon the thermal expansion of a fluid, or upon the vapor pressure of
a volatile liquid when heated; and (e) flash (or
orifica) type trape, which depend for their operation upon two things, vis., (1) the tendency of hot
water to flash hito steam when its premura is
lowered below its saturation pressure and (2) the
fact that the flow characteristics of a liquid
through an orifice are different from those of a
vapor of the same liquid.
Figure 148 shows the location of typical steam
trapa.
(2) Mechanical trapa. fe early trapa were
mechanical. They were successful where the capacity demand was great, where pressures were
low, and the automatic removal of water was the
objective. However, modern installations often
demand the extraction of the greatest amount of
heat from condensate, thereby bringing it to as
low a temperature as possible, consistent with
efficient working. Mechanical trapa are suitable
for various service conditione and pressures depending upon the trap design.
Figure 1-88 shows a mechanical float type trap,
using a float and a Multiport cylindrical valve. It
has a comparatively large capacity and la designed for low pressures and a small temperature
ranga. The inlet is on top of the body and
through it the condenaste pasees to the incide
chamber, flooding it ami causing the float to risa.
This causes the valve casing to rotate and match
its porta with those of the valve, permitting the
condensate to discharge as indicated. When the
condenaste has pasead the trap, the float drops,
Gloses the porte, and restricts the passage of
steam. This particular type of trap is comraonly
called a "drainer." Its principal features are: (a)
BODY
OUTLETR
OVE
VALVE
CASING
VALVE
ROM
TRIP
TRIP SHAFT
GUND
INLET
FLOAT
BODE
CAUCE
VALVE CASING
CLASS
VALVE
OUTLET
COVER
WATER CAUCE
FITTINGS
BIG. 1-33. Mechanical Float Trap.
a babaced valve; (b) one moving element with

no stuffing boxee, packing chambera, links, or
springs; (c) an inlet at the top which amista in
preventing the trap from becoming air bound;
(d) a trip lever by means of which the valve may
be held open or shut.
Figure 1-84 shows a bucket trap which is suitable for high pressures and temperatures and has
a large capacity. Ita operation may be described
as follows: As soon as safficient water entera the
trap, the bucket, being buoyant, floats and doses
the valve. As condensation mareases, the body
of the trap filia and water entera the bucket causing it to sink. The bucket being attached to the
discharge valve, opens it and the trap begins to
discharge, continuing to do so until the condensation is blown out of the body to the edge of the
bucket. At this point the water in the bucket continues to be forced out until the bucket again becomes buoyant and rises, closing the valve. This
final condition la shown in the illustration.
(3) Thermostatic trape. Thermostatic trapa
are used mainly for draining heating systems and
1-28
ntn
WAitil
PIP/Art9;
to flow out of the trap.

(4) Flash type trapa Figure 1 .87 illuatrates a
flash, or orfice, type ateaat trap used to drain
high preasure steam linea in recently built ships.
It is often referred to sa an "impulse type" trap.
When the trap is firat cut-in, steam or condenaste, (or both) entera the trap, paseauttheaugh a
strainer before catering the valve bedy iteelf. The
flow, once established, is continuous. The control
piston la free to move up and clown within the control cylindikr which fa, at its sraallest point, the
same sise as the control piston &nage. As the control piston moves downward, it, doses the seat
opening. As the oree of the control orifica is
slightly greater than the emular space between
the cylinder and the control piston auge, condenaste from the steam line, when warming up
will flow clown through the orifice as fase as up
through the opening between the control pisten
flange and the cylinder wall. Sima the orifice is
connected toar ares of lower proseare, the preesure la lowered within the control &amber, and
when it is finally reduced to 88 percent of the in-
TEST MUT
va
tint
vitVE
COM
NOW
MIME
VADE ME
MICKET
1116. 144. Idechaaical Backet Trap.
auxiliary exhaust drain linea and are limited to
Pressucies ander 100 psi gage.
A thermostatic trap of the liquid expanaion
type is ahoya in Fig. 1-85. The flow of the condenaste is indicated by arrows. A plunger curras
a valve head on one end and is connected at the
other end (bonote end in Fig. 1-85) to a helio*
corrugated tuba. The corrugated tuba has its top
end fitted to a tube containing oiL When the hot
steam resabes the tea)), expansion of the oil forces
the lower end of the corrugated tuba and the
plunger up, closing the valve.
A thermostatie trap of the volatile liquid
type is illustrated in Fig. 1-88. A flexible, accordion-like, metal beton ia partially filled with a
volatile ligaid out :Moled. As , long as the trap is
cool, the valva la beid open by the bellows. If,
however, the itrap is beide& snob as when steam
entera the hifet, the liquid within the bellows
will bol, inereseing the tapar instaure aboye the
liquid, whilxiiurn foros the bellows to expand
clovalrartl, chelas the valva. This condition rematas until condensate again conecta in the trap
and is cooled by the uninsulated walls of the trap.
The cooled t'ondeante surrounding the bellows
causes the vapor within the bellotas to condense
and declame in volume, lifting the velos from
ita seat and thus allowing the cooled condenaste
1-29
VALVE lEAT
no. 145. Uva Rrpeaetea Typo Theratostatk

Sana Trap.

CAP
VAPOR

SHIELD
VOLATILE LOWID
VOLATILE LIQ11111
VALVE
SEAT BUSHING
REPLACEABLE
HERMETICALLY
SEALED BELLOWS
(a) TRAP COLD; VALVE OPEN
(h) TRAP HOT; VALVE CLOSED
FIG. 1-36. Volatile Liquid Type, Thermostatic Steam Trap.
CONTROL
ORIFICE
CONTROL
CHAMBER
CONTROL
CONTROL
CYLINDER
VALVE
PISTON
SEAT BUSHING
(10 VALVE CLOSEDMAIN FLOW SHUT OFF
(a) VALVE OPENMAIN FLOW THROUGH SEAT
FIG. 1-37. Impulse Steam Trap.
1-30

let pressure, or leas, the control piston will be
forced up by unbalanced pressure below the
flange. The condensate will flow freely through
the main valve, ea shown in Fig. 1-37 (a).
As the line warms up, the temperature of the
condensate increases, approaching the boiling
point corresponding to its existing pressure. At
normal operating temperatures, the condensate
is so hot that part of it will flash into steam, dije
to the drop in pressure (and boiling point) as
the hot condensate entere the control chamber.
The steam at reduced pressure has greater volume than the same quantity of condensate from
which it was produced and hence will choke up
the control orifico causing a pressure rise in the
control chamber until finally the control piston
will be forced downward as shown in Fig. 1-37 (b).
Steam will continue to pass through the trap,
going through only the control orifice, hito the
high pressure drain lino. If condensate tends to
enter the trap faster than it can be passed-off
as steam through the orifice, it will back up hito
the drain line lending to the trap. The trap and a
portion of this drain line adjacent to the trap
are not insulated. If any hot condensate tends
to back-up hato the drain line, it rapidly codo to
a point where it cannot flash into steam in the
control chamber. At this point the trap begine to
function as described aboye under warming-up
conditions; i.e., when the pressure in the control
chamber drops to 86 percent, or lees, of the inlet
pressure, the valve will opon, allowing rapid pessage of condensate from inlet to outlet, until
either hot condensate or steam entere the trap
again.
(5) Steam trap installation. The following
points should be considered for successful trap
operation:
The trap should be installed to operate
only under the conditions for which it
la designed;
Mechanical trapo should be level;
(e ) Rust, grit, or scale must not be permitted to enter the trap;
(d) The trap should be located below the
unit to be drained, although, ff the
pressure is great enough, it may discharge to a higher elevation.
&MET
STRAINER
TO PUMP
SUCTION
FIG. 1-88. Finge Suction Strainer.

1-18. STRAINERS.
The machinery units of an engineering plant

must be protected from grit, scale, dirt, or other
foreign matter, ff they are to operate in the designed manner. Various types of strainers are
used for this protection, depending upon the
service for which they are intended. Figure 1-38
illustrates a common bilge suction strainer. The
strainer is located in the lowest part of the bilge.
It may be seen that any debris which entero will
collect in the strainer basket. fe basket may be
removed for cleaning by loosening the strongback screws, removing the cover and lifting out
the basket by its handle.
Figure 149 shows a duplex strainer. This type
of strainer is used ordinarily in fuel or lubricating oil fines, where uninterrupted flow is para,
mount. Its construction malees it possible to
quickly divert the flow from cine basket chamber
to the other, thus pennitting the removal of
either basket for cleaning without interruption
of the service. The shut-off deviee consiste of a
single lever-operated, cone-ehaped plug cock
141
lela
4 WAY PLUG COCK
FOR USE
(a) PG COCK IN PO
OFLU LEFT RAM) STRAINER BASKET
OUTLET FLANGE
(H) PLUG COCK THROWN 180FOR USE

OF RIGHT NANO STRAINER BASKET
FIG. 1-39. Duplex Oil Strainer.
which operates on the principie of a 4-way cock.

A coil spring holds the plug tightly in place, to
prevent excessive leakage around the plug.
With the plug cock in the position shown in
Fig. 1-39 (a) oil entera via the inlet and fiows in
the direction shown by the arrows through the
upper chamber and porte of the plug cock, and
hito the left-hand basket, which retama any dirt,
ecale or other foreign matter. The oil then fiows
from the basket through the lower porta and
chamber of the plug cock, and out via the outlet.
The right-hand basket can be removed and
cleaned, after which the plug cock may be turned
90 to direct the oil hato the clean basket, as
shown in Fig. 1-39 (b), whenever it is desired to

clean, or inspect, the left-hand strainer basket.
Figure 1-40 shows a manifold steam strainer.
Flow is in the direction indicated. This type of
strainer is particularly desirable where the space
is limited, and it eliminates the use of separate
strainers and their assorted fittings. The heavy
construction is used f or high-pressure steam. The
cover is so located that the removal of the strainer
is facilitated. It is called a "manifold" strainer
because it may be designed to strain foreign
particles from steam (or other fluida) en route to
two or more destinations.
1-17. THE STEAM WHISTLE.
impa
n,',1\x
XXNX \' XXX
N\ N\
skk,
FIG. 1-40. Manifold Steam Strainer.
Figure 1-41 shows a sectional view of a steam

whistle which is now in general use on modern
naval vessels. This whistle is of the diaphragm
type. It has the advantages, over the older form
of chime whistle, of small steam consumption
and great ranga of audibility.
When the operating lever la pulled, the valve is
opened and auxiliary atesta admitted through the
orifico. This steam immediately torees the springmetal diaphragm discs to the left. The diaphragm
1-32
PIPINO, FITTINGS AND PALPES

WHISTLE
LOCK RING
VALVE
1-18
INSOLATION
SHEET METAL COVER
SEAT
INAPHRAGM
BACK
COVER
r.z/r nnn
...
OPERATING LEVEN MAIN VALVE
STEAM
CONNECTION
DRAIN CONNECTION
ZIG. 1-41. Dlaphragm Type Steam Whistle.
discs in attempting to spring back against the

nozzle, vibrate, producing an audible sound of
high amplitude. The steam pasees out around the
nozzle and through the hora. Condensation
off through the drip drain.
Among the features of this whistle are the
steam-jacketed diaphragm and the insulation
about the diaphragm and valve. These promote
cle,arness of the first notes from the whistle.
Steam is led continuously to the jacket. It la absolutely necessary that the drain from this jacket
be connected through a constant-flow drain trap
to the drain tank to provide for a steady circulation of steam through the jacket and the maintenance about the diaphragm of a steady t,emperature.
The diaphragm discs are installed with their
convez sida toward the nozzle of the whistle.
They are then forced finto place by the threaded
back cover, and when the best sound la obtained
by adjusting the back cover it is locked in position by a lock key and cotter pin.
To ensure against daamge to the whistle by
water in the line, the steam line to the whistle
must be fitted with a water separator (located

below decks) of sufficient capacity to separate,
and drain-off, all water from the steam before it
reaches the whistle. A separator consista of a
cylindrical chamber in which the steam, en route
to the whistle, is given a whirling motion by
curved baffles and guide vanes so that the water
will be separated-out by centrifugal force, and be
drained-off through a suitable drain connection.
The annular jacket space in the whistle body acta
as an additional separator to remove condensation formed beyond the below-decks separator.
1-18. THE STEAM SIREN.
The steam siren (Fig. 1-42) la a more effectivc

sound producing device than the steam whistle.
It is operated by auxiliary steam which entere
through a control valve and filie an annular
chamber surrounding a stationary slotted cylinder. This stationary cylinder la pierced around
its periphery by a series of beveled dota. The
elote are alternately vertical and inclined, the
inclined elote being about hall as long as the vertical ones.
1-33
NAVAL AVIILIARY MACHINERY
1-18
LEVER SPRING
CLIP
CYLINDER
SCREW
BRAKEHOE
ROttelL>,SHAFy
STArRY CYLIND'R
ROT. CYLINDER
AD.PG SCREW NUT
egorkii
or.
a
le
ADIG
SCREW
VALVE BONNETAIN
VALVE
SEAT
,,,,
'11..
VALVE SPRING
DRAIN VALVE
CONNECTION
FIG. 1-42. Steam Sirca.
Mounted Sido the stationary cylinder is another hollow cylinder, which has vertical dots
around it. It is free to rotate on a stainless steel
shaft in oil-lees brome bearinge. The slots of the
fixed cylinder act as steam nozzles which direct
steam againet the blades formed by the vertical
elote in the rotating element, giving this rotor a
high apead of rotation. The purpose of the short
diagonal elote in the fixed cylinder is to assure the
access of steam to start the rotor in case none of
the vertical elote in the cylinder have access to
the rotor elote. As the rotor turas, steam flow
through the vertical elote in the stator is alter..
nately stopped and started. This altrnate covering and uneovering of the elote as the rotor speeds
up sets up violet vibrations of increasing frequency in the odiaran of steam escaping through
the megaphone aboye the cylinders.
The final pitch of the sound dependa upon the
epeed of rotation of the inner cylinder. This is

controlled by varying the opening of the control
valve by means of an adjusting nut. The rotating
cylinder is prevented from over-speeding by the
centrifugal action of brake shoes which are fitted
lato or attached to the top of the rotating
cylinder. At excessive speeds the brake shoes are
forced out by centrifugal force againet the stationary cylinder slowing clown the inner cylinder.
A drain connection is provided at the lower par
of the valve body to carry-off any water formed
due to condensation. The control valve is opened
by means of a lever, pivoted so as to cause a lug
to push against the valve stem to open the valve.
The valve ie meted by the pressure of a spring.
The steam line supplying the siren must be
kept constantly drained, and must contain a
water separator, in order to prevent damage to
the siren by water hammer and erosion.
1-84
CITAPTER
PACKING AN) HEAT INSULATING MATE

2-1. 011102U1L.
Insulation, fris a,thermal standpoint, ruana

presenting q batier to the;flow of heat. Its purpose ia, thersfore, to obstruct the flow of heat to
or from machinery units, heat which would otherwise be absorbed or diasipated by radiation, convection, and conduction. %mi& reasons for installing heat insulation on naval veaseis would
include one or any combination of the following:
(a) contervation of fuel or boiler capacity, (b)
1111111~
4111111111111,
1
111
3111111~
BRUM 1n111.9
TIMPIMA/Vall Of *AM Dia F.
LOSSES F OM UNCOVERED 304ALLON GALVANIZO IRON

TANK AS COMPARED WITH LOSSES FROM SAME TANK
INSULATED WIDI AVERAGE ROOM TEMPERATURE
ASSUMW AT 6111
eI0
ts
LIJSS711
110.
1
1111E!!!
111111105411
~line
under eiili sir conditiona, will

fumare foot per hotrr, MB* st
be 1026 at.u. per aguare foet
three times aa great. The
graphlcally the efficiency of modett
materials kr units containing dem at
tures nrroally encountered In the Navy.
24 illustratea the influence of air cireletion,uon
Meses. While the lose from the ins
Mercases with an motease in sir
by no muna proportional to tii47.
insulated surface.
When using mechados' zef
ment, the reduction of the temP
substanee being cooled aebomp
paratively expeneive procese. The !lls
cold room are eurrounded by entine
foro, a particularly effective inselatiet le
sary to prevean the retorta, to the cooled
of the heat units which have bedirrem
Whether heating or refrigentting
inaulation la eseential to economice"
24
CROMO RATEO IS4AU.ONETANK. Ir DIMA. ir LONG.

MULATO COMPARAD WITH THAT OF A SAO OR
UNCOVEDED GALVANIZO tia
PIG. 2-1. Curve Showing Med of Ineulation

. epa Hect Lees tn Tanke.
control of temperature, (e) reduction of the temperature gradient in equipment to reduce the
thermal atraseis, (d) prevention of condensation,
and (e) protection of pen3onnel.
Figure 2-1 illustrates the difference in heat loss
from a anual tank in the low temperatura ranga
in an insulated and noninsulated (bare) condidan. It ie at high temperaturas, however, where
it is vitally important that the frow of heat from
unta restrieted. It in be no tad bora Fig. 14
that a bere pipe with a temperature of 200F.,
2-1
11111111111111111111111111111111111111Mal
o
o
2000
11MwP,19i11110
.1111111111/41~
.47 SAIIII14111111N8M111014,
,111111112112relinIZ/1211111Z1111112211111111211
Eilairr.C41711901ritd111.1111111112/1/1111111111.0
ee
2-1
and, through heat saving, paye for itself many

times.
160
140
2-2. THEORY OF INSTJLATION.
The basic theory of heat transfer (assuming

uniform temperature conditions of both the
warmer and the cooler surfaces) may be likened,
in conception, to Ohm's law; that is to say, heat
flow vares directly as the potential and inversely
as the resistance. Thus, the flow through a heat
barrier depende upon the difference in temperatures (potential) of the two lides of the barrier
and upon its resistance. The resistance is composed of that due to the composition of the barrier plus a resistance of each surface, the surface
resistance of the warm side of the insulation being
usually neglected.
The heat radiated from a hot surface is proportional to the difference of the fourth powers
of the absolute temperatures of the surface and
the surrounding (not adjaeent) air. It is also dependent on the surface resistance, whkh la influenced by the color, texture, and degree of roughnese of the surface. A bright smooth surface offere a greater surface reluctance to the radiation
of heat than a dull or matte surface. This fact explains why the lose will be leas when the insulation la covered with a bright metal jacket than it
would if such metal jacket were not used; also
why it is quite possible to ehange the surface of a
body with paint and reduce, under certain conditions, the radiation loas.
1-120
100
py
.1 80
a 60
n 40
120
2-3. EFFECT OF AIR CIRCULATION.
Surface radiation loss depends upon the relativa temperature conditions at the surface. Air
circulation increases this radiation loss by continuously providing a supply of relatively cool
air at the outer surface. In the case of bare surfaces, the result is a marked Mercase in loas. The
difference in the effects of sir velocity on bare
and insulated surfaces la shown in Fig. 5-8.
The foregoing discussion of the effect of air
circulation upon heat loases applies to cases
where the insulation is properly sealed. U conditions are such that the air may circulate
through cracks and crevices in the insulation, the
increases may be far greater; hence the importance of maintaining a tight seal on insulation,
particularly when the unit insulated la subjected
to air circulation
2-2
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 14001600

AM VELOCITYFT. PER MIN.
FIG. 2-3. Increase in Heat Loases Dije
to Air Cireulation.
2-4. COMPUTING HEAT LOSSES AND INSULATING EFFICIENCY.
A general practice is first to establish the loes

without insulation and then to compute the lose
through the proposed insulation in order to arrive at the amount saved. The efficiency of an insulation depende upon the percentage of the bare
surface loas which it saves, and is obtained by
subtracting the heat loas through the insulation
from the heat loss of a corresponding uninsulated
surface and dividing the difference by the uninsulated surface loss thus,
Efficiency
Uninsulated surface heat loesinsulated surface heat loss

Uninsulated surface heat loas
The heat loases for uninsulated surfaces have

been established for various temperatures and
corrections determined for the substantial increase in lose due to ah velocities. The tabular
loases from bare surfaces must always be corrected for air velocities met in conditions under
consideration.
For arriving at the loas through insulation two
methods are practical; (1) formulas from any
good engineering handbook can be used, if the
conductivities for the mean temperatures involved are at hand; (2) the tablea of efficiencies
PACKING AND HEAT INSULATING MATERIALS
Sufficient structural strength to withstand

handling during application and the mechanical
shocks and vibrations incident to service conditions, without disintegration, settling, or deforming;
Stability in chemical and insulation characteristics ;
For bolla wall and furnace insulation, low
heat capacity (specific heat) to minimiza starting-up time required;
Eme of application and repair; and
(f) Must not constitute a hazard in case of fire.
for the particular material can be used. Efficiency

data are usually available from the manufacturer
of the insulation or from technical referentes.
2-5. INSULATING MATERIALS.
Insulation covere a wide range, from extremely

low temperatures met in refrigerating planto to
the very high temperatures found in boiler furnaces. No one material could possibly meet all
such conditions with maximum efficiency. In
general, an insulation la designed to be adaptable
for a specific temperature rango and set of conditions.
For low temperatures, cork, or rock wool is
used. For high temperatures, recourse is liad to
basic rabiarais, such as asbestos, carbonate of
magnesia, diatomaceous earth, argilliceous limestone, mica, aluminum foil, and fibrous glass.
Diatomaceous silica, because of its high degree of
refractoriness, forms the base of practically every
high temperature insulating material in use today.
These materials are proceesed so as to produce
a maximum number of minute air voids and then
are formed into sheets, blocks, cylindrical seotions or cemente. The processing may be an aeration of calcined material, as with magnesia; or a
caleining and fibering operation, as with rock wool
or fibrous gimo; or an explosion procese, as is used
in making expended mica. In any case the objective la to sature a finished material with a multitude of completely enclosed microscopio air cella,
to avoid conduction, radiation, and convection in
the insulation itself. The small size of there cells
may be visualized to some extent when it is considered that there are from 40 to 50 million individual cene per cubic inch in some of the natural
minerals.
Exhaustiva tests, under conditions approximating those in the naval service, prove the suitability of a material. In the final analysis, the objective ie sustained efficiency. To be adaptable to
a set of conditions, a material must possess not
only a high initial efficiency but aleo the quality
of retaining this original efficiency over a long
period of service. In addition to a low initial conductivity, the following requirements for a good
insulating material are listed:
(a) Ability to withstand the highest or lowest
temperature to wbich it might be subjected in
service, without impairment of insulating value.
2-11
2-6. APPLICATION OP INSULATION.
All pipe covering sections or segmento should

be tightly butted at joints and secured by adeguate wire loops, metal bando, or lacing. Block
insulationle secured by one-eighth inch steel wire
and galvanized mesh wire or expanded metal lattice. Insulating cement is used to fill all crevices,
to smooth all surfaces, and to coat completely
any wire netting, before the final lagging is applied.
Moisture-proofing of insulation over heated
surfaces is important. Moisture impaire any insulation and, even though the temperature of the
insulation dries off the moisture, the heat loes is
increased because of this evaporation. Over low
temperature surfaces, the moisture-proofing of insulation is very important and, at very low temperatures, the insulation should, be air-sealed.
Moisture in outside air which la drawn into low
temperature insulation condenses and freezes,
materially lessening the efficiency and eventually causing disintegration.
The insulation of flanges, fittings, and valves
presenta a somewhat different problem from that
of piping; however, the same materials may be
employed as on adjacent piping. For example, on
sizes 4 inches and larger, the bodies of flanged fittings and valves, the entire surface of a threaded
fitting, the entire surface up to the bonnet of
screwed valves, and flanges of all pipe sises
where flange insulation is to be of the permanent
type, may be insulated with block insulation onehalf inch thinner than the insulation on the adjacent piping. Insulating cement is then applied
to make the total thickness of insulation on the
valve or fitting equal to that on the adjacent piping. Pipe insulation should be stopped short of
all Unges and beveled off to permit removal of
2-3

SECTIONAL PIPE
LATEN
CEMENT
ASOMOS IR IRA
JACKET
CM
ASBESTOS CEMENT
RANO
!HELOR CEMENT INSULATION
AND MIES
FOR Silla
Wat MONS
INSULATING CEMENT
KOCKS
INVIATMG
DETAL OF CONSTRUCTION
Fino
BLOCKS
ASBESTOS! OR CLASS
CIEN JACKETS
REMOVEABIE AND REPLACEABIE

BLOCK UPE OF Mas
SECTIONAL PIPE
DISULATION
INSUMO
ASBESTOS OR CLASS
CUTO JACKETS
INSOLA
ASBESTOS OR
CLASS CLOTN
JACKETS
FIG. 2-4. Pennanent Type of Insolation with Insulating Moda.
fiange bolis when necesaary. On piping 34 inches

and smaller, in place of blocks and cement, the
entire Insolation of flanged and screwed fittings
and valves may eonsist of thermal insulating
cement of the same thickness as that of the adjacent piping. Flanges, the insulation of which is
required to be of the renovable type, should be
insulated with (1) asbestos felt pads, (2) sectional
pipe Insolation of the same thickness as the insulation on the adjacent piping, or (3) block insulation one-half inch thinner than the Insolation on
the adjacent piping, covered with one-half inch of
insulating cement. Figure 0-4 illustrates several
types of insulation for fianges and fittings.
2-7. FORMS OF SERVICE MATERIALES.
It is the purpose of this article to present

briefly the forms of insulating materials used in
the naval service in cases where the temperature
encountered is not aboye 1500F. Refractory and
insulating materials employed to withstand the
high temperatures encountered in boiler furnaces
are diacuesed in Naval Boiles. The most common
types of insulation used for other purposes found

in the 1500F. and below range are listed below
and later discussed in brief :
Magnesia and asbestos mixtures,
Diatomaceous earth,
Asbestos,
Mineral wool (Rock wool),
Aluminum foil,
Insulating cementa,
Asbestos pads and blankets,
Class fiber pads,
Asbestos tapes, and
Cork in sectional block or compressed form.
(1) A mixture of magnesia and asbestos containing about 85 percent magnesia predominated
in the field of heat insulating materials until the
advent of oteara temperatures in exceso of 500F.
At temperatures aboye 500F. this material calcines and decomposes. Its cheapness, lightness,
low conductivity, and the ease with which it can
be applied in various forma have all been factors
for the retention of its use in the naval service. It
is obtainable in plaster form, in blocke and in cy2-4
FIG. 2-5. Magnesia and Asbestos.
lindrical sections for standardized pipo Seo, a

section of which is shown in Fig. 2-5.
The d'atontan. earth type materials are
generally composed of largo percentages of diatomaceous earth and rasgueaban or calcium carbonates bonded together with ~11 percentages
of asbestos fibers. Though these materials are
heavier, more expensive, and do not possess
high heat insulating properties, their high heat
resisting properties allow their use up to 1500F.
Whenever practical, especially for pipa coveringe,
the material lo made up with an inner layer of the
heavier diatomaceous materials and an outer
layer of the magnesia type insulation aboye diecussed in order to lighten the over-all weight of
the material.
Asbestos. The molded insulation of long
length asbestos fibers la suitable for temperaturas
up to 850F. and la employed primarily for pfrie
covering. It is eheaper than the diatomaceous
earth type, is lighter, possesses low conductivity
and le durable and rugged.
(4) Mineral wool or rock wool is a fiber made
by eencling a blast of ate= tlarough molten slag
is resiatant to mature. Mineral
or rook.
wools are used in wire reenforced pada as show;

in Fig. 9-8 for insulating large ara
(5) Simia= foil coverings ware
favor in the insulation field prior to the ea
the critical nature of the material anegad their
use. litrange as it seema that metal can be Sea
succesefully as an insulator, tia is the lause.
manufactured for use as an insulator in long
thooto of approximately 0.003' thickaess. I%'S
first crumpled by hand and then applied in Isyele
which are held apart approximately 1' so* 1
the crumpling. As shown in Fig. 2-7 a sheet rail
covering nenes the asserctbly, the 045111/5
held olear of the pipinghy the sheet metal kat,
The cos of application in thls matar is very
high.
For ita insulating mitas in practicad justastiene, aluminum foil de pendo ontim sibwiteeeeof
a bright &ufane W absorb and radiate heat, and
in part, 04*4 GPIX440/1to Stotwootion
presente(' hYthe amad sir colla fonned
adjoiag layara of the wumpled foil. ThoWl
eluminum foil insulation la muel
other tyPee deoeffiraio the mbratamo
kot in the weight of'the Proteitins~
,
2-5
FIG. 2-8. Mineral Wool Blankets.
CRINKLED ALUMINUM FOIL
METAL LAGGING
METAL
LAGGING
SHEET MON TOWERS
SECTION "A"-"A"
FIG. 2-7. Method of Installing Aluminum Poli Insolation on High Temperature Steam Piping.
2-6
PACKING 101 BRAT PUMA

CKS
HICO PREMIE eff, sWIS

LIKKATED ASBESTO
BRAMED FLAG
ROBBEICOREB, DOCK-WIMPPED,
GRAPAR MOCATO
ASBESTOS CLOfll AMI IESWT MIK
qi
RINGS
Mita
BILVIWE ud
EME CalfelleS
ASBESTOS,
PRESSED COMA FARM
EXPMISORI 4111
WINNSERIK
KAPIKE
WIREIMERTED ASBESTOS
910. S .s. Pacidas.

2-9
2-8
tos packing is composed 'o 90 percent asbestos

with breas or copper wire inserted yams, and a
high itemperature lubricant. The plastic nonmetallic, asbestos and wire jacket type is composed of a plastic core of asbestos flbers, graphite,
and a binder, encased in a braided monel wire
jacket. These metal inserta or jackets tend to act
as a bearing surface for the packing, cutting down
friction and increasing the lif e of the packing.
For high pressure hydraulic service such as
steering gears and elevator shafts a "Vee" type
packing (Fig. 2-8c and 2-8d) la used. It la composed of laminated piles of fabrica impregnated
with a heat and oil resisting compound and so
designed that the chape permita the piles to expand under pressure.
The sealing of rotating joints has brought
about more serious consideration of the packing
problem. It is possible with this type of joint, for
the packing to create sufficient friction to prevent
the machine or apparatus from operating. In the
sliding type of joint, the heat of friction created
by the packing is dissipated through the moving
par of the joint. Such, however, la not the case
in the rotating type of joint. llene, the heat of
friction created by the packing will build up on
the wearing faces of the packing and the shaft
uniese other means are provided for ita diasipa-
tion. This is accomplished through the use of

packings composed of materials which have high
heat conductivity properties and through the
allowance of leakage. It la of particularly importante in parking rotating joints that pressure applied to the packing be kept at a minimum consistent with permissible leakage from the joint.
The packings generally employed in rotating
joints of pumps and small, low speed, steam turbines, are flexible metallic and plastic metallic
types. In the rotating joints of high speed turbines, labyrinth glande and/or carbon ring packing is used.
The flexible metallic packing is composed of
metal foil, ribbons or strands, wrapped, crimped,
twisted and braided hito a continuous strip. The
plastic metallic packings are composed of admixtures of partirles of metal, asbestos fibers, graphite, and binders encased in a loosely woven cotton
or metal jacket.
The carbon packings used in the rotating jointa
of steam turbines are composed of three or more
ring segments made of refined coke and/or graphite held together by a suitable binder. The ring la
machined to the desired dimerusions, the flat elides
being parallel and smooth, and the inner surface
is ground true and at right anees to the sidea.
The segments are held together by means of a
FLAT RING GASKET
FUT FULL-FACE GASKET
FIG. 2-10. Sheet Asbestos Gaskets.
FIG. 2-11. Plained-Faced Metal Gaskets.

2-10
PACKING AND HEAT INSULATING MATERIALS
2-9
coil spring which lies in a groove in the outer

periphery of cada packing ring.
monel or soft iron (Kg. 2-12). The raised senations help to make a better seal at the piping
flange joints and give the gasket some resiliency.
2-9. FACULTO FOR FURO JOIRTS.
A variation of the serrated gasket aleo shown
The sealing of fixed steam joints, until recent is the expanding serrated gasket (Fig. 2-12b).
yesal, was performed in a satisfactory manner When this gasket is used, line pressure acta bethrough the use of gaskets made from com- tween the platea to force the serrated faces
pressed asbestos sheet packing (Fig. 2-10). This tighter against the acljoining flange. This is a
packing is composed of approximately 85 per- relatively new type having limited service excent asbestos fibers and 15 percent rubber com- perience.
pounds. In view of the relatively high rubber
(3) The asbestos -metallic, spiral-wound gascontent of the material the use of this type of ket (Fig. 2- 13) which is composed of alienaste
gasket la limited by temperature considerations.
The present dayhigh temperature steam, together
with a lack of sufficient strengtb in the packing at
elevated temperatures, resulta in the failure of
such gaskets. For high temperatures, the use of
metallic or semi-metallic gaskets is considered to
be necessary.
At the present time there are three types of
INSTALLATION CENTEING RING
metallic or semi-metallic gaskets in use in the
service.
A fat-ring or plain faced gasket (Fig.
2- 11). These metal gaskets are made of monel
metal or soft iron to specified shapes and sises.
A variation of this type is the ring gasket shown.
A serrated-face gasket aleo made from
TYPICAL CASXET CROSS-mol
FIG. 2-13. Metallic-Asbestos Spiral-Wound Gasket.
(a) SINGLE-PUTE TYPE
(b) EXPANDING (DOUBLE-PIATE) UPE

FIG. 2-12.
Serrated Metal Gaskets.
layers or plies of dove-tailed metal ribbon and

strips of asbestos felting spirally wound, ply upon
ply, until the desired diameter la obtained. The
metal ribbon is a single stainless steel strip 0.'007
to 0.'015 thick and 0.'175 wide after forming.
For the purpose of interlocking the metal strip,
the asbestos felting may be in the form of two
separata strip; wound to conform with the fats
of the metal strip on both aldea of the dove-tailed
section. The end of the metal strip la made faat
by crimping and welding to the preceding ply.
In order to prevent a complete blowout, if f siluro
2-11

of the gaaket should mur, a salid steel ring thinner than the spiral wound section is attached to
the outer periphery of the gasket. This ring is
about 0.'125 inch thick and acta asa bolting guide
and a centering ring, as well as a reenforcement.
The spiral wound gaskets are so manufactured
that, with proper bolt tension, the gasket will
compresa to 0.'135 in thickness. This leaves a
total of clearancei0. 1010 between the flange faces
and the centering ring. The gasket can be compressed to the thickness of the centering ring
without being damaged.
A property which a gasket should possess to
maintain a tight joint is resiliency. In tests conducted at the Naval Engineering Experiment
Station it was found that the plain-faced type
gaaket depended entirely upon the bolt stress for
maintaining tightness of the joint; hence when
the bolt stress was reduced below a certain

amount through elongation of the bolis and
through sudden change in temperature conditions, leakage occurred rom the joint. The same
was found to some extent with the ordinary serrated face type gasket. The spiral wound, semimetallic type gasket performed satisfactorily, and
the bolt stresses required to obtain tightness of
the joint were lees than those required with the
plain and serrated types of gasket. Bolt stresses
required for the expanding serrated type gasket
should be materially leas.
Gaskets are designed in many variations of the
three principal types aboye listed. In making up
fixed joints, the proper gasket for any particular
service can be determined by reference to the
packing and gasket table, Chapter 95, of the
Bureau of Ships Manual.
2-12
ne
CHAPTER 3
PUMPS
&ming par,
3-1. GENERAL.
(0)
Anchor windlsast
Of alt the diffenmt CifISSe8 of auxiliary machin"")4

ery, pumps institutos by lar the largeat group.
These are of many different types, each of which (6) Jet pumps, usad for"
has is own characteristics which make it pecul(a) Eductore for water, (10, Gond,* Saar
iarly adaptable to a particular sendce.The followand
ing types of pumps, some of the naval uses for
A positivo displacement pump leste in ir
which are indicated, will be described in this
(neglecting
leakage past imperfecti
chapter:
a
definite
volume of Jiqud"4~1
(1) Positive displacement, reciprocatIng pumps,
vele
of
pump
operation. Por anygtv oonstaiit
used for

speed,
the
capacity
of this jnmp rettAbl Itet*
(o) Miecellaneous interEmergeney Leed,

constant
irreepective
of pump "changa pressure,
mittent services;
Fire and Bilge,
provided the rated power of the driving unit is
not exceeded. Liquid flow from these pumps la
(2) Centrifugel pumps, used for :
pulsating to a degree dependent ca the type of
(f) Miscellaneous circoBeller leed,
pump.
lating and supply,
Auxilian condenser
Liquid fiow from nonpositive displacement
eirculaiing,
(g) Distilling plante,
Main and auxiliary (h) Gasoline handling,
centrifuga' and propanor pumps is
oondenser l'ondeo- (1) Main and,seoondary oven aad continuous. For any given
drainage,
este,
speed, the capacity of these ~pe may ver,
Main and auxiliary (j) Freeh water, and
widely with a chango in dischsepressure. The
(k) Ballasting.
leed booster,
discharge
characteristie of jet piffibrie very simi(e) Pire, or fire-andlar to these two pampa.
flushing,
(3) Propeller pumps, used for:
(4) Positiva displacement, rotary pumps, of the
followmg subtypes:
(aleaGsar,
(b) Rotating Pluager,
3-2. Ititomoostnro PUMP3.-ol3$BtiftOkk

TIOTI.
(a) Main circulating.
(e) Sera%
(d) Moving vana.
Within the limitatione of any particular one of

these subtypes, positive displacement, rotary
pumps are usad for the following services:

Lubrlcating oil
(5) Diesel oil han
dling,
service,
(8) Cargo handling
Fuel oil service,
(8) Fuel oil booster
in tankers, and
(7) Low Proseare Air
and trander'
Compressors.
(4) Gasoline handling,
(e) Co/satame apead, aoriabh groks, axial or radial
Pida, tusad for;
Reciproeating pumps are

eimaided
four ways, vis., (1) as dimett er
(2) as simples or duplex, (3) pa shigielethat or
double-acting, and (4) as higo Williettrta 10V7
prestare.
Direct-acting pampa are mal abad exclusively in naval installations. They are so-
called because the plunger of thor liquid (pump)

end is directly driven by the puntp rod which b
siso the piston rod (or cateador' timad)
canjes the piston of the steam end. The pmespli
lustrated in Fig. 3-1 is direct-aeting.
Indirect-acting pamps are drfrefly
of a betun or linkage cometed to and sataided
by the steam piston rod of a Separata terdiln>.
cating engin. In some coas, an indireetaMing
pump is driven by a eral* and eonnefing ied
m.
DISCHARGE
TOP PORT
BOTTOM CHAMBER
EXHAUST
CHAMBER
TOP CHAMBER
Vt.a.V.10/0. wanintwirtnam,
STEAM Te
PUMP
/ /ff (///////.
STEAM
CYLINDER
FLAT FACED
SUDE VALVE
BOTTOM PORT
SIICTION CHAMBER
AIR CHAMBER
DISCHARGE
DISCHARGE
CHAMBER
FLANCE
DISCHARGE
PUMP
CYLINDER
PLUNCER
DISCHARGE
ALVE
FUNGE
SUCTION
VALVE
TOP
CHAMBER
BOTTOM
CHAMBER
BARRIL
SUCTION
LINER
CHAMBER
SUCTION
FUNGE
SECTION THROUCH A-A
FIG. 3-1. Reciprocating, Direct-Acting, Double-Acting, Simple; Vertical, High Presente Pump EquIpped with a
Direct-Acting, Flat-Faced, Outaide Sude Valva.
3-2
3-3
PUMPS
mechanism which la operated by a steam turbine
or an electric motor.
A simplex pump (sometimes referred to as a
single pump) is one having a single liquid
(pump) cylinder. It may be either direct- or indirect-acting. Figure 3-1 illustrates a simplex
pump.
A duplex pump is the equivalent of two simplex pumps placed side-by-side on the same foundation, with the two steam cylinders cast in a single block and the two liquid (pump) cylinders
constructed in a similar manner. The valve gear
for directing the steam to each cylinder is actuated by the piston rod of the other cylinder
through a system of linkages, arranged in such a
manner that when one piston is on its up-stroke,
the other is on its down-stroke and vise versa.
The capacity of the pump is doubled but this
type is seldom found in the naval service because
of space and weight limitations.
A single-acting pump is one which takes a
suction, filling the pump cylinder on the stroke in
only one direction, such as the up-stroke, called
the suction stroke, and which forces the liquid
out of the cylinder on the return stroke called the
discharge stroke. The pump of Fig. 3-3 is a singleacting pump.
A double-acting pump is one which, as it
fina one end of the liquid cylinder, is discharging
liquid from the other end of the cylinder. On the
return stroke, the end of the cylinder just emptied
is fdled, and the end just filled la emptied. A double acting pump has the same discharge characteristic as a duplex pump, but, for the same capacity, occupies approximately one hall the space
of the duplex pump. For this reason double acting pumps have replaced duplex pumps in modera naval vessels. Figure 3-1 illustrates a doubleacting pump.
(7) A high pressure pump is one which is designed to operate with a discharge pressure that
is higher than the pressure of the steam operating
on the piston in the steam cylinder. This is accomplished by making the diameter of the steam
piston (and hence ira ares) greater than that of
the piston (plunger) in the liquid cylinder. In this
way the total force exerted by the steam against
the piston, and hence through the rod to the
plunger, la concentrated on the smaller working
ares of the plunger, resulting in a greater pressure
per aguare inch being developed in the liquid
HEAD
VALVE
(OPENED)
DISCHARG
C AMBER
SFJUJNG
LEDGE
BUCKET
VALVE
(COSED)
BUCKET
'',11141
ah 7,
1111,1
BARREL
FOOT
VALVE
SU TION
CHAMO
(OPENED)
01151 ,30-
/z41. 11
FIG. 3-3. Diagrammatic Sketch of a Single-Acting

Pump, Liquid or Water End.
cylinder. Such a pump will discharge a comparatively small volume of liquid against a high pressure. The pump of Fig. 3-1 la a high pressure
pump. Such a pump would be required for service
as a main feed pump for emergency use.
(8) A low pressure pump has a steam piston of
smaller diameter than the pump plunger. This resulta in a pump having a low discharge pressure
but a high volumetric pumping capacity. Such a
pump would be suitable as a fire and bilge pump.
Reciprocating pumps are designated by three
dimensions, viz., the diameter of the steam piston, the diameter of the pump plunger, and the
length of the stroke. For example an 8' X 5' X10'
pump would have a steam piston diameter of 8',
a 5' diameter pump piston and a 10' stroke. It
would obviously be a high pressure pump,
whereas a 5" X8' X10" pump would be a low
pressure pump.
3-3. FEATURES OF CONSTRUCTION OF RECIPROCATING PIIMPS.
The use of reciprocating pumps in modem

combatant veasels is restricted to auxiliary (or
emergency) boiler feed pumps and to fire (or fire3-3
NAVAL AUXILIARY MACHINE,R3'
SUCTIOH CHEST
(b) PUMP YALYES, METAL, FOR OIL OR

HOT WATER UP TO 150
(a) PUMP YALYES, METAL, FOR HOT OR

COLO WATER ABOYE 150 p.si
DISCHARGE
CHEST
SUCTION CHEST
(c) PUMP YALYES, ROBE, FOR COLO
WATER UP, TO 150 p.s.1
(d) OIL P YALYES , METAL, FOR FUEL

PUMABOYE 1 50 psi.
FIG. 8-9. Valves for Double-Acting, Reclprocating Pompa.
3-4
PUMAS
small, light auxiliary (pilot) valve which is actuated by the operating linkage (levar, tappets, rod,
etc.).
There are many designa of pilot operated
(steam-thrown) piston type sude valves in use
on naval reciprocating pumps, but all operate on
the same general principie. Some have fat-faced
pilot valves, and others have pilot valves of the
piston type. In some the main piston type valve
is installed with its axis vertical; in others its axis
is placed horizontal to prevent weight of the
valve from affecting its operation. The following
description of a vertical, steam-thrown, piston
type, elide valve contraed by a piston type pilot
valve should suffice to develop an understanding
of the operation of any steam-thrown valve.
In Fig. 8-5 the piston and pilot valves are
shown at the beginning of the up stroke. Both
valves are in the up position which admita high
pressure steam through the lower steam inlet passage to the under side of the piston and allows
steam aboye the piston to exhaust through the
exhaust port. When the piston reaches the top of
the stroke the lever and tappet linkage move the
pilot valve (or auxiliary piston valve) down, opening port (1) to the annular exhaust space about
the center of the auxiliary and main piston valves
thus releasing pressure in space (2) below the piston valve and permitting the unbalanced higher
pressure in space (3) to force the main piston
valve down. The small size of the equalizing port
in the piston valve prevents escape of any appreciable amount of high pressure steam to space
(2). The pilot valve has blanked off the upper
port preventing escape of high pressure steam
from space (3) even after the downward travel of
the piston valve has uncovered that port, thus
insuring complete movement of that valve to its
lower position. At the end of its motion the piston
valve cushions itself when it blanks off the port to
space (1), trapping dead steam below, which can
not rapidly escape through the small equalizing
port in the valve. The initial condition of steam
balance is reestablished by mean of this aquellaing port. The foregoing motions are, of course,
repeated on the opposite end of the stroke.
The force actuating the main valve is obtained
by virtue of the difference in the rate of flow of
steam through port (1), which is I inch in
diameter, and the 1/16 inch equalizing port
drilled through the outside collera o the main
STARTING PORT
STEAM RN.ET PASSAGE

PISTON VALVE
3
PISTON VALVE
EQUALIZIN
INLOT VALVE
PORT
EQUALIZING
POR!
EXNAUST
OT VAL
PILO!
ACTUATING
ROO
STRONG PORT
TAPPET COLLARS
(ALIUSTADIE)
FIG. 3-6. Diagrammatic Arrangement of a SteamThrown, Pisten Slide Valve Controlled by a DirectActuated Pilot Valve.
piston valve. It is to be noted that, except when

the main valve is actually in motion, it is in a
state of complete balance, both axially and circumferentially, so that the only force restricting
its movement is that of friction between the sliding surfaces. The equalizing port, connecting the
outer ende of the auxiliary valve cylinder, is necessary to permit easy movement of this valve. In
this connection, it will be seen that the valve
actuating rod need be packed but lightly, for only
auxiliary exhaust pressures must be contained.
Centrifugal pumns have in the past 15 or 20
years, largely supplanted direct-acting reciproids on
cating pumps for pumping nonviscou
naval vessels.
CENTRIFUGAL PIIMPSGENERAfr
The total energy of the Huid discharge from

any pump is usually referred to as "head" which
is normally expressed in feet of water. Essentially
this total head is the mathematical sum of the
velocity head and the pressure head which the
fluid possesses. This velocity head represente the
3-7
NAVAL \
CASING
END PUTE
SUCTION
VENT COM!
CURVEO VARES
IMPELR
END
PUTE
JOIE
VOTE
DIFFUSE!,
ORAIN
CONN.
FIG. 3-6. Siraplifted Arrangement of a Centrifuga!

Ptunp, with Casing Cut away to Show the 360 Volute
Difusor.
kinetic energy of the moving fluid; whereas the

pressure head representa the potential energy of
the fluid, measurable by a pressure gauge. Hence,
pressure head la referred to as static pressure.
Centrifuga) pumps, as their name implica, depend for their operation on centrifugal force.
This force is generated by the high speed rotation
of an impeller, the only moving part of the pump.
Essentially, the impeller consiste of a shaft upon
which are mounted radially a series of curved
vanes with suitable means providing for the entry of the liquid at the "eye" or center. When a
positive supply of the liquid being pumped is initially introduced at the "eye," the high speed rotation ottoke vanes literally throws the liquid outward, iSparting to it a high velocity head. The
pressure4ead of the liquid at this stage is relatively low as compared to that at diacharge. As a
result, almost all of the energy which the moving
liquid possesses at this point is kinetic.
Upon leaving the curved vanes of the impeler
the high velocity liquid entero the stationary
pump casing which endoses the impeler. This
section of the casing is termed the "volute" since
ita chape is derived from the involute of a eircle.

Referring to Fig. 3-6, the clearance between the
vanes and casing increases as the liquid approaches the diacharge connection to the casing.
The purpose of this volute is to collect the fluid
being discharged from the impeller at a high velocity and gradually bring it to a relatively low
velocity, thus converting a large part of the velocity head to static pressure.
This type of pump la illustrated in Fig. 3-6 and
3-8(a). The casing la provided with suction, discharge, drain and vent connections. The suction
connection is so designed that the liquid la guided
from the suction chamber of the casing to the
"eye" of the impeler.
The volute is a variation of the straight diffuser illustrated in Fig. 3-7, in which the straight
diverging nozzle has been changed to a diverging nozzle whose axis la bent in a 360 circle. The straight diffuspr is not employed in the
pump, but it is used in Fig. 3-7 to illustrate the
pressure and velocity changes which occur in the
voluta. Some pump voluta are made in a 180
are, in which case they are called 180 voluta;
and are used in pairs, covering the complete 360
of the casing. Such a pump is known as a doublevolute pump.
A diffuser (Fig. 3-7) converts some of the
kinetic energy of the high velocity masa of wa-
VELOCITY
/1E-
-\PRESSURE
OIFFUSER
FIG. 3-7,
3-8
ti
PUMAS
(e) MIRE MOINE TYPE

ITIG. 3-3. Centrifuga! Pump. Baste Typo,
ter hato potential energy or presagia in permitting

the moving masa to slow down as it pasees
through the widening channel. As the passage
widens toward the outlet, leas linear velocity is
required to pass the same mese of water in a
given length of time. Now if, at the same time,
the discharge is reatricted so that the diffuser
remains filled with fluid, It can be sean that the
impact of the entering fluid upon the retarding
masa of water tends to develop a eta& pressure.
The aboye will help to understand the following
characteristics of the centrifuga' pump: (1)
opening the discharge valve wider with no
abrume in speed of rotation will result in a correaponding lonagin.g of the discharge pressure;
similarly, closing `the discharge will cause an increase in pressure; (2) if the discharge valve of
the pump is closed completely, the pressure will
attain a certain value, called the chut-off head,
alter which the impeller will churo and heat the
fluid without a further mercase in pressure; and
(3) increasing the apead of rotation, with a constant discharge opening will result in an lacrase
in pressure, and decreasing the speed will bring
about a lowering of the prestare.
Another characteristic of the centrifugal pump

which must always be kept in mirad is that, the
pump is not self-priming. In other wordaalm
pump casing must be flooded bef ore it wiff fonotion.
To attain this, most centrifuga' pumpe are
located below the level of the source from Mil&
it is to take suction. The same effect can be gained
by supplying water to the pump suction under
pressure supplied by another pump placed in the
suction line.
In some types of pumps the li,saiute" is diepense-d with arad the liquid, upon leaving the
periphery of the impeller pasees through radial
diffusion vanes (Fig. 3-8b) which are so shaped as
to convert the velocity to static
pand
tle
deliver it to the outer periphery of the
p casing. This type of pump le termed a
na centrifugal pump. It is seldom used in le naval
service. A further variation of this typil which
has liad some usage in the service is the combinad voluta ami turbina type centrifuga' puunp
(Fig. 3-8c). In this type the liquid, alter leaving
the periphery of the impeller, fiows through diffuser vanes where a pardal convereion ef velocity
8-9
NAVAL AIIIILlARY MACHINERY
3-4
to pressure takes place. The liquid is then discharged to a volute where practically all of the
remaining velocity is convertd to static pressure
and thence to the discharge connection on the
volute.
To prevent escape of the fluid from the high
pressure or discharge side of the pump baek to
the suction side at the eye of the impeller, a very
small clearance must be afforded between the
moving impeller and the stationary casing at the
outer periphery of the eye of the impeller Wear
due to erosion caused by the Huid leaking past
this aman clearance could necessitate renewal of
the pump casing or impeller. Centrifuga' pumps
are usually fitted with removable rings in the casing, or on the impeller, or both, so that renewal of
these rings will obviate the necessity for costly replacement of the larger parta. These rings are
called wearing rings.
The illustrations of Fig. 3-8 should be considered to be entirely elementary and as representing the simpler types of pump. A multiplicity
of type modifications or developments of the
basic types illustrated are used in the service.
These are classified as follows:
SEAL
PIPING
IMPELLER
SUCTION
BALANCING
HES
DISCHARGE
WEARING
RINGS
SECTION ON A-A
FIG. 8-10. Horizontal Single Stage, Volute Type

Centrifugal Pump with Single-Suction Impeler.
(a) SINGLE SUCTION, CLOSED
(6) DOUBLE SUCTION, CLOSED
(c) OPEN
Fier. 3-9. (a) (b) (c) Basic Impeler Types.
Horizontal or vertical, depending upon

whether the pump shaft is horizontal or vertical.
Single-stage, with pressures usually not exceeding 150 p.s.i., or multistage, consisting of two
or more impeliere operating in series, usually for
pressures in excess of 150 p.s.i. In this case, the
first stage impeller diseharges to the suction eye
of the second stage impeller, the second to the
third. This procedure is followed in the succeeding stages of the pump.
Impellers of pumps are classified as follows:
Single suction impeller (Fig. 3-9a) wherein
the liquid entere the eye of the impeller in one
direction, or double suction impeller (Fig. 3-9b)
wherein entry of liquid to eye of impeller is from
two directions.
Closed impeller having side walis from the
outer periphery of the eye to the outer circumference of the vane tips, or open impeller without
such, side walls. Few pumps having open impeliere are used in the service. Figure 3-9 illustrates closed and open type impeliere.
3-10
PUMAS
WATER INLET TO LANTERN RING s.,

(SEAL PIPINO ONITTER)
LANTERN RING
PACKING
(a) Lantern Ring in Place in Main Condensate Pump (sectioned view).
WEB PERFORATION
WATER INLET HOLE FROM SEAL PIPING
ANNULAR GROOVE
(b)Lantern Ring Balt
FIG. 8-11. Lantern Ring.
3-11
8-5. SINGLE-STAGE CENTRIFIIGAL PIIMPS.

Figure 8-10 illustrates a horizontal, singlestage, volute type centrifuga' pump with a single-suction impeller. To obvlate the neeessity of
costly renewal of pump casings due to erosion of
the casing by water leakage from the high pressure to the low proseare sida through the Glose
clearance space between the impeller hubo and
the casing, removable, soft metal wearing rings
are threaded hito the casing at the Glose-clearance points. These rings, in providing the small
clearance between the diecharge and suction lides
of the pump, suffer the erosion, but are easily and
economically replaced.
In high pressure pampa, wearing rings are afro
fitted on the impeller hube to take the &Mon.
It should be noted, in Fig. 8-10, that the impeller contains balancing holes, which connect
the space around the hub to the suction sitie of
the impeller. The balancing hola have a total
crosmeectional anea which is considerably greater
than the croes-sectional arca of the annular space
between the left wearing ring and the hub. This
resulte in the suction premiare being on both aldea
of the impeller hub, thus maintaining a hydraulic
balance of axial thrust. Any unbalanced thrust
existing is absorbed by a ball type thrust bearing
(not shown).
A 'antera ring opacer is shown inserted between the rings of packing in the stuffing box.
Seal piping loado water from the discharge sido
of the pump to the annular space formed by the
BALANCING
BRIN
IMPELLER
CASING WEARING
RINGS
IMPELLER
WEARING
RINGS
'X -
SUCTION
DISCHARGE
BALANCE
PASSAGE
FIG. 8-12. Horizontal, Single-Stage, Volute Type

Centrifugal Pump with Salanced Single-Suction
Impeler.
CASING ISM
INISS
VENT CONNECTION
IMPELER
IMPELO WEARING
RINGS
THRUST
RADIAL
BEARING
BEARING
SUCTION FUNGE
DISONARE ,
FIG. 3-13. Horizontal, Single Stage, Volute Type

Centrifugal Pump with Double Suction Impeler.
)antera ring. fe web of the ring is perforated so

that water can flow in either direction along the
shaft between the shaft and the packing rings.
The cooling water catering the 'antena ring is
thus enabled to serve three purposes, vis:
To cool the shaft and packing,
To lubricate the packing, and
(3) To seal the joint between the shaft and
packing againrit leakage of air finto the pump in
the event the pump suction preseure is leas than
that of the atmosphere.
Figure 8-II (a) shows a sectioned view of a 'antera ring installed in the upper shaft parking of a
main condenaste pump. Figure 8-11(b) shows a
dome up view of one half of the 'antera ring.
Figure 3-11 illustrates another method of hydraulically balancing a single-suction impeler.
fe impeler itself is constructed with a balancing drum on the sido oppoaite the suction hube,
and having the same over-all diameter as the suction hub. A balance passage cast integral with
the casing maintaizts suction proseare on both
impeler hubo, eliminating hydraulic end-thrust.
To prevent, leakage of air from the outside finto
the suction chamber and balance passage whenever the suction preseure ie below atmospherie,
water sealing pipa and 'antera rings are installed. The pump shown has both casing wearing
rings and impeler wearing rings. fe shaft is
supported by ball type hearings.
3-12
PUMS"
In Fig. 848 it shown a horizontal, singlestage

pump, having a double-suction type impeler,
whereby hydraulic end-thrust la eliminated. The
peculiar cross-sectional shape of the casing wearing rings should be noted. In this construction the
impeler wearing ring rotates within a groove in
the casing wearing ring; thus the elearance
saga forme a labyrinth which further restricts
flow from the high to the low presente cides. Water seal piping (not shown) supplies the lantern
ring shaft gland sosia. This pump design has a
volumetric capaeity approzimately twice that of
a single-suction impeler having the same throat
sine.
A typical condenaste pump for systems in

which the feed tank to which the pump discharges is not under pressure (such as the open,
semi-closed and vacuum closed feed systems described in Chapter A-3) la illustrated in Fig. 3-1.4.
The principal distinguishing feature of condenaste pampa (see Chapter 8) are the larga suction
chamber and the large "oye" of the impeler.
In both of these parta, the passagee and porta
are made as largo as possible in arder to have
a minimum velocity of water entering the oye
of the impeler. Where the layout of the pump
REME COINialt
VENT COMIECTION
TO CONDENO
(ANTELAN
SINDON
MATEN
CON
CASING WEARING
NOS
IMPELO
and suction piping permita it, the epa

rectly aboye the oye of the kriptdler is vistIld
to the condensar or evaporator sisen ~mit a
suction pipe which has a continuadarisa, whhhut
pockets, from the notica nogae oh the pumt) toa
connection on the condensar or evaporator sha.
Where this is impracticable, a suetion ehamber
must be provided with a vent conneetion of
liberal sise pipe with a eontinuous tise, witbetzt
pockets or trapa, to a point on the condemeror
evaporator shell well aboye the highatpter iba
and preferably to the point of kettulihtheoltite
pressure. This is required inaarautitto the pa
Cakes suction from a high vacuum or low abate
proseare, and cannot draw the water bato 'Watts
of the impeler; hence the only force ribieltiaa
induce the water to flow into the pump -ft**
gravity 'leed due to the submergence of the Out,
below the level of water in the condenar or
evaporator shell. Furthermore, the tempo:Muro
of the water pumped h uaually only . 3 to
below the boiling temperature equistaltest to the
absoluto presume in the vseuum vetestaustuay
friction loes in piping and pump suction chaeither,
any velocity head imparted to the catar, and any.
prefigure loases in the oye of the impeler sil result in a pump suction pressure that is below the
absolute presento in the vacuum veleta, it can,be.
readily asen that if the sum total s alIthese suetion preestue lacees is only elida* in seso of
the pressure due to submergeneedi* tsagerwiI
vaporiza in the oye of the impeller~ee the
design of the pump must be such that thittapor
*ecan rise and flow freely har to the,
sa Otherwiee, if the vapor is tra
eted in the pump suction cham
or eution'
pipe, the flow of water te s the pump 'wat stop
until the water levet rieles high musa te ISM
up a pressure suele/est
to cora
to condense the vapor '
impeler.
The pump iltuattateti
voluta type pump and le
main condenaste pompa for andada teuteme
requiring fow condenaste pump tachare
sure.
WELTER
3-6. MULTI-STAGE carritnietukt puma
MANE IMCS
The discharge head of a pump may be coaered as componed o two principal parta, presume
head and velocity head, each representing energy
FIG. 3-14. Vertical, Single Stage, Veinte Type Centri with Single-Stadion Ineller and Low
al
Ve7ocltr Sodios Len.
3-13
3-6
added to the fluid being pumped. This energy

may be expressed in foot pounds per pound of
fluid pumped, or merely in feet of head.
There is a practical limit in discharge head
beyond which it is not economical to use a
centrifugal pump having a single impeller. For
the highest discharge heads, either a very high
rotative speed or a large diameter of impeller
must be used. Both of these lead to high mechanical stresses and to lowered efficiency, due primarily to disk friction and leakage losses. Disk
friction increases very rapidly with increased
speed or increased impeller diameter, the horsepower lost varying approximately with the cube
of the speed and the fifth power of the diameter.
Thus a higher speed and smsller impeller would
give less disk friction for the same head. However, leakage lose, due to liquid passing back
from discharge to suction through clearance
spaces, increases with the smaller diameter. At
high heads, with the greater pressure difference
between discharge and suction, the leakage loss is
an important item. As a result of these effects, the
IMPELLER
WITH IMPELLER
WEARING RING
efficiency of a high-head pump of the single impeller type is likely to be comparatively low.
While single pumps have been built which have
delivered a head of 1200 feet or more, practical
designa limit the head in many cases to 650 feet
per impeller For the higher heads, two or more
impellers are connected in series, the discharge
from one impeller being connected to the suction
of the next. The total head is the head of one impeller multiplied by the number of impellers. For
the sake of economy such an arrangement is built
in one casing and is known as a multi-stage pump,
each impeller constituting a stage. Ordinarily not
more than six stages can be built in one pump
casing on account of the length of the shaft.
Room for a shaft of large diameter is difficult to
obtain because of the space required to lead the
liquid hito the eye of the impeller. The shaft of a
multi-stage pump must be carefully designed in
order to prevent undue vibration, such as would
occur if the deflection of the shaft, due to its
length, were - such as to cause the pump to operate at a critica] speed.
IMPELLER AND
CASING WEARING
RINGS
(a)
(b)
FIG. 3-16. Multi-Stage, Centrifuga! Pump Impelter and Wearing Rings.
3-14
3-6
water in the pump. Multi-stage impeliera may be

either the single or double-auction type.
Surrounding each impeller hub is a pair of
wearing rings illustrated in Fig. 3-15(b). fe
larger one is stationary, being attached to the
casing and prevented from turning by the semicircular flange on one side, while the smaller one
is attached to the impeller, and rotates with it,
inside the larger. These rings prevent excessive
leakage from the high pressure area to the low,
by providing close running clearances and afford
easily and economically replaceable parta whioh
can be renewed when erosion due to the leakage
occurs.
The diffusion ring, shows in Fig. 3-16 is used
only in turbina type pumps. It s stationary, and
completely surrounds the impeller. It contains a
series of openings, with passageways leading
therefrom, which receive the water from the
impeliera at high velocity, and by virtue of the
gradually increasing area of the passageways
towards the periphery, reduce the velocity with a
mnimum of turbulence, thus converting velocity
to pressure with a minimum lose of energy.
The shaft glande are provided with water seals,
consisting of a buten:1 gland in each boa, connected to the water from the discharge side of the
pump.
Figure 3-17 illustrates a horizontal four-stage
centrifugal boiler feed pump of the turbina type.
Turbine type pumps are not found in modem
naval equipment.
Figure 3-18 shows the arrangement of stages
in a modem horizontal, four-rstage, volute type
pump. The impeliera are of the single-suction
type, but are arranged in pairo so that the total
end-thrust of the first and second stages is countered by that of the third and fourth stage. This
necessitates arranging the second stage discharge
chamber within the pump casing so that it is
routed around and underneath the fourth stage
par of the casing to the eye of the third stage
impeller.
The two-stage feed pump of Fig. 3-19 has
double-suction impeliera, giving it an increased
capaeity as well as hydraulic self-balancing. This
pump is designed to take suction from the di
charge of a vertical, two-stage centrifugal f
booster pump. It is in effect, then, the third and
fourth stages of a four-stage pump built in two
separate casings.
PUMPS
The essential features of construction described below are characteristic of most modern
multi-stage centrifugal pumps.
The casing is composed of two castings, flanged
together along the central horizontal plane, thus
giving easy access for inspection and repair.
The shaft is protected from erosion and corrosion by bronze bushings wherever it comes in
contact with the water in the pump. This also
protects it from wear due to the packing in the
stuffing boxea. Sleeves, or bushings, on the shafts
of modem, naval, multi-etage pumps are generally installed only for protection against scoring. The material for the shaft is selected to give
adequate corrosion protection against the liquid
FIG. 3-16. Diffusion Ring.
pumped. For example, monel shafts are invariably required for sea water pumps, feed pumps
have nickel-steel shafts, and only in the case of
fresh water pumps is carbon steel accepted for
shaft material.
Each impeller is a solid casting and is of the
closed type, i.e., a sido plata is provided on each
side of the yenes. Impeliera are carefully machined to avoid water friction, and balanced to
prevent vibration. An impeller is illustrated in
Fig. 3-15(a). To avoid corrosion, impeliera are
made of either bronze or eorrosion resisting steel,
as are all parte which come in contact with the
8-15

DIFFUSION RING
FIYDRAULIC BALANCING
DRUM
IMPELLER
IMPELLER AND
CASING RINGS
STEEL SHAFT PROT.CTD
BY BRONZE SLEEVES
WITHIN PUMP
SELF-ALIG. XINGSBURY
THRUST BEARING
CENTER COLLAR TYPE
CONNECTED BY EXTERNAL
PIPE TO LAST STAGE FOR
GLAND SEALING
STUFFING BOX
PIN TYPE
FLEXIBLE COUPLING
1 11111111
SELF-ALIG.
BEARING
GEAR PUMP
FOR Lile
OIL
LANTERN RING
VOLUTE IN LAST STAGE.
NO DIFFUSION RING
CHANNEL RING
EQUALIZER PIPE
OIL COOLER
FIG. 3-17. Muft-Stage, Turbine-Type, Centritagal Feed Pump.
4TH STAGE IMPELLER
2ND STAGE IMPELLER
3RD STAGE IMPELLER

TRUST BEARING
1ST STAGE IMPELLER
OCTION
WEARING
DISCHARGE RINGS OIL TALAR
FIG. 3-18. Horizontal Multi-Stage, Voluta Type Centrifugar/Med Pump.
3-18
PUM P8
EXIMOST
SIZTION
NOM
2N0 STAGE IMPELLER
1ST STAGE IMPELLER
AR
POMP
Ot TANK
FIG. 3-19. Horizoatal, Two Stage, Mute Type Contraiga PUS Ptuap with
Double Stadion impeliera.
PUMP DISCHARGE
FIRST STAGE
SECON
STIN
TAGE
FLEXIBLE
COUPUNG
The vertical, two-etage pump of Fig. 340 is

the type usad as main condenaste pumpa for
condenaste systems whieh operaba against a
fairly high feed tan% precinto, tettela M ,toPros
-sureclodbafystm(eoMr
8). Ita suction chaanber and OS tapa imponer
eye are characteristie ofpumpa as
discuseed in Art. 3-5.
3-7. PROPELLER TYPIL
Another type of pump

improperly termed a cen
proponer pump. As its narre implica,
depende
upon
the
action
of
a
rada
IND STAGE IMPELLER

than upen the action of
. The
DISCHARGE FRO
IST TO IND STAGE
blades of the propener, iteraily "pub, the fluid
FIRST STAGE
in an axial direetion;
panel td-tlet center
SUCTION
line of the propensa. shaft. For thia reason this
IST STAGE
type of pump is often tened s.tt asid /rete pump.
IMPELUER
Proponer pumpe are considered noCaitit-P
mg ince they han nry ate suctioniSin
power.
CASING
IMPEU.ER
WEARING RINGS
ProPeller PuniPa laY subse4 ~Mg
wEnuNG opios
FIG. 340. Vertical Two Step Veinte typeCentrifuga! pumpa may be usad for !acedo of kas dama 40 feet;
Main Condenaste ~p.
.3> aboye that, two atase pumps must be usad. MulSKTION TER
SKOND STAGE
EMPELLER
3-17
3-7
ti-staged propeller type pumps are uncommon in

naval installations.
A main condenser circulating pump of the vertical propeller type is illustrated in Fig. 3-21.
The pump unit consista of three major parta as
follows: (1) The propeller, together with its bearings and shaft; (2) the pump casing, and (3) the
driving unit.
The propeller of this puir4p is made of manganese bronze or monel. It is a multi-bladed screw
propeller having a large pitch. The blades are
thick at the roots and fiare out toward the tips.
The blades and hubs are cast or forged in one
piece after which they are machined and balanced. The pump illustrated has a 25' over-all
propeller diameter. A clearance of 1/16' existe
between the blade tips and the casing ring. The
propeller hub is keyed to the shaft and held in
place by the propeller nut which is prevented
from backing off by a set screw.
The lower shaft bearing is a water-lubricated
sleeve type bearing having a rubber or phenolic
REUSING CHAMBER
NOZZLE BLOCK
STEAM INLET
STEAM CHEST
RWEF
VALVE
EXHAUST
GOVERNOR
OIL
THRUST
BEARING
COOLER
OIL PUMP
OIL RESERVOIR
WATER
OUTLET
PROPELLER
DISCHARSE
VANES
WATER INLET
FIG. 3-21. Vertical Propeller Type, Main

Condenaer Circulating Pump.
composition bearing sleeve. The shaft packing

gland prevente excessive leakage of water between the casing and shaft. An upper steady
bearing consista of a fixed internal steel journal
about which a babbited bearing revolves. The revolving bearing is secured to, and forms the hub
of the double-helical bull reduction gear. An extension of the upper hub of the bull gear is keyed
to the vertical shaft and to the thrust bearing
collar.
As both the weight thrust and the propeller
thrust are downward, a pivoted shoe (Kingsbury)
type thrust bearing is installed having shoes on
only the lower side of the thrust collar.
The pump casing is made of bronze. Ita internal surface is formed to reduce turbulence to a
minimum. Four web-like axial guide vanes radiating from the axil of the casing support the shell
of the lower sleeve bearing. This shell is tapered
upward, and, together with the guide vanes,
forms a diverging channel immediately abo ye the
propeller, thus providing a diffusion passage for
reducing the velocity of the water and increasing
its pressure. On some pumps inlet guide vanes
are installed to direct the flow of in-coming water. The discharge guide vanes serve to convert
the somewhat spiral motion of the water leaving
the propeller into straight axial flow.
The pump illustrated la driven by a geared,
vertical, axial flow, single-re-entry turbine.
3-8. COMPARISON OF CENTRIFUGAL AND PROPELLER PIIMP CHARACTERISTICS.
The important performance characteristics of

pumps may be represented by characteristic curves
which graph total discharge pressure, input
horsepower, and efficiency against pump capacity which is the rate of pumping or the rate of
flow through the pump. By means of there curves
the performance of one pump or type of pump
may be compared with that of another. Figures
3-22(a) and (b) show characteristic curves of a
typical centrifugal and a typical propeller type
pump, both operating at a constant speed.
Shut-off head is the total discharge pressuM
when there is no flow through the pump, that is,
the pump discharge is completely closed. Working head is the discharge pressure of a pump when
operating at its designed rated capacity, and is
usually the head at maximum efficiency.
3-18
An inspeetion of the curves will show

impeller, or leer,
&asocie:tetas of the propalar pump diger in the Ruedan eu . e o R#
to
hi"
"
following. respecte from those of centrifuga] the diseharge sirle of the casing. The hmtill~
pumpe.,
supplanted reciprocatin pulpa for ~ni VIO,
Normally, the working head of a centrifu- coas liquide on all naval vemels.
gal pump corresponding to ita maximum effiTheta pumpa are essentially self-priminteles
ciency is only a little lees than the shut-off head; to their capability of removing air from notan
whereis the working head of a propeller pump linee and producing a high amaba. lift (ar atad
corresponding to ita maximum efficienoy is only vacuum). To a small extent, they are tbendate
about 40 perecen of ita chut-off head.
used for pumping nonviscous liquide. gua amar
When operating at the working head, a ter and gasoline, where the punaping probIn incentrifugal pump requires almost maximum volves priming or high amaina lift,
power input to the driving unit; whereas, under
With pumpa designed for s3rstems roquiring
the same operating condition, the power input high auction lift and self-priming, featarse it is
required for a propeller pump ie at almost a mini- essential that all elearances betweeri roteddit
muta.
parte and between rotating parte and statiester,
(c) Though not clearly shown by the curves, parte be kept to a mnimum in order to Palees
the capacity of propeller pumps le lees affected by "slippage," the term applied to leakage froin
diacharge to suction. With doce elementos Sir
GII 1am
111111T011,
MIMO HEAD
e
E
CAPACITY
(a) Centritup1 Pump Cbaracterisde Curves.
(b) Prender Papi

FIG. S-251. Typleal Pump Characteristk Curves.
relatively larga variationa in discharge preaaure.

It ie empbasised that the primary and only important use for a propeller type pump in the naval servios is for pumping eirculating water
through a main condenser. lie characteristies
make it ideally suited in this particular instante
where it is neceseary to purap extremely large
quhntities of water against low head pressures.
neceasary, in order to secan

and maint4n capacity over an
of time, to operate these ritmos
apead. Otherwise, the , erosivo
aire drawing of the liqukl through
elearance opacos ~id sean canea
wear and increased alearan
nem are many types of pottivetilacp
rotary pumps. Their ftmdainstial3-3. POSITIVE DISPLACEMERT ROTARY
operating principies are disonad in the
PIIMPS.
articlea. Article 3-18 containn tabla with
As their mune implica, positive displacement marises the commoner uses to which the valone
pumpe operate on the principie that a rotating types are applied in Naval ~Se.
3-19
3-10
3-10. SIMPLE GEAR PIIMP.
In the simple gear pump, there are two spur

gears, Fig. 343, meshed together and revolving
in opposite directions. There is but a few thousandths of an inch clearance between the case
and the gear faces and teeth extremities. Any
liquid which fills the space, A, bounded by two
successive teeth and the case must follow along
with the teeth as they revolve. When the teeth
mesh, the space, A, between them disappears,
and the entrapped liquid is forced out the discharge pipe. As the teeth revolve and unmesh,
the spaces, A, again open on the suction side,
trap new quantities of liquid and carry it
around the case to the discharge. As liquid is
carried away from the suction side, a lower
pressure is created which draws liquid in through
the suetion line. With the large number of
teeth usually employed on the gears, the discharge is relatively smooth and continuous with
small quantities of liquid being delivered to the
discharge lime in rapid succession. If designed
with fewer teeth, the space between teeth is
greater and the capacity increases for a given
speed. However, in this case the tendency toward
DISCHARGE
a pulsating discharge will also inerease. In all

simple gear pumps, power is applied to the shaft
of one of the gears which transmit power to the
driven gear through their meshing teeth. There
are no valves in the gear pump to cause friction
losses as in the reciproeating pump; the high impeller velocities with resultant friction losses are
not required as in the centrifuga) pump;,theref ore, the gear pump is admirably suited for
handling viscous fluida such as fuel and lubricating oils.
3-11. HERRINGBONE ORAR PUJAR
A modification of the simple spur gear pump is

the herringbone gear pump, Fig. 3-24. The suction and diseharge conneetions, not shown, are
in the same relative positions as in the simple
gear pump. The operation of this design is most
readily understood by considering that a cross
section view through the gears at any point
would appear the same as the end view of the
simple gear pump of Fig. 3-23. It may then be
seen that the pump sets as a simple gear pump.
The principal difference in operation is that in
the herringbone gear pump, the pointed center
section of the space between two teeth commences
discharging before the divergent outer ends of the
preceding space complete discharging This overlapping tends to provide a steadier discharge
pressure. The power transmission from the driving to the driven gear is also smoother and
quieter. There are no driving gears other than
the pumping gears themselves. The pump illustrated is a hand-operated herringbone gear pump
of the type often installed for furnishing fuel oil
pressure to light off boilers in a cold planta The
herringbone gear type pump is also installed as a
power driven unit for low pressure fuel oil, lubricating oil, and diesel oil services in limited
capa cities.
3-12. HELICAL GEAR PITAIP.
SUCTION
FIG. 9-23. Simple Geer PumpEnd View.
A further modification of the simple gear type

pump is the helical gear pump, Fig. 3-25. The
suction and discharge connections are shown in
the inset and are in the same relative position as
in the simple gear pump and herringbone gear
pump.
The cross section inset also clearly illustrates
that each such seetion may be considered to
operate as a simple gear pump. Compared with
3-20
PUMPS
3-13
permita the use of a gear with only five teeth resulting in greater capacity with little tendency to
puleate.
Because of the extreme tooth angles employed
in this design, power is not transmitted from one
pumping gear to the other. An outside set of timing and driving gears of the open type drive the
pumping gears and maintain the proper small
clearance between them. Roller bearings at each
end of the gear shafts maintain proper alignment
and decreaee friction loes in power transmission.
Stuffing boxea prevent shaft leakage.
The helical gear pump is adapted to pumping
light olla or low viscosity materiale at high speed,
while heavy viscoue materiale can be handled
UMP
through
the lower range of speeds.
FIG. 8-24. Herringbone Gen Pump Used for
Emergency Fuel Oil Service.
Frequently, to increase the capacity of this
type of pump with little increase in weight, a
the herringbone type gear pump, the gears turn number of pairo of pumping gears are mounted
in the opposite direction, so that the divergent side by side on the same pair of driving shafts in
outer ende o the teeth mesh first instad of the one housing and thue operate as several pumps in
inner points. Also, the angle between teeth and parallel.
gear axis is greater. Therefore the overlapping of
successive diechargee from spaces between teeth 3-13. LOBS TYPE PIIMP.
Another variation of the gear pump is the lobe
is greater, and a smoother flow is obtained. This
AUX. SHAFT ROTOR
SECTION TORO ROTORS

MAIN SRAFT
ROTOR
FIG. 3-23. Henal Gen Pump
3-21
3-13
type pump, Fig. 3-116. It may be coneidered as a

simple gear pump having only two or three teeth
on each rotor. Otherwise, its operation is no different, nor is the explanation of the functions of
its parte. In the illustration, the flanges on the
sides of the housing are for the suction and diecharge linee. The rotors are driven and their close
clearaaces maintained by externa! epur gears on
5 -15. SCREW PUMPS.
There are many variationa in the design of the

screw type positive displacement, rotary pump.
The primary differences consisting of (1) the
number of intermeshing screws involved, (2) the
pitch of the screws, i.e., whether high or low
pitch; and (3) the general direction of fruid flow,
i.e., whether single-flow or double-flow. Two designe will be described, (1) a two-screw, lowpitch, double-flow pump and (2) a three-screw,
AUTOMATIC RIBS
high-pitch, double-flow pump.
IMPELLERS
(1) Two-screw, low-pitch, screw pump. Figure
347 (a to c) illustrates the elements of the twoscrew low-pitch screw pump. The rotating elements are shown in (a). Two paire of screws which
intermesh with Glose clearances are mounted on
SHAFTS
two parallel shafts. Each pair of screws is oppositely threaded with respect to the other pair. One
shaft la the driving shaft and drives the other
MAIN&
through a set of herringbone timing gears. The
gears serve to maintain clearances between the
screws as they turn and to promote quiet operation. The section view, (b), shows how the ecrews
PUMP BODY
rotate in closely fitting duplex cylinders which
EXTRA HEAVY
have overlapping Floree. All clearances are small,
LINE! PLATE
but there is no actual contact between the ecrews
or between the screws and the cylinder walls. The
complete assembly and the usual path of flow are
shown in view (e). Two externa! openings are
provided; one at the top of the housing abo ye the
space between the two paire of screws, and one at
the sida of the lower chamber connecting with
the outer ende of the screws. Ordinarily, the
lower opening conecte with the suction line.
FIG. 3-26. Loba Type PumpEnd View.
Liquid is trapped at the outer end of each pair of
ecrews. As the first turn of the space between the
the rotor shafts, not shown. Some designe of loba screw threads rotates away from the opposite
pumpa are fitted with replaceable gibe,
th in screw, a one-turn, spiral-shaped quantity of
platee carried in grooves at the extremity of each liquid is enclosed when the end of the screw
loba where they make contact with the casing. again meches with the opposite screw. As the
The gib promotes tightness and absorbe radial screw continues to rotate, the entrapped apiral
wear. Cover platea on the casing at the ende of turne of liquid elide along the cylinder toward the
the rotors are aleo subject to heavy wear and are center clischarge space while the next slug ira being
therefore replaceable. There pumpa are normally trapped. Each screw functions similarly, and
each pair of screws discharges an equal quantity
used as low pressure compressors.
of liquid in opposed streams toward the center
3-14. ROTATINO WORM PIIMP.
thus eliminating hydraulic thrust. The removal
Rotating plunger pumps are very rarely en- of liquid from the suction end by the screws procountered in modern naval vessels. A description duces a reduction in pressure which draws liquid
of this type of pump may be f otmd in the appen- through the suction line. The pump la reversible,
dix, article A1-3.
and the center space may be the suction space
3-22
t ' y//0
X11,,
.9,7.7,/
Tu, uy TO
11
-1111"
1 1 .19 3/4110 klinr
0111 I II ;
S IISS:::: n
1S '
W
'1
-,laxammwei4~.~ .n...,-,
a forra mai
41,~S"'''/"/'
////
(a)
PIO. 8-27. Double Low-Pltcb Seres Pump and Elements.
with liquid being discharged, at the outer ende of

the screws and througb the opening in the lower
chamber.
The screw pump ie admirably fitted for the
pumping of viscous fluida and la widely used on
board ahip. It has no valves, no interna! parking,
and no small moving parta. The two rotating
screws are the only working parte, and as their
stuffing boxee are normally on the suction sida,
there la no tendency to bloom out the packing.
(2) Tluee-scrow, high-pitch, acrew pump. The
elements of a three-screw, high-pitch screw
pump, Fig. 8-98 are essentially the same as thoee
of the two-acrew, low-pitch screw pump and
their operation la similar. Three acrews, oppositely threaded on each end, are employed. They
rotate in a triple cylinder, the two outer bores of
which overlap the center boro. The pitch of the
screws is much higher than in the low-pitch
screw pump. Therefore, the center screw, or
portar rotor, le usad to drive the two outer idler
rotor, directly without externa! timing gen. The
diameter of the hilera la leas than that, of the
power rotor. The weight of.;the rotora is supperrted, and their axial position maintained by
pedestal bearings in the base. The liquid heing

pumped entere the suction opening, fiews Sc*
passages around the rotor housing and through
the screws fronx esa end in oppoled
toward the center discharge, thue elimina
balanced hydraulic thrust. It ehonid be o
that packing and the pump body are subJeeth
suction pressure only, permitling
simpler eonstructian. This pump is widdy
as a venable pump for viscous fiuid set-vio:sea.
3-16. MOV11IG vsFE
Pes.
Moving vana pumpe are very

tered in modem naval xeesels. Adettyl
type of pump may he Sound in the
ticle A14.
3-17. VARIABLE
non, sun.
LWtN
The variable atroke ax ial Pilbe

important uses in the naval servia,
for hydraulic power transredssion and
ing a hydraulic motor when a corobb~1
draulic power and variable apoca
de,sired. It la siso wad eso Peit~,
ice purap mi many neo&
3-17

TABLE 1. NAVAL APELIOATIONS O? POSITIVE DISPLAORMENT ROTARY PIIMPB
>,
-0.1
o
O
..
rao
1
o
'Eo
ce
I
-8
.0o
ce
t.o
....o
Type Pump:
oo
1O
02
I..
'
S
....o
el
be
O
..
oO
1
.ffl
oo
oo
to
'E
o
o
fx,
P0
00
o
...o
ro
,o
o
I.
.r2
g.o
o
....o
I>
s.
0
'11
to
...5e
o
I>
.ne
1.o
02
:12
10;
Simple type gear
r'S
T?o
o
n-
Loba
Double low-pitch screw
Triple bigh-pitch screw
Moving vane
C2
S
:II
X
lo
"O
.oo
Herringbone and helical type gear
Rotating plunger
-ate
o
o
g.oo.
02
.
..2O
oit
be
O
A
o
0
0
O
ti,
til
4
y
ce
a.
o
U
o
'a
O
o
T.>
1
I,
rt
"
O
a
0
-1o
o
No
,
W
X
X
Variable stroke axial pistan
Variable stroke radial piston
When used for simple hydrau ic power transmission, it is used to transmit power hydraulically to pistons or ranas as in the steering gear
illustrated in Fig. 14-2. The prime mover for the
pump is a constant speed electric motor.
One important use for this pump where hydraulic power and variable speed transmission is
desired may be found in its application to anchor
windlass equipment. In such cases, the pump,
which is driven by a constant speed electric
motor, is called the "A" end and the hydraulic
motor, which it drives, la called the "B" end. The
hydraulic motor, or "B" end, is of a design similar to that of the pump, or "A" end. Figure 3-29
illustrates the typical arrangement of the "A"
and "B" ends. The principal difference between
the two lies in the "A" end tilting box and the
"B" end angle box. These two are of similar construction but where the angle of tilt of the former
is controllable, that of the latter is fixed When
used together, these units are referred to as a
variable epeed gear.
Figure 3-29 illustrates the application of an

"A" and "E" end to an anchor windlass installation. The primary difference between this arrangement and that of Figure 3-29 is in the length
of the hydraulic linea connecting the two ends.
The application of the variable atrofie, axial
piston pump to power transmission is described
and illustrated in Chapter 14.
The following description of its use as a variable speed gear will suffice to enable the student
to understand its other applications as well.
(1) Description. As shown in Fig. 3-30 all the
working parte of the gear are enclosed in an oiltight casing. The casing is bolted securely to the
valve plate and makes an oil-tight joint with it.
Shaft B of the "A" end, driven by a constantspeed electric motor, is supported by a bearing in
the casing and by the valve plate. A socket ring
is carried on this shaft by a universal joint. One
shaft, C, of the universal joint passes through
shaft B, while the other shaft of the joint carnes
the socket ring. The arrangement of the universal
3-24
PUMPS
FLEXIBLE
ASSEMBLED UNIT
COUPLING
POWER
ROTOR HOUSING
ROTOR
IDLER
IDLER
DISCHARGE
PORTS
ROTOR
CHECK
ROTOR HOUSING
NUT
HOUSING
DISCHARGE
SPACER
411RING
ROTOR
POWER SHAFT
BUSHING
HOUSING
POWER ROTOR
ADJUSTS
SCREWS
IDLER ROTORS
POSITIONINO SHOES
FIG. 3-28. Triple High-Piteh Serew Pump and Elements.
joint is shown in Section E-E. A tilting box is

supported by the casing on a pair of trunnions
which are concentric with shaft C. Thus, the tilting box and the socket ring may rotate within
limita about an axis through the center of shaft C,
and the socket ring is constrained by the roller
bearings to move through the same angle as the
tilting box. (There are two seta of roller bearings,
one of which takes the end thrust and the other
the radial thrust.) The tilting box is tilted about
its trunnions by rotating the control shaft F.
The socket ring rotates with shaft B, while the
tilting box is held stationary by its trunnions and
serves as a bearing for the socket ring. The function of the universal joint is to permit the socket
ring to rotate with shaft B and at the same time
to maintain the angle of tilt imposed by the fitting box.
A cylinder barrel la keyed to shaft B and rotates with it. The barrel is bored for either seven
or nine cylinders whose centers lie on the circle
D-D shown in Section A-A. At the head end of
each cylinder an elongated port is bored. One
cylinder with its port is shown b broken linee on
Section A-A. The porta are shown also in Fig.

3-31. It will be noticed that the cylinder porte
register with the valve plate porta which will be
deacribed later. A coil spring aids in keeping the
cylinder barre! in Glose contact with the valve
plata.
Each cylinder is fitted with a piston. The connecting roda have spherical ende, which are held
by spherical bearings in the piston and socket
ring. The spherical bearings permit the connecting roda to swivel in both pistons and socket
ring but do not allow any longitudinal motion
of the piston relativo to the socket ring.
fe valve plate, fixed to the casing, does not
rotate. Two porte, as shown in SectionA-A, Fig.
349, and in Fig. 3-31 are cut in the valve plate.
fe porta extend entirely through the valve
plato. fe portions of the plate between the porta
lettered D are known as the "landa."
The "B" end of the gear is exactly like the
"A" end, with the single exception that the tilting box is replaced by an angle box which is fixed
and maintains the "B" end socket ring at a constant angle of tilt. Thus, the "B" end la a Med
3-25

ERPO
RT
SOCKET CYLIND
VAL
VE
RING
ANCLE in Egp
BOX
NNW,NM \\
TRUNNION
1~1
"?
ORNEN BY
CONSTANT
SPEED MOTOR
ROLLER
BEARINGS
CYLINDER
BARREL
TILTING
BOX
OLLER BEARINGS
CYLINDER
PORT
VALYE PLATE
PORT
TRUNNION
SOCKET RING
ROLLER
UNO
BEARINGS
SECTION A-A
SECTION E-E
FIG. 3-29. Diagranitnatic View o! Variable Stroke, Axial Pistos Pompo traed as Hydranlie
Variable Speed Gear.
GAUGE GLSS
AIR ESCAPE
HYDRAULIC COCKS
DECK CONTROL FOR

BLOCK OR
EXPANSION TANI
A5,/ TILTINO
FLOATI NO RING
PRESSURE
GAUGE
HAND WHEEL FOR

LOCAL CONTROL (P)
COUPLING
REDUCTION
GEARS (D)
HYDRAULIC
MOTOR
MOTOR (A)
1END
AEND
TO ST'B'D WINDLASS
SAME AS PORT ?
PINION OEAR
DRIVINO
ANCHOR WINDLAS$
MAGNETIC BRAKE
AEND
VARIABLE STROKE
PUMPS
FIG. 3-30. TypIcal Hydraulic Power and Variable Speed Tranamission Applied to an Anchor Mutilase.
3-26
PtIMPS
efroke axial pisten pump.
The catire, space within the casing, the Mindere and porte le filled with a mineral oil of low
viscoeity and high flash point.
(2) Action of the gear. The action of the gear is
as follows: Suppoee the control shaftF be turned
so that the "A" end fitting box rotates about its
trunnions and its top motee through a emall are
to the right. The socket ring will rotate through
the same anglo, the upper piston wili move finto
its cylinder and the lower piston will be withdrawn. The other pistons will move in or out of
CONTROL ,
SHAFT
1111/16
BOX
action of the "B" *odia as Nine, Oil

delivered to the "B" end tbrough **pea
valve pleke. Tle pisten* of the "Ift
forced to the right and giventlintstin
necting roda. Thine conneeting rode-are lit $11
anglo to the face of the 1 11" and sottleneIngend
the trust of the rodia hin twe oso
ppj
in and pamllel to the fue of the **al
one perpendicular to it. This la ahorre iiherentr
matically for one cylinder in 4 84130ameortiponent F in the lace causes the sockskt~ and
consequently the shaft, to rotate. The Ohms on
VAR
PIE
SOCO
RING
CUIDEN
BARRE
VALLE PLATE
"A" EN!)
Par
et
FIG. 3-31. Litera:ti Parte a Axial Stroke, Variable Speed (Mar.
their cylinders, according to whether they are

aboye or below the axil C. Now let ehaft B be rotated, clockwise as looked at from the reader's
Ieft, at a uniform apead, carrying the socket ring
and the cylinder barrel with it. As a cylinder on
the bottom sida moves upward, ita pisten la
torced in and (orces oil from the cylinder. The cylinder port registers with the valve platos port and
oil pasees through to the "E" end cylinder. The
pisten on the neer vide of the "A" end are being
withdrawn from their cylinders and are receiving
oil from the "B" end. As a cylinder resoles the
top position it ehifte from the function of pumping oil to that of receiving
(Of couree, no action takee place at the moment the cylinder port
ie blanked off by the "land" of the valva plata.)
Similar action wenn in the bottom position. The
the neer sido of the "B" end are ~vine to the

left and returning oil to the "A" end.
(3) Speed Control. The rotativo epeed4
"B" end is dependent on the
pumped to it, and the araount of sil puas
pende upen the anglo of the "A'D enttglifig
Sinos this anglo may be variad ami oontrolhld
closely, the result le fine apead controla tintar
end. It will be caen aleo that, with the tilfbnpox
in a vertical plana, no oil ie pumped, evertfismIgh
the "A" end shaft le rotatin g, and. titilnikwill
therefore be no rotation of the "3" end RVement of the top of the fitting box, to,th sis.*
causes the "B" end to rotate in the s'ame -direction as the "A" epd, while movemos% te the kit
reversa the "2" end. Thue the "3"400,41$ he
given any apead in either direetion with& the
337-
3-17
NAVAL AU XILIARY MACHINERY
limita imposed by the available angles of the "A"
its use as a pump. The elements described below
end tilting box.

It should be noted that the cylinder barreis are
carried by their shafts and no torque is transmitted by either cylinder barrel; also that the preasure acting on the cylinder heads serves to keep
the cylinder barreis tight against the valve plate
and prevents leakage of oil netween the cylinder
barreis and the valve plate.
The oil is under pressure only in the cylinders
and ports. Relief valves (not shown) connect the
valve plate porta with the space inside the casing.
When heavy loada result in abnormal oil pressure,
oil escapes from the active system in the highpressure port to the casing and is sucked back
immediately into the low-pressure port through
a "replenishing" valve (not shown). The oil in the
casing la permitted to expand (or contract) under
temperature changes into an expansion tank located aboye the pump and open to the atmosphere.
The preceding discussion applies to the gear
when the pump and motor are joined together
and act as a unit. Frequently, the "A" and "B"
ends are separated and the two are joined together by two pipe linea as illustrated in Fig. 3-30.
In this case, each end has its own valve plate. The
"A" end may be used alone as a rotary pump and
this la done in the hydraulic steering gear to be
described later.
comprise its principal parte and are shown in

Figs. 3-33 and 3-34.
The spindle, which is connected to the prime
mover by a flexible coupling, drives the cylinder
body. The cylinder body rotates in the cylinder
body bearings which are mounted in the cover.
The cylinder body tontaina the radial cylinden, the number and size of which vary with the
capacity of the pump. Each radial cylinder communicates centrally with the porte of the central
cylindrical valve.
The central cylindrical valve does not rotate.
3-18. VARIABLE STROKE, RADIAL PISTOLA

PIIMP.
T = THRIIST OF ROO
This pump is used for the same services as the

variable stroke axial piston pump just described.
In this pump the conversion of power from a constant-speed decide motor into variable linear or
rotary power is obtained by means of radially
arranged pistons matead of axially arranged pistons. This transmission is similar in principie to
the axial piston variable speed gear, in that there
are the constant speed hydraulic pump ("A"
end), the reversible, variable-speed hydraulic
motor ("B" end), and oil as the internal power
transmitting medium. However, the exact operation is somewhat different.
(1) Description. The radial piston pump when
used as a pump and when used as a hydraulic
motor has identical operating principies and the
subsequent explanation will apply to either. However, hereaf ter reference is made specifically to
F = COMPONENT IN FACE
Y= VERTICAL COMPONENT
FIG. 3-32. Diagram of Forres for One Cylinder

of a Variable Stroke Pump.
lis horizontal interior passages provide for the

flow of oil between the cylinders and the discharge and intake flanges located in the cover.
The plungers are constrained by the slippers
and the cylinder body to rotate about a movable
center, the position of which is determined by the
position of the floating ring. They pump whenever the center about which they rotate does not
coincide with that of the cylinder body.
The floating ring revolves in the floating ring
hearings. It may be moved horizontally off center
with reference to the cylinder body, by the guide
roda, thus shifting the plungers in such a manner
3-28
PUMPS
as to cause suction and discharge. The crosshead is the external control for the floating ring,
imparting to it horizontal motion through the
guide blocks. When a radial piston pump is to be
used as the "13" end (hydraulic motor) of a variable speed transmission, it is designad as a fixed
stroke pump; that is, floating ring is held in a
predetermined setting, and has the same function
as the angle box in the axial piston type hydraulic motor.
The function and nomenclatura of the other
elemento may be visualized by a study of the fig-
3-18
the radial cylinders remain unchanged during a

revolution and, although the pump is rotating,
the oil remaba motionless.
When the floating ring is moved off center to
the left (Fig. 3-55a) or right (Fig. 3450 of the
cylinder body, reciprocating motion will be given
to the plungers, resulting in a discharge of
the pump proportional to the distance one center of revolution is displaced from the other.
This distance, termed the stroke, can be varied
at will while the pump le running, resulting in a
variable discharge of oil from the neutral to the
PLUNGER GUDGEON
PIN AND KEY PIN
GUIDE BLOCK
SLIPPER
CYLINDER BODY
KONG
SPINDLE NUT
CYUNDER BODY 1
CUIDE
BLOCK
FLOATING
RING
BEARING
SPINDLE COVER
(PUMP CASE CUIDE BOUS
CENTRAL SALVE
WASHER
FLOATING RING
BEARING
CYLINCIER BODY
CENTRAL VALVE
BEARING
NUT
CENTRAL
PINOLE
FLOATING
FLOATING CYLINDRICAL VALVE
RING
RING
PIPE CONNECTION
COVER
AND CROSSHEAD NOT SHOWN)
FIG. 3-33. Interna! Parte of Radial Piston Transmission.

urea and of the following subparagraphs.
Operatlon. Figure 3-55 shows three diagrama of the internal operating parta of the pump
with the floating ring in a different position in
each diagram. In looking at these diagrama, keep
in mind that the cylinder body is being rotated
by the prime mover at a constant speed, in the
direction indicated around the central valve, and
that the cylinder body cardes the slippers,
plungers, and floating ring with it.
Speed control. If the center of revolution of
the floating ring coincides with that of the cylinder body (Fig. 3-556), the working plungers will
have no reciprocating motion relative to the cylindrical valve, the positions of the plungers in
full-stroke position of the plungers. During the

upper half stroke (when the floating ring is disdisplaced to the left), and the lower half stroke
(when the floating ring is displaced to the right),
the plungers are forced inward by the slippers,
producing the discharge stroke; during the lower
half stroke (when the floating ring is displaced to
the left), and the upper half stroke (when the
floating ring is displaced to the right), the plungers
are drawn outward, producing the suction stroke.
The oil is under pressure only in the cylinders
and porta. The pump casing is enblosed and la
connected to an expansion tank located aboye the
pump to accommodate thermal expansion and
contraction. All working parta are self-lubricated
3-29
/

AO.U!
7t7-77111~,
na/ak
ba/I fi; S..' \\.`
cr
cr
re
o
1;*
C5
2m7CO3/
by the lindmedium in which they nin.

.The application of the ;variable stroke, radial
piaton mann) to povsor tranemisoion la describid
and ~tratad in chante u
3-19. JET P1711113.
Action cf the jet. In the reciproeating and

rotary types of puma, a prime mover fa mon
eary to operate the pump. In the jet pumpainwe
over, we have an entirely distinot principie of
operation, in which the operadas luid MeV
ereates the flow.
1f in the nozzle N in Fig. 846, deux at a laigh
premura, pi, is allowed to expand toa reglen of
lower pressure, ph the effect fe the movement of
the ideara. The ateam has thus aequired velnity. Some of the thennal energy of the steam haa
been tranaformed into kinetic energy. The veleeity gained by the oteara will depend upon the.
pressure drop. The nozzle through which the fluid
is fiowing is designad so that the croes-sectional
ares of the passage decreasee towards the outlet.
Such a nozzle la ealled a converging nozzle. It
ahould be olear that the oteare will have a higher
velocity at the converging part of the nozzle as
the weight of steam pasaing the vide part of the
nozzle in a unit period of time la the same as the
weight passing through the narrowed part during
the same interval. Advantage is taken of thia fact
to cause the steam to leave the nozzle with a high
velocity
In the same way, if water is sant through a
converging nozzle, ite pressure energy la converted into kinetic energy due to the fact that the
water mut move faster in the narrow portion
near the outlet thsa la the wider entrence.
Now, if a jet cf fiuid ie allowed to impinge upon
another finid.atthe low-pressure end of the nozzle, the impact transferir some of the kinetie energy of the jet Iluid to the fluid on which it bupingas, setting it in motion in the direction of
flow of the jet. Finally, if the mixture la direeted
into a diverging nonio or chamber, the inereasing
ares allows the mixture to slow down, but due to
the continuation of flow from the jet and mixing
cha mbar, the pregone near the outlet of the diverging nozzle le increased.
Simple jet pamp. Figure $-37 illustrates a
jet pump in ita 'invito* form. Water nadar proa+
aun is sant through the jet supply line to the
nozzle from which it ie diseharged lindes' high
8-116. Action of Steun Blowing Through
velocity hito a suction chamber, which is conneeted to fin suction line. In starting, the bigh.
velocity jet entrains the fluid present in the stiotion ehamber, imairting to it some of its own
kinetic energy, carbin it along through the diffuser into the discharge. Tina tenis U> granate
the suction line to 011 the space emptied in the
suction ehamber. fe fluid to be ptunped la thus
drawn through the entice line hito the suction
chimbar where it is in turn entrained by the jet,
resulting in a flow of
through the dis
charge.
3-20. EDIICTORS.
Jet pumpe are usad as eawitimijor punzas

water from such places as bilges, talla* tela,
etc., where it is deaired to pump largo telones at
high ratee and low to moderno &alargo pressures. They are oompact and
in operation, have no moving parta
suction, discharge and jet
and
they are simple to opereta.
The jet is comieeted to a source F*aterwuder
a moderna to high nem" inch as thettitlA
fiare and flushing main. The suction la cannnted
through piping and vaina to the *pan te be
3-20
JET SUPPLY UNE
HOME
DISCHARCE
!NEMER
SUCTION
CHAMBER
SUCTION FINE
evacuated. The discharge line is connected via

piping and valves to other compartments, or
overboard via sea connections or emergency hose
connections. The eductor will operate when entirely submerged in a flooded compartment. It
can be made in a portable size suitable for connecting to a fire hose (for jet supply) and to be
lowered hato a flooded compartment, with another hose connected to the discharge end. Eductors can be designed to discharge against moderate pressure heads. By staging, the ultimate
discharge pressure can be increased aboye that
of a single eductor. Multistaged eductors are
uncommon.
3-21. AIR EJECTOR.
FIG.3-37. Simple Jet Pump.
The most practical use for the jet pump in naval vessels is as an air ejector. Typical air ejection
systems used with modem main condensers are
described in Article 6-8.
3-32
4-2
CRAPTER 4
BLOWERS
4-1. FORCED DRAFT BLOWER INSTALLATIONSGENERAL.
4-2. COMPARISON OF PROPELLER AND =TM.MAL BLOWERS.
When combustion in a boiler furnace requires

more air than is obtainable by natural draft, the
additional air must be forced into the combustion
space. One has only to consider that some 17
pounds of air must be furnished per pound of fuel
burned, and that some naval vessels can burra as
much as 160,000 pounds of fuel oil per hour, to
realize the vital necessity for an adequate and
positiva sir supply. Turbine-driven fans, commonly called "blowers," are used in all naval
boiler installations when operating underway. In
addition, small electric motor-driven fans may be
used to provide air for operation in port, either
in the form of small electric-driven blowers in the
fireroom overhead or of individual boiler registeis
with incorporated blower unit. This latter type of
installation is limited to old combatant vessels
and some auxiliary vessels.
Fireroom installations are of two types:
The .,losad fireroom type of installation in
which the entire fireroom la under pressure
created by the forced draft blowers.
The open fireroom type in which the bollera
are encased in an airtight outer casing. The forced
draft blowers discharge into the space between
the outer boiler casing and the inner boiler casing. Thus the fireroom la subjected to atmospheric pressure from which comes the designation "open fireroom."
In modem naval construction the open fireroom principie is used for the following rearma:
Permita access to the fireroom without use
of airlocks;
Permita higher air pressure in bollera without undue discomfort to personnel;
Permita preheating of air (intake ducts are
located around the stack in most modem construction) without discomfort to personnel;
Permita fireroom personnel to carry out
duty properly during certain types of attack
The propeller fan (Fig. 4-1) and the centrifuga'

fan (Fig. 4-9) are the most common types used
in forced-draft blowers in naval vessels. A propeller fan f orces air through the blower in the
same manner in which air is blown by a common
electric fan. A centrifuga' fan dependa for its
action on centrifugal force, air being led into the
center (eye) of the blower fan which is essentially
a rotor with radial vanes installed around its
periphery. As the fan rotates at high speed, air
entering the center is thrown raclially outward
along the vanes by centrifugal action.
IIp until 1938, centrifuga' blowers were usad
in almost all naval installations. Since that time
propeller blowers have been installed in almost
all new construction. They can better handie the
higher pressure, higher capacity air demanda of
modem bollera and are better suited to the forced
draft principie than the centrifugal type for the
following masona:
A propeller blower will not speed up or
"run away" but will actually slow clown if the
where conteminated air would be sucked into the

fireroom by blowers.
fiow of air is partly or entirely removed. The centrifugal fan will speed up dangerously under these
conditions.
Its fan construction la inherently stronger,

as the propeller blades are thicker at the root
than at the tip. The vanes of the centrifuga' fan
must, of course, be at the periphery where
greater stresses are set up. Simpler balancing is
made possible in the propeller fan by the nature
of its construction. These features malee practical
the high rotational speeds needed to deliver larga
quantities of air in modern bollera.
(3) Propeller blowers do not tarad to oppose

one another when run at differeht loada ezhausting into the same space. Centrifuga' blowers, on
the other hand, must be btought to as near
equal speeds as possible to properly deliver a
load to the same space. If this is not done, one
fan will tend to force air backwirds through the
other.
4-1
1
TURNE
PROPELLER
PROPELLER
GUIDE YAPES
GUIDE YAPES
DIFFUSER
CASPIO
DIFFUSE
CASING
TURWNE
O)
VERTICAL PIE
MEI
WITH DIFFIMER AND GUIDE VARES
(a) VERTICAL PROPRIER BLEIER

WIT1 ME NIES AND
runa. FUE ESCIRRO(

PROPELLER

(e) HORIZONTAL PRIMER BLEU
WIPI WIDE VAIES AND EMES
(d) VERTICAL PROPELLER BLOWER

WMI VORTEX CHAMBER AND
VOLEE DIFFUSE
FIG. 4-1. Typee of Propener Blower Assembnes.

44. EF7tED CHARACTEPISTICS OP PROPELLER
AND CENTRIPIIGAL BLOWERS.
In both blowers, power is dissipated in pumping the air through. However, the manner in
Other than the greater capacity and presente which the power is diseipated ie based on somefor the same size and weight of propeller blowers what different principies.
as compared with centrifugal blowers, the most
In the propeller blower there is always a presimportant advantage poesesaed by the proponer ente differential between the suction and the
type le its tendency to slow don rather than discharge faces of the propeller blades. U the
rus away if the air flow is lost. In order to bet- blower intakes are accidentally closed by damage
ter understand this important difference in the or careleseness, a pardal vacuum is immediately
characteristios Uf the two types, the following created on the suction mide of the propeller.
explanation is included.
Boiler casing presente exista on the discharge
442
BLOWERS
TURBINE
(a) MUY rANE CENTRIFOGAL YORTEX
CASING. FREE BISCHARGE
WIERNEDIATE CENTRIFOIAL vap

CASING. FREE BISCIIARGE
(c) CEIMIWIIGAL VOLUM CASING

FIG. 4-2. Centraugel Blower Assemblies.
faces and, sine the pressure differential is inThe centrifugal fan on the other hami, is es,
creased, the load on the propeller ie increased and sentially a centrifugal pump, pumping a
the machine slows don. If, on the other hand, presaible gas. The load on the fan resupe
the intakes remain open but the discharge is sud- throwing air out from the center. Air indas
denly closed off, which would occur under service "eye" of the fan at a corteja velocity and la
conditiona if all bollar registers were suddenly thrown outward with acceleration with the sifeet
doled, the pressure differential would again be that its era velocity la considerably highez, ase
increased. The intake pressure being atmospheric (saving the rotor, the air aloma down, building
would remain constant but the diseharge pres- up pressure. 'The load on the fan la the throwingsure would rapidiy limase to the maximum out of air, i.e., giving a weight of air an uwelayar
with the blower was capable of developing with tion. Now, consider the effect of suddenly OlOsina
the power then available from ita driver, and the air intake of the fan. The air in therintOce
duct will first be thrown out. As soon as it lenes
again the blowerslows down.
43
4-3
the fan there will be no remaining weight of air to

throw out, and there will be no load on the fan
other than friction in the bearings and a certain
amount of beating of the sir on the discharge sido
by the tipa of the fan vanas. The blower immediately commences to speed up dangerously. Now
consider that. the discharge sido is accidentally
closed. There will be a ready supply of air, of
course at the "oye" so that the discharge duct up
to the point of closure will fill up with air of a
relatively high pressure. But Chis pressure rapidly
reaches a point such that it resista the entry of
any more air with a force equal to the force of
the air trying to leave the fan vanes. With two
equal opposing forces there will be no further
motion of air. The rotor will contain a small
amount of rapidly rotating air which will not be
moving radially. This masa of moving air may be
viewed as integral similar to the masa of iron in a
flywheel. But with no radial movement of air,
thus no acceleration, there will be practically no
load on the fan. It again tends to overseeed.
It is theref ore apparent that from the viewpoint of safety the proponer type fan possesses an
inherent advantage over the centrifugal type.
Both types are, however, provided with centrifugally activated speed limiting governors
which are tested at frequent interna to insure
proper operation in emergencies. These governors, and the overspeed tripping devices which
are found only on older equipment, either in
place of or in addition to the speed limiting
governors, are described in Naval Turbines.
44. PROPRLLER BLOWERS.
Propeller blowers may be mounted in severa!

positions depending primarily upon the space
available for them and the arrangement of ducts
from which they take suction and into which they
discharge. Figure 4-1 illustrates four oommon
types of propeller blower assemblies. Vertical
propeller type blowers similar to the one for
closed fireroom use described in Article A2-2 of
the appendix may be found in naval vessels although closed firerooms are now obsolete.
The blower shown in Fig. 4-3 is a self-contained
unit consisting of a casing and difusor vanes,
propeller and driving turbine, the whole supported by a bedplate secured to the ship's structure. The blower turbine is controlled manually
from the fireroom floor by means of a master
control valve. A governor-controlled admiasion

valve limite the maximum speed of the blower.
The blower casing is of welded construction.
Eight difusor vanes prevent rotation of the air
stream and time splitters in the curved portion
direct the air to prevent eddying, and at the same
time strengthen the structure transversely.
The blower propeller consists of a forged steel
hub and nine propeller blades with each blade
turned very exactly to a true section in the forro
of a forged steel disc and then cut from the disc
and pressed in a special die to the required helical
forro. These blades are welded to the hub by a
carefully formulated and rigidly inspected procesa so that the ccmpleted propeller has all the
strength characteristics of a single piece machined from solid forged steel. The propeller is
keyed to the rotor shaft and secured on a taper
fit by means of a nut and cotter pin.
The turbine has one row of blades, and is of the
axial flow, single re-entry impulse type. The entire rotating element is supported in two journal
bearings. The bearings consist of bronze shells,
babbit-lined and suitably supported in the blower
structure. The bearing at the propeller is a plain
cylindrical bearing. The cylindrical bearing at the
thrust end is placed immediately adjacent to the
thrust collar, and the end next to the collar is
babbited so that it serves to take any reversa' of
thrust which might oecur due to some abnormal
operating condition at low speed. The thrust
bearing is of the Kingsbury type, fitted with six
shoes to take the propeller thrust.
The lubricating system eonsists of a reservoir
in the bedplate, a gear pump mounted on the
governor spindle, a filter, a cooler, and the necessary supply and drain piping. Lubrication of the
blower bearings is accomplished by foreed feed.
Oil is taken from the reservoir or sump and is delivered through an oil filter and oil cooler to the
sleeve bearings and the thrust bearings. The system is fitted with a relief valve type by-pass and
the cooler with a four-way cock by-pass. Oil is
drained back to the tank by gravity through two
drain lineo equipped with oil flow sights and thermometers. As with most blowers, a means must
be provided for preventing the escape of oil in the
air stream. Since a pressure differential exista on
the suction side of the propeller, there will be a
tendency for oil to be "sucked" from the right
end of the right bearing into the air stream mace
4-4
BLOWERS
TACHOMETER
GROOM VALVE
NO/AE BLOCK
REVERSING CRAMBER
INTAKE AIR
DIRSER VANES
SPEED
LIMITING
NOTAE AND REYERSING

CNAMBE; DETA1
GOVERNOR
TRUST
BEARING
EXHAOST
PROPELLER
OIL PI.
AIR BISCRARGE
01 RESERVO*
FIG. 4-8. Horizontally Placed Propeller Type, Forced Draft Blower for Open Pireroom
(Doable Casing Boller Use.)
the lowest pressure around the bearing will exist
at that point. A simple system of air balancing is
used to insure an equal pressure on both ende of
the bearing. The entire bearing is aurrounded by
a chamber with labyrinth oil deflector rings on
either side. This chamber communicates with the
fireroom pressure Hence, both cides of the bearing are subjected to fireroom ventilation pressure.
The points where the rotor shaft extends
through the turbine casing are sealed by mean
of glande of the earbon type. Eaeh gland consista
of four carbon rings, eaeh made in three segments
held together by a garter spring.
The governor is of the vertical, centrifugalweight type. The governor spindle la driven from
the turbine shaft through a worm and gear and
drives at its lower end the gear type oil pump.
With the blower at rest, the governor weights are
held in their inner position by the force exerted
by the compression springs. As the speed of the
turbine increases, the governor weights move
outward due to the increased centrifuga' force,
and this force compresses the governor springs
and moves the ball bearing upward. As the speed
decreases, the spring force moves the ball bearing

downward with the weights moving inward a
corresponding amount. The governor is a speedlimiting governor only and not a speed regulator.
All the steam admitted to the turbine pasees
through a master throttle control valve controllecl
at the fireroom operating level and through a balanced double-seated valve eontrolled by the
speed-limiting governor. In addition to the aboye
valves, there is a batid operated overload nozzle
control valve in the steam chest used for overload or abnormal operating conditions.
In some naval installatione, air is supplied to
the boiler casing through two stages of compression by using two propeller type fans mounted on
the same shaft. This two stage blower permita
operation of burnere under higher pressure while
still maintaining good blower efficiency. It is emphasized that the operating characteristice of the
propeller type blower are very similar to the propeller type pump described in Chapter 3. In a
two-stage blower, each stage operates under a
relatively low head, theref ore overall blower efficiency is maintained at a maximum.
4-5
NAVAL AUXILIARY 111ACEINERY
te,
nn
STACK
cuya.
INNEN
STACK
CASINO
STACK
CASINO
Al R
Al R
IBLOWIC
R00114
AIR
DISCHAROC
DUCT
CASINO
RELICY
VAISC
P P1011,10.1-ER
PAN
1~1 CR
SOILC R
CASINO
OUTER
n OIL. R
Itzth
CAIt
FIG. 4-4. Typical Paread Draft Inatallation.
each boiler, being located in two small airtigbt

Centrifugal type forced draft blowers are no compartments, one to port and one to the starlonger usad on combatant naval vessels. A de- board side of each boiler at the level of the firescription of a blower of this type may be found in room upper working grating,. The blowers discharge hito a duct leading between the inner and
the appendix, article A2-3.
outer boiler casings. Each discharge duct is
4-4. MODERE FORCED DRAFT INSTALLATIONS.
equipped with a set of fiares constructed like
The blower installation of a modem destroyer venetian blinde which close automatically when
is typical of recent practice. In this installation, only one blower la discharging air to the boiler.
which le the open fireroom type, the horizontally The ducts are protected from excees presente by
placed, turbine driven, propeller type blowers relief valves which lift when the air presente ex(Fig. 4-3) take their suction through ducts lead- ceeds 30 Saches of water.
Figure 4-4 shows diagrammatically a typical
ing betweere the inner and outer stack casings
forced
draft installation.
with the inlet abou t toldway up the stack section
for the particular boiler which they are supplying. Air entering the furnaces is thus pre- 4-7. VENTILATING BLOWERS.
Ventilation systems are installed in various
heated to some extent by the stack gases. The
stack at the same time is cooled by the entering parte of the ship for the purpoee of supplying
air. The blower system for each boiler is a sepa- fresh air where the natural ventilation is
tate installation from that of the second boiler sufficient, or in some cases for drawing fouled or
in the fireroom. Two blowers are installed for heated air from the interior of the ship and dis4-6
CENTRIEUGAL BLOWERS.
szorrias
cbarging it into the atmoephere.
A ventilating blower aseembly consiste df an
electric motor directly connected to a fan similar
to the centrifugal or propeller type. The fan revolves in a casing. Air is drawn from a ventilation
duct or trunk leading to one sido ti' the casing
and is discharged through a duct on the other
44
side. WISIO blowen are of varying di" dependa

ing on the amount of air to be ~SI
Motor-driven blowers are usad to epol the
main generators and motora of destile drive
sesuda. In this case, euction is taken thrtyttgli a
trunk leading directly from the generater or
motor casing.
11
5-2
CHAPTER 5
HEAT EXCHANGER EQUIPMENT

6-1. GENERAL.
A heat exchanger is an appliance or apparatus,

the purpose of which, is to transfer heat from one
fluid (liquid or gas) to another fluid. The function
of the apparatus may be (1) to heat one fluid by
means of a hotter fluid, (2) to reduce the temperature of a Huid by means of a cooler fluid, (3)
to boil a liquid by means of a hotter fluid, (4) to
condense a gaseous fluid by means of a cooler
fluid, or (5) to boil a liquid while condensing a
hotter gaseous fluid. Regardless of which of these
purposes a heat exchanger unit may be designed to fulflll, the fluida involved must be
at different temperatures and the heat exchanged
can flow only from the hotter to the cooler
Further discussion of the theory of heat transfer will be found in Energy Analysis of Naval
Machinery or any standard text book on therraodynamics.
Heat exchanger units are of wide application
in marine engineering plante. The moat important unit, of course, la the boiler, but a large and
important portion of the auxiliary machinery
consista of the various types of heat exchanger
devices, which may be classifled in several ways
as follows:
By the relative direction of flow of the
fluida,
By the number of times either fluid pasees
the other
By the path of the heat, and
By the general conatruction features of the
apparatus.
co mit niki
th
tab
tti HOTTER FLUID
.KE:li:E.%EollEllmimilluilEn.,,E,IMIIMME.MIWISMItIl
111011
ta
FIG. 5-1. Parallel Flow.
ter fluid. In units where the object is to remove

the latent heat of vaporization (that is, to convert
a vapor to a liquid at the same temperature),
parallel flow is desirable because it is more economice' of transfer surface.
Counter flow (Fig. 5-5) exista when the two
th
9111, FLID
ts
II HOLTEN FLUID
'',17~ISO.T1111,111~1.111171W.U.Z
SI
.
. .
FIG. 5-2. Counter Flow.
5-2. RELATIVE DIRECTION OF FLOW OF THE

LIQUIDS.
Heat exchanger equipment is classifled according t o relative direction of flow of the fluida as:
Parallel flow,
Counter flow, and
(3) Croes flow.
(1) Parallel flow (Fig. 5-1) exista when both the
fluida flow in the same direction. In this case the
two fluida leave the heat exchanger at temperatures approaching each other, this temperature
being leas than the inlet temperature of the hot-
fluida flow in opposite directions. In this type, the

cooler fluid leaves the heat exchanger at a temperature approaching the inlet temperature of
the hotter fluid. When it is desired to obtain the
maximum temperature of the heated fluid,
counter flow type heat exchangers are used.
Cross flow (Fig. 5-.9) exista when one fluid
Ilows perpendicular, or nearly so, to the second
fluid, that is, one fluid flows through tubes and
the second fluid pasees across the tubes, as in the
modern marine surface condenser. Large volumes
of vapor may be condensed finto liquid by tie
type of flow, and conditions controlled so that
only the latent heat of vaporization la removed
from the hot fluid.
5-1
6-2
tained in tubos and the other Huid flows around
the outside of the tubos.

In the direct contact type of heat exchanger,
the two fluida are mixed together so that they
leave the unit as a single fluid such as when a jet
of steam is load directly into a spray of water.
6-5. GENERAL CONSTRUCTION FEATURES OF
THE APPARATIIS.
FIG. 5-3. Croas Flow.

flore is no direct contact between the two
fluida in the three types of flow, the heat being
transferred from one fluid to the other fluid via
a metal wall or tube. Some heat exchangers may
employ a combination of croesflow with either
counterflow or parallel flow as when a fluid
directed by baflles to pass over a nest of tubos
more than one time.
6-3. NIIMBER OF TIMES BITHER FLUJO PASSES
THE OTHER PLUM.
Heat exchangers are further classified as (1)

Single-pass and (2) Multi-pass. In the single-pasa
heat exchanger, each Huid pasees the other Huid
only once, whereas in the multi-pass type, one
fluid may be directed either by ballies or tubo arrangement to make it pass the second fluid two
or more times before leaving the unit.
Single-pass, straight tube units may be fitted
with retarden, which are strips of metal, twisted
in a spiral and inserted inside the tubos so as to
give the fluid a whirling motion while passing
through the tubos. This has the effect of creating
a turbulent flow of the fluid over the surface of
the tubas, thereby improving the rata of transfer
of heat. The retarders are secured firmly at the
inlet ende of the tubos.
6-4. PATH OF THE HEAT.
With regard to the path of the heat, a heat exchanger is classified as (1) indirect contact type,
most generally called the surface type and (2) direct contact type.
The indirect contact or surface type permita no
dired contad between the two fluida. Heat is
transferred from one to the other through tube or
sheet walla of metal. Usually, one Huid is con-
There are two general classifications of construction of heat exchanger units in common use
in marine installations, (1) shell and tube type,
and (2) jet or mixer type.
(1) Shell and tubo type. Fundamentally, the
shell and tubo type separates the two fluida,
heat being transferred via a tubo wall. The
shell and tube heat exchangers may be subclassified as follows:
Straight tubo type. These have straight tubos
expanded into tube sheets and arranged to be
either single-pass or multi-pass. Expansion and
contraction is taken caro of, (1) by an expansion
ring in the shell, (2) by employing a floating head
construction whereby one end la made free to
move, or (3) by inatalling slightly curved tubos.
The straight tube type heat exchanger units may
be fitted with tube retarders.
U-tubo type. These are similar to straight
tube heaters except that only one tube sheet la
provided and the tubos are in the chape of a U or
return-bend. Expansion and contraction is accommodated by the U-bends.
(o) Multicoil type. These have spiral coila of
tubing, each end of the tubo being secured to a
header or manifold by means of ground joint
unions. Care must be taken that coila do not rub
against each other or against the shell, as pitting
will occur in service at the points of contact. The
coila take up expansion and contraction.
Film type. These have double tubos, one
within the other, with one fluid fiowing between
the tubos, whereas the other flows inside the inner tubos and outside of the outer tubos. Caro
must be taken that there is always sufficient
clearance between the inner and outer tubos to
insure proper operation and avoid pitting of the
tubas at the point of contact. Expansion is usually accommodated by a floating head.
Double-pipe type. The double-pipe type heat
exchanger consista of one pipa within another.
One fluid flows through the inner pipa and the
5-2
IMAT RICHAINGillt RQUIPMENT
other Huid flows in the space betweea the two

pipee. In effect, the outer pipa genes u the ehell
of the unit. Expansion and contraction in tasually
handled by bent tube construction.
Shell and tube type heat exchangers may be
classified, aleo, as either tonooth surjas or extended aurface imita. A heater having
smooth walled tau la known as the smooth
surface type. One whoee heat transfer surface is
juren/red by radiating fina, atuda, or other catenslot is called an extended surface unit.
Modificador, of ehell and tube type are the
pide type and strut tube type heat exchangera,
ueed primarily in interna! combustion engine
installations and as oil culera for sorna auxiliary
turbina+. The tubos of these unte are fat in appearance having oblong croes sectiona. One Huid
flows between the Est tube audaces, the other
fluid puses through the tubes. Retarders or pide
within the tubos improve their heat tionsfer
characteristica.
(2) Jet type. The jet (or mixer) type of heat
exchanger apparatus is constructed so that both
fluida enter lato a single shell and leave the shell
as a single Huid. The jet type may han either the
hotter Huid, the cooler Huid, or both pasead hito
the ehell through jets. The deaerating feed tank is
a heat exchanger of thia type and la described in
Chapter 8.
entrained air in the ,fted inter. Normar yent

la located in the top of the discharge head of the
heater to accompliah tibios
Feed water haltera as trua areifound ca some
type chipa. In mut modorre non; inatitllotkets
huting of the water beton It "Sise the
and removal of ROMO of the atraillad sir and
gases from the water is acoornpliallalk other
mean such as the air ejector sud
feed tank. The feed water la further
economizer.
6-7. STRAIGHT TIME PEED WATER
SIS-PASS.
Figure 6-4 shows a straight tube al

water heater. The tubos are rolled and
hato the tube sheets. The lower Urbe el
timan; while the upPer t'U ha,
the floating head, whereby the
heater la taken up. A special , foq
used in dais heater. The ioating
hito three compartmenta as alrwn
lIPPer
sketch. The lower sud of the bastes le ilisided
hito four compartmenta ahown fa lower sketch.
Thia system of baftling fonos the
t
heater. Feed water entera
Ti
and pasees up through the first pam to thadltiating head; at dila point the water don 4<ws
through the second pass, then up
third pasa, and don through the heir* peeil i
through the fifth pass, and clown ti, .the
5-8. PEED WATER ITSATERSGICARRAL.
sixth pass, to the feed outlet and theme tOithe
Feed water heatera serve two purposes, vis., feed line. Exhaust oteara entera at the eibllit
(1) heating the water before it entera the boiler, rateara inlet, atraes a perforated balee and ittlicand (2) removing some of the entrained air and fiected clown around the tubas. The water of
gases from the water.
condensation fa led out through the &ab' te a
The primary function of the feed water heater trap, and then to the feed tank.
is to rabie the temperature of the feed water beThree air venta are inetalled in the
fore it meches the boiler by utilising the latent head, fltted with sir cooks. A sprintII
heat of the auxiliary exhaust steam. This heating valve la fltted to the sterun aidt
tlitt bOatan
is generally done by directing the feed water Tuba retardare may be usad in tidoetfheittent;
through tubes contained in a largo shell and by
Figure 6-6 illustrates a varistion in detalla of
directing auxiliary exima steam hito the shell construction of a six-p
ideibtlneseare (tea nal:
and around the tubas. It has been found that ter heater. Note theess,
high presura dula ibiet
when uaing auxiliary exhaust stmam to heat feed connection, for routing hot draine to thefcati.
water, for every 10F. rige in temperature of the heater shell under certain operating capclitions:
feed water there is one pereent reduction in the
amount of heat required in the boiler to produce 5-8. FILM TYPE BEIM WATER BaenaFilm type heat exehangore are seldom fOnied
the oteare, with a conesponding reduction in
in naval installations. A desuiption of a fibt
fuel unid.
The secondary function of the feed water type feed water heater meg be forrad in the ap
heater ie to provide for removal of some of the pendia, article A2-5.
5-8
5-9
5-9. MULTICOIL TYPE FEED HEATER.
EXHAUST STEAM 1E1
Multicoil type feed water heaters are seldom

found in naval use A description of a heater of
this type may be f ound in the appendix, article
A3-5.
5-10. FUEL OIL HEATERSGENERAL.
AIR VENTS
AUXILIAD
EXHAUST
FLOATING
STEAM
INLET
HEAD
,n
.\\\\\\'N.\\\N.\\N
RELIEF
VALVE
CONN.
Fuel oil heaters are similar in type and general

construction to feed water heaters. Two differences in operating conditions result in differences
in the detalla of construction of the two. In fuel
oil heaters, the searching quality of oil makes
necessary special systems of packing or ground
joints where it is possible for oil to leak, while the
use of high-pressure steam requires greater shell
strength than is required by the auxiliary exhaust
steam in feed water heaters. Fuel oil heaters are
installed in the oil supply linea to the boilers on
the discharge side of the fuel oil service pumps,
and are used to heat the fuel oil to the temperature necessary to bring it to the viscosity required for proper atomization.
In the straight tube, U-tube and the multicoil
types the steam is passed around the tubes or
coila. In the film type, steam is passed through
the center of the inner tube and around the outer
tube. In the double pipe type of heater, ate-ara
passes through the inner tubes, and the fuel oil
passes between the outer tubes and inner tubes.
5-11. EXTENDED SLIRFACE FUEL OIL HEATER,
DOUBLE PIPE TYPE.
DRAIN
\XI:N 1, NI%
FEED
INLET
FEED
INLET
FEO
OUTLET
FIG. 5-4. Six-Pasa Straiaht Tube

Feed Water Heater.
A modem, sectional, extended surface, doublepipe type, fuel oil heater is illustrated in Fig. 5-6.
The oil fiows through a series of small diameter
shells or tubes, each containing a single inner
heating tube. The shells or outer tubes are arranged in banks, connected together at one end
by a common tube sheet and a header which contains partitions so as to properly direct the fiow
of oil. At the other end, the shells are connected
by a U-tube retum
The heating element consists of a seamless steel
inner tube, on the outer surface of which are
welded eighteen longitudinal steel fina The fine
extknd along the straight length of pipe from the
tube sheet to the return U-bend at the floating
end of the unit. At the latter end, the heating element is supported within the shell by a steel ring
around the fine. Two finad tubes, connected at
one end by a U-tube retum bend form one heating element.
5-4

HEADER
WATER
OUTLET
SEU
IMASS
MNS
TIME
SHEET
NI(
TELL-TALE
ROLE
MUER RIES
PIG. 6-10. A Afethod of Packing be
Floating Head of a Cooler.
IVATER
STEAM COWCTIO
THERIMMETER CONNECMON
SAUCE CONNECTION
TNERMOMETER CONNECTION
011
CAUSE
CONNECTI
VEN!
CONNECTI
01
OUTLET
k.
Mien
JOINTS
CAFRE ANO 11111
SOPOR! PUTES
SAUCE CONNECTION
TNERMONETER CONNECTION
01
ZINC
MATES
INICOMING WATER
FIG. 5-9. V ertically Placed Lubrica
011 Cooler.
FIG. 5-11. H
5-8
WATER OOTLET
orlsoatally Placed Lubrlcatlng 011 Cooler.
HELY' EXCIIANCER EQUIPMENT

stallations, the heads are nade of ateo' platos,
welded together, or of caat composition.
The hot oil fiows hito the shell at the top, puses
transversely across the tubos and &round the annular batan, and leaves the shell at the bottom.
During ita travel, the oil strikes the tubos approximately at right angles, thereby splitting luto a
great many fine streams. The water flows through
the tubas in an opposite or counterflow direction
to the oil and effects the maximum cooling. The
cooler is, therefore, a combination of the croesfiow and counterfiow types. The upper sheet is
secured rigidly to the shell, while expansion is
provided for by a floating lower head packed as
shown in Fig. 5-10. This construction has been
used also for fuel oil heaters, in which case oteara
entena; at the top, while oil enterkat the bottom,
and the rubber rings of Fig. 5-10 are replaced by
soft copper rings. In this type of cooler (or heater)
leaks may be detectad readily by meains of the
tell-tale hole, which permita leakage from either
sido to drain out through the fiange joint.
Most lubricating oil culera are installed horizontally. Figure 5-11, illustrates a horizontal
cooler.
5-13. BRAT EXCHARGER POR AM.
Mechanical and electrice' loases in electric

MALE STRIP
DISTRIBUTOR
STRIP (GRID)
FEMALE STRIP
SPACE*
TIME
OIL OUTLET
TIME
SHEET
OO. INLET
DIRECTION
DF WATER
HOW
FIG. 5-1. Mate Type Oil Cooles Tubo Reet.
5-13
MACE STRIP
FEMALE STRIP
STRUT TYPE

TUSE
TUSE SNEETS
011.Eta
WATER
FLOW
STRUT TUSE TYPE OIL COMER
FIG. 5-8. Strat Tubo Type Oil Ceder 'l'ab. Neat.
generators and motora are manifeated in the form

of heat which must be removed to maintain the
tomperatures of their windings below the point
at which the insulation breaks down. This is secomplished by ~ging the fiow of a suitable
quantity of precooled air through them. Also, it
may be desirable, in connection with the ventilating system, to heat or to cool air bef ore it is
discharged finto a eompartment. The operating
principies of the units for exchanging heat to or
from air are identical, either for the air heater or
the air cooler. Typical unte consist of tubos, suitably finned to hicreme the radisting or absorbing
surface, througli which a hot or cold substance is
circulated and about which air is constrained to
pass.
Figure 5-15 shows an extended surface
cooler, used for closed circuit cooling of a generator. In this type of cooler, the air ie circulated
over and over again. The advantages of closed
circuit-cooling over opon circuit cooling, where
the atmospheric air is passed through the windings, include:
(1) A cleaner generator, protected from any
harmful gases or moisture which may be present
in the outside sir.
5-7
HEAT EXCHANGER EQUIPMENT

ZINC PENCIL
ZINC PUTE
SEA WATER FLOW
AIR FLOW
FIN OUTER TUSES

INNER TUBES
COOLING FIN
INNER TUSE
TER TUBE
TELI TASE DRAIN

DEUR OF DOUBLE DRAIN
FIG. 6-12. Air Cooler for a Motor or. Generator.
5-9
5-13
Low fire risks, as the oxygen content of the

enclosed air is insuflicient to suErtain combustion
which might be caused from static sparks or
short circuits. With open circuit cooling, in case
of fire, the continuous entry of fresh sir will supply additional oxygen to replace that which
conaumed, whereaa, with the closed system, once
the available oxygen is consumed, combuation
will tease for lack of oxygen.
Cooling of the generator is independent of
outaide air.
(4) In case of certain typea of attack, contaminated air will not be drawn hito the engine rooms
with the incoming supply of fresh air.
The double-tube air cooler of Fig. 6-12 is an
extended surface, straight tuba, shell-and-tube
type heat exchanger having a double-tube safety
feature to prevent cooling water from reaching
the generator or motor windinga in case of tube
failure. The inner tube which arres the cooling
water is a smooth surface tube. The outer tube
''d
has internal longitudinal ribs or landa which

make contact with the inner tube's outer surface.
Should a leak develop in the inner tube, the water will flow between the landa to the end of the
outer tube and spill over to the tell-tale drain.
Renca! "fina," are fitted snugly over the outer
tube's external surface to provide an extended
surface to conduct heat from the air being circulated over them to the outer tube, the heat is
further conducted by the ribs or landa to the inner tube and thence to the cooling water.
6-14. CONCLUSION.
Only a few examples of some of the marine uses

of heat exchangers have been given in the preceding articles. However, the applications of various
types to specific heat exchange problema has been
shown. In the chapters which follow will appear
many other applications of heat exchangers. fe
classifications presented in this chapter apply to
them as well.
a /E
*40
CHAPTER 6
CONDENSERS
5
e
0-1. numen flama' oir COMDEX:3En

would be necessary only to condense the sane
The atesta engine designa la concerned primar- and remove the condensate, in order to este
ily with making an engine, which not only will and maintein a vacuum. The sudden ababa
perforen the work it la required to do, but aleo in the volume of the steam i38 it elmaged to
will use a minimum of thermal energy and, there- water would create a vacuum, and puesping the
foro, a minimum amount of fuel, in so doing. As- water from the bottom of the condenar es East
suming that loases dueto friction, and to conduc- as it is formed would maintain the vst*'m lie
tion and radiation of heat, have been reduced to created. However, it being prectically impassibde
a minimum, there remaron a serias losa of heat to prevent the entrante of sir and *kir Otw
to be considered, namely, the thermal energy re- condensable gases into the condensa.. it:11
maining in the exhausting steam. In general, the muy to use an sir pump or sir ejecatainia.
lower the presente and temperature of the ex- tain the vacuum in the condensar.
The primary function of the toataillraii
haust litem, the lees will be ita ability to further
expand and do work, or, to put it another way, therefore be considered to be the produition and
the leso will be the thermal energy remaining in maintenance of a low exhaat pitare. This
the steam.
condensation, or the removal of the latent las
The student should be able to understand how of vaporisation of the exhaust steam of an encime,
an engine, receiving sten at a certain preasure may be accomplished in either 01113 of two ways,
and temperature, can do more work, if it ex- vis.:
hausta to the atmosphere (14.7 p.s.i.a.), than if it
By spraying relatively cooler wa
exhausta into a space where the preesure is, let chamber hato which the engine anud a (a
us say, 25 p.s.i.a. Exhausting the steam to the direct contact heat exchanger); or
atmosphere la a simple problem, but the oteara
By routing the exhala steam overo amwould be able to do more work within the engine ber of metal tubas within whith relstively moler
if the ate= were allowed to expand to a preesure water eirculates (an indirect, or sudan tne
lower than atmospheric, before exhausting from heat exchanger).
In both cases, (1) the condensar dad , nist be
the engine.. Por example, the maximum amount
of work ist could be performed by a given cloeed to prevent destruction of the vanuin by
weight of steam in expanding, from an initial the entrence of air, (2) the condensad. Maro, or
premura of 600 p.s.i.a. and a temperature of water, must be removed continimaly W *kv;
850F., to a foral preesure of 14.7 p.s.i.a., is only for a conetant flow of exhaust sten lato the
84 percent of the maximum amount of work that condensing chamber, and (3) a mesas usa be
could be performed by the same steam if it were provided for the removal of any ab aeuseonexpended to a vacuum of 29 haches of Hg.
densable gases which may enter the anden
A steam condenser provides a cloeed space, either through aman leales or with the ata
into which the engine may exhauat, where the This is neceesary in order to meintain the vaca
preesure is maintained as far below that of the n.
In ita simplest form, therefore, a condal/Mg
atmosphere as is economically practicable. This
is accomplished in two ways. Eta, by condensing system consista of an apparatue for convetting
the steam, whence the condenar obtains ita exhaust sten into water, and some film-4
neme, and second, by remota! of the condenaste pump, (or pumps), for reanoving tido water continuously from the condenser, and for. the conand noncondensable gasee by the use of pumpe.
If the condenser were perfectly air-tight, and tinuas removal of sir and utteondasable gasee.
if no sir or noncondensable gases were present It is the puna of this chapa to daribe,
in the exhaust otean entering the condenar, it somahat briefly, the desiga, oonstmetion, ad
6-1
6-1
operation of condensers as installed on naval

vessels for (1) condensing the exhaust steam from
the main engines and (2) condensing the exhaust
steam from generator auxiliary turbines. The
condensing equipment used for distiffing planta
and for refrigeration planta is described in Chapten 7 and 10.
6-2. SECONDARY FUNCTION OF CONDENSERS.
Condensers fulfill another very important function in the engineering plant, especially in the
case of naval installations, namely, the conservation of the ship's supply of fresh water.
Normal sea water contains approximately 1/32
of ita weight in diasolved salta and solid matter. There salta become insoluble at definite
temperatures, are precipitated by increased
saturation due to evaporation of the water, and,
when deposited on the surfaces of boiler tubes,
form a nonconducting scale which not only retarda greatly the transfer of heat through the
tube walls, but aleo contributes rapidly to the
burning and eventual failure of the tubos. To
prevent these salta from entering the boiler, it is
necessary to use fresh water for boiler feed. Since
most ehore waters contain varying amounts of
undesirable impurities, and further, since it is
impracticable for a vessel to carry sufficient fresh
water to meet the requirements of extended
cruising, all fresh water used on naval vessels is
produced on board by the distillation of sea
water. This procesa requires the expenditure of
large quantities of steam, which means the expenditure of fuel to produce this steam, so that
it is essential that all steam used in the engineering plant be condensed and returned to the feed
water system in a pure state. This, then, is the
secondary function of the condenser.
In addition to ita primary and secondary functions, a condenser may aleo be used to provide a
"vacuum drag" for venting or draining other
equipment or systems and for drawing make-up
feed water into the feed system from the reserve
feed tanks.
6-8. TYPES OF CONDENSERS.
There are two major classifications hato which

condensers may be divided. First, direct contact condensers in which the vapor being condensed comes
metal separates the vapor and the cooling fluid.

Direct contact condensen exist in two
forms, jet and barometric condensers. Barometric condensen will never be found on naval
vessels as they require a vertical water leg of 34
ft. height (the height of water to balance normal
atmospheric pressure). Earlier seagoing ships,
and some river and lake steamers, use jet type
condensen. This type of condenser consista of a
chamber hito which the engine exhausta and hi
which steam is condensed by water sprays. In
fresh water this is satisfactory and is a simple
solution for marine vessels, if the water is treated
for hardness. Where salt water is used for a spray,
the resulting mixture, which la only slightly
fresher than sea water, necessitates frequent
boiler blow-clowns in order to maintain a reasonably low concentration of salta and other solida.
This entalla a considerable loes of heat. This system is possible only with low temperatures and
pressures at which most of the salta remain in the
soluble form When it was found necessary to go
to higher temperatures and pressures of operation, the jet condensers were discarded in favor of
surface condensen.
Surface condensers are shell-and-tube
type heat exchangera in which exhaust steam is
condensed by passing it over a number of small
diameter metal tubes, through which water of
lower temperature is circulated. The circulating
water absorba the latent heat of vaporization of
the steam, converting the steam into water which
is then removed from the condenser by means of
a pump and returned to the feed water system.
In the surface type condenser there la no contact between the vapor and the cooling water
(salt water in naval planta), theref ore the feed
water cannot be contaminated because a metal
wall at all times separates the two.
The discussion which follows will consider surface condensers only, as the jet type has completely disappeared in modern naval vessels.
CONDENSING SYSTEMS.
We have seen that the condenser la the means

of changing the exhaust steam into water, thus,
reducing the back pressure against which the
engine must opereta and reclaiming the condensate for feed water.
A condensing system requires much auxiliary
equipment, in addition to the condenser proper, to
into direct contact with the cooling medium; and

second, sudan condensers, in which a layer of
(3-2
CONDENSERS
6-4
EXHAUST STEAM
FROM ENGINE
OVERBOARD
DISCHARGE VALVE
TUBE SHEET
KIECTION NEMER
EXPANSION JOINTS
NON-RETURN VALVES
MAIN (SCOOP)
INJECTION VALVE
CIRCULATING PUMP
INJECTION VALVE
SKIN OF SHIP
CONDENSER SUPPORTS
SCOOP
FIG. 6-1. Schematie Arrangement of a Main Condensing System.
carry out its funetion. The cooling water must be

supplied to the condenser with sufficient pressure
to force it through the tubes faat enough and in
sufficient quantity to absorb and carry off the
latent heat absorbed from the steam. The condenaste and air must be removed so that the
condenser will not become flooded or air-bound
and thus fail to function.
In marine installations, the cooling water is
taken directly from the body of water in which
the ship is floating. The main injection system
function to provide the cooling water to the
condenser. Figure 6-1 shows a typical niain
condenser system. In normal operating conditions, water is picked up by metas of the main
injection scoop. This scoop projects through the
hull of the ship at an angle which causes the f orward motion of the vessel to force water finto the
opening. Guarda or baffle basa (not shows) are
provided to keep the interior of the condenser as
free from sea lif e and debris as poseible.
The water is led to the condenser through a
large injection pipa which contains a gata type
stop valve and an expansion joint. In addition
there is an injection nonreturn valve which is a
large swing check valve placed to prevent flow of
water out through the main injection scoop when
other mearas are sed to supply cooling water to
the condensen
When the ship is going ahead, sea water is

forced upward through the scoop, entera the injection header, pasaos through the tubos to the
discharge header, and thence out through the
overboard diecharge. When the ship is stopped or
backing, or when ahead motion is too slow to
force water through the condenser, the cireulating pump is put in operation. In Fig. 6-1 the circulating pump talles suction from its own sea
chest and diseharges finto the injection head of the
condenser. The nonreturn valve in the injection
piping, between the circulating pump diecharge
and the scoop, prevente water from discharging
back through the scoop injection piping. A gata
valve la provided in the circulating pump auction
line. A nonreturn valve, similar to the main
scoop injection nonreturn valve, is provided in
the circulation pump discharge line.
Many other arrangements will be found in
various installations. Modem plante are often
built with the circulating pump discharging hito
the scoop injection piping, aboye the non-return
valve. In other installations the circulating pump
talles suction from the main injection piping and
discharges lato the inlet header.
In all cases the circulating pump must be a
largo capacity pump. It is usually of the propeller time. In modem installations the pump
capacities go as high as 30,000 gallos per minuta.
6-3
6-4
Enes theee pumps are of such largo capacity

they are usually fitted with a suction line leading
to the bilgee for pumping water overboard
through the condenser in case of emergency.
The overboard discharge line will usually contain only an expansion joint and a gata valve.
Every effort la made in design practico to prevent turbulence of the circulating water, in
order to reduce erosion.
The exhaust steam from the main engine entera the condensar shell at the top and pasees
over the tubos where it is condensed. The condenser in modem turbina unte will usually be
found suspended from the low preeatre turbina.
other cases the condensar la supported on its
own supporta, which usually extend upward to
&ippon the low presente turbina aleo.
The condensad water is collected in the bottom
REUEF VALVE
845. A TYPICAL MAEI CONDENSER.
Figure 8-1 is an over-all view of a modem destroyer condensar. A modem condenser is usually
located immediately below the low preasure turbine, and it is supported by the turbina exhaust
flange to which it is bolted. The condenser is thus
suspended from the low-pressure turbina, which
is supported by the ship's structure. Swaying la
prevented by sway bracea (not shows) between
the bottom of the condensar and the ship's
framing.
CIRCULATINC
TURBINE DOIAUST
RECIRCULATING
CONNECTION
of the condensar whence it is drawn by the condenaste pump and retumed to the feed water
system. Air, which entera with the exhaust steam,
and uncondensable gases are drawn off by the
sir ejector through an opening in the shell located aboye the condenaste level.
FIARE
AUL DUIAUST
OUT
YAC. CASE
CONNECTION
SUPPORT
CONNECTION
TEST CONN.
WATER OUTLET
ABSOLUTE
PRESSURE CASE
PODRE
CACE CONN.,
AMI CIRCWC
WATER lit
CL TURBINE
VAPOR INLET
DRAIN TANK
VAPOR INLET
CONDEICIATE
MITO
SHELL EXPANSION
CIRCULATINC WATER
INLET
MIK
RilOWETER
AM BAFFLE
CONNECTMN
8-2. Mala Condenan for Modera Destroyer,.
6-4
CONDENSIRS
REMEN RASE
BREA FUNGE
SEET
CANVAS
GASKET
REVER
GASKET
COMO Sant
P10. 6-6. Seethaa of a Modera Deltwyer's Condenan Shell Expatteloa joiat aad Pleased
jolat for Secarlas Trabe Sheet tad Header to
By suspending the condenar from theturbine
rather than supporting the turbine on the condenser, the condensar shell can be made much
thinner. This allows a greatly reduced weight.
The neceesity for an expansion joint between the
turbine and the condensar le aleo eliminated
thereby. The condenser ie usually mounted with
the tubas running athwartships, the inlet ende
being inboard.
The shell is made of boiler plata (Mal) reinforced externally by ribs and internally by the
tuba support platee. The shell is fabricated by
welding the platee and ribo together. Expansion
of the shell is allowed by placing a bellows type
expansion joint neer tira water inlet ad (Fig.
64). The expansion joint, detalle of which are
shown in Fig. 64, is formed by the V-shaped
vertical portion, one foot of which is welded to
the condensar shell proper, and the other to the
Unge ring which forma the end of the shell.
The shell of the condensar atienda into the dango
opening and thus canjeo the weight of the fango,
tube sheet and water box without etraining the
expansion joint.
As shown in Figs. 64 and 64, the condensar is
designed with a very ahallow tubo bankviridgh

permite keeping a low center 4l
the
entire propalaba unit.
Most naval main condenen* ad the coag
water through in one pass.
widelj atara the
inlet hender and is sent directiyukTusbr he interiors of the tubas to the' oppol
from there overboard. Oreas cara

siga of inlet pipas to keep turbnicu
mum and to Sure that the wat
denser in a direction as Mart
ende as possible. h is of bterest'te`
the case of the condensar hen.
scoop injection line met
bend in order to aae~rr ti
no
The headers (ce water

niekekopper *Hoy In madera ondeante'arad
are wiped ea the beide

made pp d
two parte kisa risd,ree ~t'a They are deskrted for streepageed water fo, Wittriairenin
eddies. The Ids water ~seo

and there ampo boite or pittj
fitthge ~fdr the sinos
therrawneter yds.
64

At the top of each section of the inlet water condenser shell and tubas which they are to
box is a vent manifold (see Fig. 6-2). Air bubbles protect. The salt water that fills the header while
in the cooling water inside the inlet water box the condenser is in operation serves as an electropass hato the vent manifolds. The vent manifolds lyte. The zincs, being high in the electrolytic
are connected by external piping to the condenser series, are corroded by electrolytic action. This
discharge header. Thus a constant flow of water protects all other audaces from electrolitic coris provided to carry off ah bubbles as fest as they rosion as long as there is zinc available, and as
reach the manifolds, hence most of the air which long as there is good, metal-to-metal electrice]
entera the injection hender with the sea water la contact between the zincs and the headers, tubeby-passed around the condenser, rather than be- sheets and tubes.
ing permitted to enter the condenser tubes. In
As shown in Fig. 6-3 the header la one of three
this way oxidation of the tube interiors la kept at members of the flanged joint at the end of the
a minimum. The externa! by-pass piping is, of condenser. The tube sheet and the condenser
course, subjected to corrosion, but it must be shell also form parta of this joint. The three are
kept in mind that this piping la readily acceasible held together by center bolts and collar bolts
for repair or replacement.
placed alternately around the flange. The collera
Manholes are provided in each header for ac- of the collar bolis are on the water box side of
cese to the water space for inspection and clean- the tube sheets. Thus by removing al the nuts
ing of tubes. To the manhole covers zinc platee on the water box side, the water box may be reare attached as illustrated in Fig. 6-5. These zinc moved without breaking the joint between the
protector platea are placed in each water box. shell flange and the tube sheet.
The studs, nuts, and washers holding the zinc
The tube sheets which serve as partitione beplatee are made of chrome-copper alloy to pro- tween the salt water and the fresh water or vapor
vide for high electrical conductivity. The zinc at the ends of the condenser, are single platee of
platee must have good electrical contact with the copper-nickel alloy
thick. The outer edges,
which form a par of the flanged joint, are machined to thickness. The tube sheet la drilled
to provide holes for the reception of the tube
ends.
All tubes fit hito each of there tube sheet&
In most modem condensers both ends of the
tubes are expended hito their respective tube
sheets Each hole, af ter boring, is serrated with
concentric grooves, 0.007 of an inch deep and
0.025 of an inch wide as shown in Fig. 6-6. The expended tube metal sinks hato the grooves to fix
the tube tightly in the tube sheet.
In modem main condensers there are usually
between 6000 and 10,000 tubes of 70% copper
30% nickel alloy. Tubes in naval vessels are
1' O.D. and 0.'049 wall thickness. The normal
ZINC
length of tubes la between ten and eleven feet.
MANHOLE
CHROME-COPPER
PUJES
Since the tubes are expended hito the tube sheeta
COVER
PUTEO WARNERS
at both ends there must be allowance for thermal
expanaion. The expansion joint in the shell ale
lows for this, but in addition the tubes are often
n
bowed upward 4. at the center to allow for expansion and also to provide drainability during
,_-.
I ,-5:as
perioda of idleness and to prevent rattling. All
117
AZ1
d" zir
)5v
tubes are belled (flared) at the inlet end to preFIG. 6-5. Zinc Protector Piafe Assembly for a
vent the formation of eddy currents.
Modera Destroyer's Main Condenser.
SI
;7::.- 1**.
",W,
'e
,Z
>,N.
6-6
CONDENSERS
6-6
VERTICAL CENTER
TUSE BUJID AND EXPANDED
UNE OF CONDENSER
TUSE BRUJEO
UPIVRD VI"
SERRATIONS
SERRATIONS
TUBE SHEET
INLET END
QUIET END
FIG. 6-6. Tabes Detall of a Modera Destroyer's Main Condenser.

2 DORE EXPANSION RINGS
TUSE SHEET
TUBE
TUSES EXPANDES, BUIED AND

FINISHED DIU WITH TUSE SHEET
FIG. 6-7. Old Method of Allowing for Tube and Shell Espantarla.
Some condensers may be found in which the
tubes are expended in the tube sheet at the inlet
end, but are free to move in packing glande at the
discharge end. In this case the difference in expansion between the tubes and Shell is allowed by
the freedom of the tubes to move through the
tube sheet packing glande at the paeked end.
This type of tube fastening is illustrated in
Fig. 6-7.
In order to protect the tubes from erosion at
the entrence, plastic erosion guarda, called plastic tube inserta, may be installed as shown
in Fig. 6-8. These guarda are installed when
erosion is indicated at the tube entrances.
They are cemented in place with a water-proof
cement.
The tubes in older condensers were placed all
in one bank, which practice resulted in excessive
condensate depression, i.e., the subcooling of the
condensate below saturation temperature. In order to eliminate this diffieulty the tubes have
FIG. 8-8. Plastic Tube Insert for Guardias
Agaiast Erosion of Tube hist.
PLASTIC TUSE INSERT
6-7
NAVAL AUZILIARV MACHINERY
8-6
CIRCULATING
TURBINE EXIIALIST
RECIRCULATING
CONNECTION a mai
RAS
PREF PALPE
SUPPORT
comuna
, PLATES
VAC. CACE
CONNECTION
TEST CONN.
AM OUTLET
PRESSURE
CACE CROL
WATER OUTLET
ABSOLUTE
PRESUME CACE
MAKIIP
COK
AUX. CIRCUL1WATER IN
CL TURBINE
VAPOR INLET
'RAM TANK,
VAPOR INLET
CONDENSATE
CURE!
SHELL EXPANSION
JOINT
AIR BAFFLE'
CIANURO: WATER -THERNOMETER

INLET
CONNECTION
FIG. 6-2. Main Condensar for Modera Destroyers.
been placed in two or more groups with steam

laves betwen the groups to give a larga entrance
area hito tube banks and to permit reheating the
condensate in the bottom to a temperature approaching that of the exhaust steam.
The condensar, of Fig. 8-9, whose hall section
is shown in Fig. 6-9, fa divided hito 4 tube banks.
The upper tubas of each bank and the tubas
along the steam lane are spaced on radiating
straight centerlines to provide a larga entrance
area for steam and free penetration finto the bank
with minimum resistance to steam flow. The
tubas in the lower and interior portions of the
group are arranged with triangular or staggered
spacing. An exit lane in the middle of the lower
part of each bank providee passage for air and uncondensed steam to the air-cooler sections. It will
be noted that great paila have been taken to
keep the resistance to steam flow don through

the condensar at a minimum. In earlier condeasers excessive resistance to steam flow was a
serious fault. It required the ejector and pumps
to work much harder in proportion to the
vacuum they maintained at the turbina exhaust.
Each tube group is usually provided with its
own air-cooler section which is partitioned off
from the condensing tubas by a double baffle
which siso acta as a condensate collecting plato.
Condenaste, which is collected aboye the air
baffle, is piped to a condensate receiving tray
immediately below the tubas. These receiving
trays, on each sida of the nema lane, discharge
their contenta to a condensate heating tray in the
space between them. Here the condensate la expoeed to exhaust steam which has free acoses to
the heating tray through the lane between the
0-8
CONDEM9ER13
'FUNGE
SI&
CONNECTION FOR
N.P. EUROPE ORARE
MR LECTOR
SUCEDO PIPL
EXTERNAL)
AM BAFFLE
SME AIRM'OLMO SECTION

SWASII KATI
ttit 11.1
I 1
-1-
CONDNSATE.
WATER
E
DRS PIPES WATER SIAL BAFFLE
CONDNSATE REMATE TRAY
CONDENSATE HEATING TRU
CONDENSAR MET FLANGE
HALE SECTION TORMO "A"-"A" ON FIG. B-11
CONDENSATE RECEWMG TRU i

C
NOT WEL
FIG. 6-9. Transversa Hall-Seedoa Through a Modera Destroyer% Mala Coadeaser...
6-5
two groups of tubes. The bottom of the heating

tray is perforated by severa! holes leading to the
condenser hot well, which is a collecting point
for the condensate and a sump for the condensate
pump suction.
The condensate receiving tray below each
group of condenser tubes is formed by 2 longitudinal baffle platee welded to the bottom of the
shell. One of these is the water seal baffle which
extends up into the tube bank in each group of
condensing tubes between the air-cooler entrance and the steam lane. It prevents free flow of
steam into the air-cooler section of the condenser.
The lower edge of this water seal plate has sawtooth serrations (Fig. 6-10) to permit flow of condensate under them and out of the condensate
collecting tray. A second water baffle, lower than
the first, is also provided, over which the water
must flow. This baffle plate has a serrated top

edge. It serves to dam up the condensate and to
provide a water seal. Each condensate colleeting
tray is divided hito small compartments by transverse baffies welded to the bottom of the shell and
the vertical serrated plate at the high point on
each serration. This construction, shown in Figs.
6-9 and 6-10, prevents excessive surging of water
from one end of the condenser to the other, and
provides a steady discharge of condensate from
the receiving trays to the condensate heating
trays. The condensate heating trays are also divided into Brasil compartments by transverse
baffies; thus the vessel may list as much as 15
degiees without causing condensate to flow from
one compartment to another and at the same
time maintaining a seal of water throughout
the unit, which as previously stated, prevents
INLET TUBE SHEET
TUBE SUPPORT SHEETS

WATER
SEAL BAFFLE (UNDERPASS)
WATER BAFFLE OVERFLOWa
LEVEL
-aroWATER BAFFLE (OVERPASS)
~ni ~e
)
l effil
r
I Id
al
S WASH Ir
ntin
PLATES
\
CONDENSATE PUMP
SUCTION CONN.
OUTLET
TUBE SHEET
HORIZONTAL LINE PARALLEL

TO CONDENSER TUBES
SECTION "C-"C ON FIG. 6-9
(a) SHIP ON EVEN KEEL (LOOKING AFT)

OVERFLOW LEVEL AT 15* LIST
WATER BAFFLE
WATER SEAL BAFFLE OVERFLOW LEVEL ima
WATER BAFFLE
MINIMUM DEPTH WATER SEAL

BETWEEN BAFFLE PLATES
11.0
112.0r
15' LIST
VOS-
-\
SHELL
EXPANSION
JOINT
.11)
ir
SWASH
PLATES
\
SECTION "C-"C ON FIG. 6-9
(b) 15' LIST TO STARBOARD (LOOKING AFT)
FIG. 6-10.
6-10
6-6
point or condenaste outlet which is below the

circulating water inlet end of the shelL This is
shown in outline in dotted line in the top view of
Fig. 6-4 and in side views in Figs. 6-4 and 6-11.
Impingement baffles are welded to the shell in
front of each steam and water inlet connection
to prevent entering steam and water striking
directly against the tubes.
Figure 6-4 shows all of the openings finto a destroyer condenser. It will be realized that all
condensers do not have identical connections, but
many will be duplicated in other sets.
Each main condenser is fitted with a water
relief valve on the inlet water chest and a steam
relief valve on the shell.
CONDENSERS
free access of steam loto the air-cooler sections.
The hot well is also equipped with a series of
transverso and longitudinal baffies or swash
platee. Each has sufficient access holes to permit
the free flow of water to the condensate outlet
while at the same time preventing excessive
surging of water in the hotwell.
The air baffles aboye each of the air-cooling
sections are made with a dead air space between
the platea. This arrangement insulates the air in
the air-cooler section from the heat of the steam
immediately aboye the air baffle. Air collecting
chambera are formed by installing vertical baffle
platea from the condenser shell up to the inclined
sir baffle aboye the air-cooler section (Fig. 6-9).
Each of the four air-cooler sections discharges
air through a series of small boles hito the collecting chambera, whence it is in turn piped to
the first stage air ejector suction. The two aircooler sections below the center groups of tubes
have a common air collecting chamber in the
center of the condenser (Figs. 6-E and 6-9).
A pipo in the center steam lave conecte this
air chamber with the air outlet at the top of the
chamber. The two sido air-cooler sections have
air collecting chambera along the shell of the
condenser and these air chambera are connected
to the air outlet by external piping.
The hot well is welded to the bottom of the
shell of the condenser. The hot well is made up
of list platea all of which slope toward the low
6-6. AIIICIMARY CONDENSERS.
Auxiliary condensers (illustrated in Fig. 6-12)

operate on the same principies as the main condensers. The cooling water la pumped through
the condenser at all times batead of utilizing a
scoop. The water in the condenser shown makes
two pasees, the inlet water box being divided by
a partition finto an inlet chamber and an outlet
chamber.
Air ejector condensers utilizo the condensate,
on ita way to the boiler feed system, as a coolant.
Since the object is to gala as much heat as possible, the water may be caused to make as many
as ten puses through the inter- and after-condenser assembly.
MR PIPES
AUX. EXHAUST UNLOAD'G CONN. SHELL
JOINTEXPANSION
INLET HEADER AIR VENT
MR ELECTOR re-A TYPICAL TUSE
EXH. INLET
SUCTION CONN. I
HANDHOLE PLATE
TUSE SUP'RT
SHEET
TUSE SHEET
MANHOLE PLATE
OV'BD DISCHARGE
CONNECTION
CIRC'LTG. PUMP
INJECTION
CONN.
a.
TUSE
SHEET
INLET HEADER
MANHOLE PLATE
SCOOP INJECTION CONN.
CONDENSATE PUMP
SUCTION CONNECTION
**** *
HOT WELL
CONDENSATE DRAIN
MAN ROLE
PIPE
PLATE
WATER SEAL BAFFLE
(UNDER-PASS)
WATER BAFFLE
(OVER-PASS)
FIG. 6-11. Longitudinal &teflon of a Modem Destroyefe Mala Condeneer, Looking Mt.
LA
MR
BAFFLES
6-11

INIOARD
tl
19
OUTBOARD
13 12 9 10 29
II
28

29
10
28
17 25 11 27
17 28 17 23 77
25
15
18

12 30 la
10
16
28 27

21 12 23
20 IP 28
FIG. 6-4. Connection* and Openinga in a Modera Destroyer*. Main Condensar.

1EXHAUST INLET
2CONDENSATE OUTLET
3SCOOP INJECTION
IIAIR EJKTOR SUCTION

CONNECTION
12CONDENSATE RECIRCULATING
CONNECTION
20H.P. TURBINE DRAIN CONN.

21VACUUM GAUGE CONN.
22ABS. PRESSURE GAUGE CONN.
23THERMOMETER CONNECTION
24WATER GAUGE GLASS
2SCIRCULATING WATER RELIEF
VALVE CONNECTION
24BOILING-OUT CONNECTION
4CIRCULATING PUMP INJECTION

SOVERBOARD DISCHARGE
13MAKE-UP FEED VACUUM-DRAG

CONNECTION
6VAPOR INLET FROM CRUIS. TUE,.

(YIA CROSS.OVER VALVE)
14DIST. PLANT IST EFFECT COIL

DRAIN CONNECTION
7FRESH WATER DRAIN TANK

VACUUM DRAG CONNECTION
IBSHELL RELIEF VALVE CONNECTION
BCONDENSATE PUMP VENT
16-DISCHARGE HEADER VENT
1INTELCONDENSER (LOOP-SEAL)
DRAIN
17INLET HEADER AIR VENT

MANIFOLDS
10AUXILLIARY EXHAUST UNLOADING

CONNECTION
11HEADER DRAIN CONNECTION
29EXTERNAL AIR PIPES TO A1R

EJECTOR SUCT1ON CONN.
30SHELL EXPANSION JOINT
19INJECTION TO LUL OIL COOLER
31CRUISING TURBINE DRAIN CONN.
6-12
27MANHOLE COVER
211HANDHOLE COVER
CONDUMIO
REMATE TUUINE
EXHAIST MUT
IMCWCWATWG
COIMECTINI
FE@ TANK
VENT
EXPANSION
Mal
CONMUTE
PUMP Van
AIR OUTIET
EVAPORATOR ORAIN
MAKE UP CONNECTION
F.W. DRAIN TANK VENT
CIRCULATINC WATER INLET'
THERMOMETER
CONNECTION
FIG. 6-12. A Modera Destroyer'. Atadliery (Dynamo) Condene.'

6-7. MAIN CONDENSEN OPERATION.
r.
Vacuums produced for operating reciprocating

alucines should not go aboye 28 incites of Hg.
The specific volume increases as the vacuum increases, and thus with lower back pressuree exceasive steam volumes are reached. This would
require very largo low pressure cylindera, and the
initial cost and operating difficulties would offset
the gain due to greater availsbility of heat. The
limita in this respect are not so stringent in turbine operation and in such installations the vacuum may be increased to 281 or 29 incites of Hg.
The specific volume doubles between 29 and
291 incites of vacuum. In view of this fact it la
doubtful if much advantage is to be gained by
increasing the vaeuum beyond 29 haches of Hg.
The additional demanda on the pumps and sir
ejectors may require more heat energy for their
operation than is tened by reducing the back
prestare on the main engine.
Air must be removed at exactly the rata that
it entere, in order to mabita% the corred balance
in the condensing system. The amount of air to
be removed. depende upon sir leakage in the
system. The condensen mutat be mainained in a
tight conditign and the tur
gibad seals in
proper operation in order te 'proper
proper air renovel from the condenen. The Arate of operation
of the air elector canbeir jppeseedtoodset the leak-
age but this procedure is not the mean

Presence of sir not only causas hen
being absorbed in the water, it can
sion in the atasen systera, lile the
feed tank (Chapter 8) functions to
solved sir it is desirable for the con
chane the condenaste contalning as lidi die
solved sir, as poasible. Most condensen wffi
opereta with no more than 0.05 oc Amen par
liter of condenaste.
The back pressure obtainable dependa gentil
upon the temperature of the sea._To obtain a
29' vacuum, which corresponda to a tenpernure
of 79F., the sea water must not he over 011ffiP.
to insure maintaining the desired prenotan
80F. sea water, a 28 inch vacuum ia eboot..the
beat that can be obtained.
ff the sea temperature is low, it may lio naces
sary to reduce the rete of ilow of coolingwner by
closing clown the outlet valve to some tent but
never more than three quartera closed lest the
valva be damaged by chattering.. Thia throttling
den should never be obtained by closing doWn
the inlet valve becauee of the added tffirbttlence
set mi,with resultant baza la arada ,of the
tubas and the danger of allowing..the uppenont
tubes to become dry with empeguen
mg, warping, and pasable fonema of the
In the tuba sheet.
6-8
SECOND STAGE AIR EJECTOR

AUL SEAN g
VENT TO
lATMOSPHERE
FIRST STAGE AIR EJECTOR

AUX. STEAM
150 TO 215 P.S.I.*
EXHAUST
f
AFTER-CONDENSER
411
CURLING
WATER INLET
COOLING
WATER OUTLET
ATMOSPNEMC DRAIN
CONDENSATE PUMP
FIG. 6-13. Flow Diagram of a Two Stage Air Ejector with Atter Condensen
6-8. AIR EJECTOR SYSTEMS.
The removal of the air and water are of special

importante in satisfactory condenser operation.
The early method waa by the use of a "wet" air
pump which handled the mixture of air and water. It was impossible to maintain economically
the high vacuums demandad by modem highspeed turbines with this type of pump. With the
advent of high vacuum condensers, it became
necessary to provide separate means for removing the air and water.
The centrifugal type condensate pump is provided for removing the water only. It is usually
a single or double stage centrifugal pump, either
turbine or electric driven, and discharges hito the
feed tank, or to the main feed pump suction, according to the type of feed system. With it a
atoara jet air ejector is used to remove the air
and uncondensed vapore.
Because a steam jet is used, provision must be
made for condensing the expanded steam so that
it will not be lost to the atmosphere. Theref ore,
the air ejector is designed to discharge into the
shell of a small shell-and-tube type condenser,
called the air ejector condenser, or the after-condenser. fe condensate formed therein may then
be drained off to the ship's condensate system.

Figure 6-18 shows a flow diagram for a twostage sir ejector with an after-condenser. The
first stage takes its suction from the main condenser maintaining therein a vacuum of about 29
inches of Hg. The suction line should be so placed
that the minimum amount of water vapor will be
drawn into the air ejector suction. Auxiliary
steam is supplied to the air ejector nozzle. Since
there is a constant flow of steam and the nozzle
decreases the area of steam flow, the steam increases in velocity. A discussion of nozzle design
will be found in Naval Turbines, in Energy Analysis of Naval Machinery or in any standard thermodynamics textbook. As the steam jets hito
the converging part of the diffuser it entrains
the surrounding air and vapor and carries it
along into the diffuser. According to the general
energy equation, in the smallest cross section (the
throat) of the diffuser, the velocity of the steam
and entrained air is at its maximum. As the
crosa-sectional area of the diffuser increases, the
velocity decreases, and the pressure increases.
The first stage air ejector discharges hito the
suction chamber of the second stage air ejector
where the vacuum is only about 22 to 25 inches
6-14
FIRST STAGE
AIR EJECTOR
AUX STEAM
150 TO 275 P.S.I.

AUX. STEAM
SECOND STAGE
AIR EJECTOR
GLAND
EximusT ree VENT TO ATMOSPHERE
EXHA
STEAM I
AFTER-
CONDENSER VENT i
o
liTO FEED SYSTEM
1 # GAGE
INTER-CONDENSER
ATMOSPHERIC DIUUNSI
VACUUM DRAIN 26" II 6 VACUUM

LOOP SEAL
CONDNSATE PUMP
FIG. 6-14. Flow Diagram of a Two Stage Air Elector with. Inter- and After-Condensers.
tz,
GLAND BRAM CONDENO
to
6-8
of Hg.
In other words, the absolute preesure has

been boosted. In the second stage the same procese is repeated, raising the pressure of the mixture
of air and expanded steam abo ye that of the atmosphere. The discharge of the second stage
leads to the after-condenser where the steam is
condensed and the air, being noncondensable, is
vented to the atmosphere.
The after-condenser may use sea water as a
cooling agent as does the main condenser. Howayer, in modern practice, condensate from the
main or auxiliary condenser is employed as a
cooling medium, for reasons hereinafter presented.
Figure 6-14 shows the flow diagram for a twostage air ejector with inter- and after-condensers.
This arrangement of condensers and air ejectore
is used on all modem naval atezan vessels. A small
surface condenser is placed between the first
stage and the second stage. The first stage discharges to the inter-condenser where the oteara is
condensed. The second stage takes suction on the
inter-condenser and draws off the air which was
entrained in the steam. With an inter-condenser
the second stage air ejector does not have to

pump the steam used in the first stage (it having
been condensed in the inter-condenser), hence, it
may be much smaller than the second stage sir
ejector used in Fig. 6 -18.
The second stage air ejector takes suction on
the inter-condenser shell and discharges to the
after-condenser shell.
4. small surface condenser called the gland exhaust condenser is often provided to condense the
auxiliary exhaust steam used as gland sealing
steam which leaks out of the glande of the main
engines. In some designe the vent from the aftercondenser is led to this condenser thence to the
atmosphere via the atmospheric vent.
Il the condenser cooling water usad were sea
water, as in Fig. 6 -18, the latent heat of condensation of the steam used in both stages would be
lost overboard. Furthermore, tube leakage would
/mit in contamination of the air ejector condenser drains. The temperature of the condensate in the main condenser is leas than the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressures in the inter- and after-condensers, hence,
111111111
TUSE BID DETALL
OUTLET HEAD
INLET HEAD
STEAM INLET
2ND STAGE NOZZLE
ATMOSPHERE VENT
2ND STAGE
DIFFUSER
AFTER CONDI
SECTION
AUX
SUCP/1'
ST STAGE
NOZZLE
IST STAGE
DIFFUSER
INT. CONp'R
SK110N
GLAND STEAM
INLET
INT. STAGE
VALVE
WATER OUTLET
WATER INLET
ATMOSPHERE DRAJN
P10. 8-15. A Modera Mala Air Biselar and Condenses Assembly.

6-16
AC. DRAIN
CONDENSERS
the condenaste from the main condenser la usted

as the 000ling water for the air ejector condensen
and gland exhaust condensen 'The condenaste
pump dischargas through the tubos of the intercondenser, the alter-endenser and the gland exhaust condensar, in that order and theta) to the
boiler leed system. The heat tranderred from the
air ejector steam, therefore, ie not loet overboard
and the Peed water, which must Mergo an increase in teraperature before becoming steam in
the bollera, receives the heat given up by these
condensen.
The oteara condensed in the inter-condenser la
drained back to the main condenser through the
vacuum drain. Since the preasure in the shell of
the inter-condenser la greater than that in the
main condenser, a sed or trap of some kind must
be used to prevent air or vapor from Paeing
back to the ni ain condenser through the vacuna
drain line. If the main condensar has a vacuum cf
about 29 bicha; and the inter-condenser a vacuum of 28 luches, the preasure la the inter-condenaer la 3 inches of Hg or about 3 feet of water
greater than in the main condenser. This difference in preasure is maintained by the loop
seal as shown in Fig. 8-14.
In the loop seal, the pressure in the inter-condenser shell, acting against that in the main condenar, feces the water level in the inter-condenser legof the loop down until the weight of the
water in the other leg balances the combined
weight of the water la the inter-condenser leg of
the loop and the preasure differential. As more
water drain lato the inter-condenser leg of the
loop, its weight causes an equal amount of water to flow from the main ;condensar leg of the
loop finto the main condensar.
11-9. TYPICAL SIR EDICTOS ASSEMBLY.
In the deeign of naval engineering planta,

every consideration must be given to the reducdon of weight and the saving of space. To attain
this, the first and second stages of the ah elector
64
and their condensen have besa combined in one

complete aasembly. In the latan meses, the
gland exhaust condenser's fueteas have been
incorporated within the shell of the alter-condensen Figure 845 illustrates a modera air elector amena The shell la rectangular in chape
and la divided, by a longitudinal plate, be the
inter- and after-condenser sectiona. A baffle at
the gland vapor inlet defiects the air and vapor
downward over the lower bank of tubos in the
after-condenser section, which funotiona as the
gland exhaust condensar as well as pan of the
after-condenser.
In order to provide for continuous plant operation, two sets of nozzle& and diffuse are provided for each stage of the air ejector. Only ose
set is necesaary for operation of the plant. The
other set is maintained ready for use in MISS of
damage or maloperation of the set in use. Both
seta are used only when exceasive sir leakage fato
the main condensar necesite" additional
pumping capacity. An inter-etage valve la provided between the discharge of each first stage
ejector and the inter-condenser so that the presura built up by the first unge jet which is in
operation will not be lost back to the oondenser
through the idie first stage estor. For a *Wat
reaeon, there la a cut-out valve located
each second atase ~don chamber and
condensen. By mena of baffle la the;i
outlet heads, the cooling water (condenaste) is
caused to malee five patees through the unit before disoharging.
The atmospheric vent is usually connected to
the section of a small motor-chiven fan (callad
the "gland exhauster") which provides a poefitive
discharge through piping to the atmogrhere
aboye decka. This le deeirable to avoid filleithe
engine room with steam should the air ejector
cooling water supply fail, in which case the jet
steam would pass through the inter and attea
condensen without being condense&
8-17
7-2
CHAPTER 7
DISTILLING PLA NTS

7-1. GENERAL.
An evaporator is a heat exchanger designed to

evaporate sea water. The resulting vapor, when
condensed, furnishes the fresh water for boiler
feed and for general ship's use. The evaporator,
together with associated condensing apparatus,
pumps and auxiliary equjpment, is known as a
distilling plant.
Distilling plante are a necessity for naval vesseis in order (1) to make them independent of
outside sources of fresh water so that they may
be self-eustaining for long periods, and (2) to provide water for feed purposes that must be far
superior to water obtainable ashore, resulting in
an increase of reliability and prolongation of the
Uf e of the entire engineering plant.
7-2. PRINCIPIES OF DISTILLATION.
The study of marine distilling plante should be

approached by firat underatanding some of the
principies of evaporation and condensation,
rather than by an outrigbt memorizing of the intimate detalle of any or all planta.
Distillation, or the procese of generating gas or
vapor from liquide and condensing the products
therefrom, involves three basic concepts: (1)
heat transfer, (2) evaporation and condensation,
and (3) the effect of pressure changes on the boiling temperature of a liquid.
(1) Heat transfer. Heat flows "downhill", that
is, it flows from a hotter body to a colder body
and the rata of heat transfer depende upon:
The temperature difference between the
substance giving up heat and that receiving heat;
The surface area through which the heat
flows;
(c) The coefficient of heat transfer of the substance(s) through which the heat must pass.
(2) Evaporation and Condensation. If heat is
added to a liquid the temperature of the liquid
will risa until the boiling point is reached, at which
point, upon the further addition of heat (equal in
7-1
amount to the liquid's latent heat of vaporization) the fiquid will evaporate with the temperature remaining constant (while pressure is aleo
constant). If the vapor thus formed is collected
and heat removed therefrom by cooling (equal in
amount to the latent heat of vaporization), the
vapor will condense at a constant temperature
(its boiling temperatura for the corresponding
constant pressure) and return to the liquid state.
This is illustrated in Fig. 7-1.
Auxiliary exhaust steam entere the coila of the
evaporator (Fig. 7-1) and in condensing gives up
its latent heat of vaporization to the surrounding
sea water. The sea water is heated and boiled,
and the vapor time formed (at constant temperature and pressure) pasees to the distiller con denser where it is eondensed by sea water
pumped through the condenser tubes by the circulating pump. In condensing the vapor, the circulating water increases in temperature and par
of it la supplied to the evaporator as evaporator
'0
AUX.
EXHAUST
STEAM
DISTILLER
CONDENSER
SHELL
EVANDRATOR
PD FEED
TANK
lulf~
BRINE OVIED
OVI'D TO TAMO SEA

SUCTION
FIG. 7-1. Simple Distilling Plant.
7-2
the brine, which raises the boiling point slightly).

It can be seen that heat can now flow, through
water is evaporated, ita impurities remain behind, the tube walls of the coila, from the 228F. auxilincreasing the density of the . remaining water iary exhaust steam to the eooler brine in the shell,
which, because of this increased density, is called heating it to its boiling temperature (whieh is a
brine. The distillate, formed by the condensation lower temperature than that of the steam in the
of vapor in the distiller condenser, is pumped coila). In so doing, the latent heat of vaporization
therefrom and led off to various fresh water stor- of the auxiliary exhaust steam will be transferred
to the brine, condensing the steam. The conage and reserve feed tanks.
It should be notad in the discussion of a distill- densed steam, which is still at 228F. will now be
ing plant that the term "vapor" is used to denote further cooled, approaching the temperature of
the vapor formed from the brine and that the the Mine adding still more heat to the brine. The
term "steam" is used to indicate only the auxil- heat so added to the brine by this condensing and
iary exhaust steam visad for the heating and the cooling procesa servesi (1) to bring the incoming
evaporator feed water up to its boiling temperaboiling of the brine in the fust effect.
In order to insure a constant rate of evapora- ture (162'F.), and (2) to add the necessary heat
tion, better quality of water distilled and better to the brine to bol it, forming pure water vapor,
over-all performance there la installed in the which can now be condensed hito pure water by
steam line, to the evaporator, a preesure regulat- transferring its latent heat of vaporization to the
ing valve and an orifico. The weight-loaded regu- circulating sea water va the tube walls of the dielating valve maintains a constant pressure at ita
g condenser tubos.
Figure 7-1 illustrates the operation of a single
discharge, and the orfice, located between the
regulating valve and the inlet to the tube nest, la effect distilling plant, that is, a distilling plant in
designed to pasa a constant weight of steam re- which all of the evaporation is done in one
quired to produce nominal capacity of the plant evaporator shell. matead of condensing the
as long as the absolute pressure on the outlet side vaporised water in the distiller condenser, let
of the orfice is leas than 58 percent of that on the us lead this 162 vapor lato the coila of another
inlet side.
evaporator wherein tbe shell pressure is main(3) Eftect of pressure changes on boiling tem- tained at 0.698 p.s.i.a. (a 28} inch vacuum) by the
perature. Water at a given pressure will bol at a tondenser and its air pump. 'The boiling point of
defina temperature. If the pressure la increased, the brine in this evaporator shell is only 90F.
the boiling temperature will siso be raised, and if Thus heat will flow from tbe 162F. vapor (from
the pressure is decreased, the boiling temperature the first shell, called the first effect shell) to the
will be lowered. For example: Water at atmos- brine in the second effect shell. The 90F. vapor
pheric pressure (14.7 p.s.i. absolute) boils at a formed in the second effect shell can now be contemperature of 212F. If ita pressure la increased densed in the distiller condenser.
to 20 p.s.i.a., it will have to be heated to 228F.
The first effect vapor is condensed in the secbefore it will bol. If ita preesure is dropped to ond effect cals. The resulting condensate may
5 p.s.i.a. (a vacuum of 19.74 incoes of Hg.), its be drained fato the distiller condenser shell by
boiling temperature will drop to 162F. 11 ita pres- virtue of the pressure differential between the
sure is further dropped to 0.698 p.s.i.a. (a vacuum second effect coila and the distiller condenser.
of 2871incites of Hg.), its boiling temperature will
From the aboye, no stretch of the imagination
be found to be only 90F.
should be required to comprehend the operation
Referring again to Fig. 7-1, let us suppose that of the triple effect distilling plant of Fig. 7-2
the pressure of the auxiliary exhaust steam is 20 wherein additional pieces of apparatus, designed
p.s.i.a., and that, by adjuating the operation of to promote economy of operation have been
the distiller condensar and he air pump, the pres- added, to wit:
mire within the evaporator shell la maintained at
Vapor separatore. One in each effect's va5 p.s.i.a.
por line for the purpose of "bafiling out" brine
The temperature, then, of the steam in the particles carried over with the vapor.
evaporator coila is 228F. But the boiling temVapor feed /waters. Installed in the first
perature of the brine surrounding the coila within and second effect vapor linee to transfer some
the shell is only 162F. (neglecting the density of of the heat in the vapor to the evaporator feed
7-2
feed water to replenish the sea water that la being
boiled and poseed off to the condenser. As the sea
bLIPTIL
PLANTO
AUX. STEAM
AIR EJECTOR
VAPOR
SEPARAT
40
IR
REMOVAL
DISTILLR
CONDENSER
AUX.
EXHAUS
STEAM
3RD EFFECT
EVAPORATOR
COIL DRAIN
COOLER
DIST. CONDI'
PUMP
MINE
PUMP
CONDT.
COOLER
OV'B'D FROM
SEACHEST
TO FRE$H
WATEK TANKS
of Triple-What, Low-Preseure DIMMIng RAM

(Submerged-Ttabe Tree.)
2IG. 7-2. Schematic Arringement
aura type, in which atesta watt taken dattattfrarar

the balero and reduard to variou premura upa)
as high as 150 p.ssi. Carel trouble
entrisrienced in the evaporators of three pante mida
the formation of scale upon
It Use tema
notad that heat transfer
the trlrarperature difference bet
the steam, and the cold
in the Piren, and upon the
fer of the walls of the tubas.
on the tubas retarded the
through the tubos ranking it
the pressure and therefore the
steam in the tubas in order
pacity. Therefore, whenever
preesure wae resabed, the p
down, the coila pulled out and the ecaleanzoved
from the tubos. This sede was -any difitallkle
remove, so that the operada), of main lean
tedious and frequently resultad in ir** ~dm
tubas.
In 1920 the low-preesure (mutual.,
14. TEPES 03 DLITTIL11(0 PLANTS.
plant was developed, aad naval ~S
IIp to 1920 the type of distilliag Pitad in gen- sinos that tiras have bank 4,9911)Dad with
eral uS threashant ths service wat the high-prers- type of distllliag plemt. It h aliad the know
7-3
water enroute to the first effect shell.

A condensate cooler. To transfer heat, from
the condensate being removed from the distiller
condenser to the circulating water en mute to
the condenser.
A single ateo air ejector and a condensate
pump installed in lieu of the lees efficient air
pump. The condensed steam from the air ejector
jet is returned to the bollar feed system with the
water from firet effect coil drains.
(5) A brine pump, installed for the purpose of
withdrawing brine from the third effect shell,
where it is under a premura below atmoepheric
and discharging the bite overboard. The bite
in the first effect shell ilows to the second,, and
that in the second effect shell flows to the third,
by virtue of the preesure differentials between the
three effecta.
(8) Coil drain cooler.
(7) Evaporator feed pump and back pressure
valva
7-3
NAVAL AUXILIARY MACFIINERY
sure type, because the first effect operates under

a Iow pressure and the later effects under progressively lower pressures. In the low-pressure
type the primary heating agent, in the first effect, is auxiliary exhaust steam which has already given up a great deal of its thermal energy
in the work it has done in driving auxiliary raechinery, such as the pumps, blowere, and other
units. This steam has remaining an avalable
amount of thermal energy which otherwise would
be lost to the cooling water if passed directly to
the main or auxiliary condenser. By sending it to
the evaporators, fresh water la obtained by the
utilization of the latent heat of vaporization in
the auxiliary exhaust steam. The advantages of
the low-pressure system are:
No demand is made upon the boiler for
high-pressure steam.
The temperature characteristic of this
plant prevents the precipitation of the salta in
the sea water which form the hardest scale, and
suppresses the formation of scale rlay the other
solida.
In this connection, it might be mentioned
that sulphate deposit, which preeipitates at about
245F., is the most harmful of the scales formed.
In the low-pressure type only the easily removed
carbonate acale is formed, and the amount of this
decreases rapidly with decrease in temperature.
It is obvious, theref ore, that this increases the
efficiency of heat transfer over a perod of time
and hence increases the time between successive
overhaul periods.
The fittings, fianges, and joints are lighter,
leas expensive, eaaier to make, and not as difficult
to maintain.
The over-all cost of maintenance and
operation is decidedly leas than that of the highpressure plant.
The low-pressure system has one disadvantage
in that, when distilling water in contaminated
ateas, such as closed harbors, the temperatures
existing in the evaporatore may not be sufficiently high to kill all bacteria which may be
present in the water, with the result that the distilled water may not be fit for drinking purposes.
Extreme tare must aleo be taken to prevent salt
water (brine) carry-over. As a precautionary
measure, when operating in harbor waters, it is
advisable:
(1) to maintain the auxiliary exhaust steam at
5 p.s.i., even though it may be necessary to bleed

live auxiliary steam loto the auxiliary exhaust
line in order to do so. This will maintain a brine
temperature of over 200F. within the first effect
shell which la necessary for killing the bacteria in
the sea water.
(2) to maintain the brine at a low level in the
evaporator shells in order to avoid moisture
carry-over. In this naanner, atente distillate s obtainable, providing the total impurities in the
distillate do not exceed 0.5 grains per ganen.
There are other types of distilling planta in use
to some extent on naval vessels which differ from
the two mentioned abo ye. These will be cliscussed
in Art. 7-8 after the detailed study of the lowpressure type.
7-4. MULTIPLE-EPFECT LOW-PRESSURE DISTILLING
Bef ore studying the multiple-effect distilling

plant details, the principie systems must be thoroughly understood.
For purposes of description, the piping system
of the low-pressure, submerged-tube type
plant will be divided lato seven different circulating systems as follows:
Primary steam circuit,
Vapor eircuit,
(3) Fresh water circuit,
Air removal circuit,
Distilling condenser circulating water circuit,
Evaporator feed water circuit, and
Brine circuit.
(1) Primary steam circuit. Auxiliary exhaust
steam la supplied to the tubes submerged in brine
in the first effect. The steam condenses giving up
its latent heat to boil the brine which is at a
lower pressure than the steam and consequently
at a lower boiling temperature. The condensed
auxiliary exhaust oteara, called "first effect
drains," is pumped or drained back to the boiler
feed system. In some planta it is rout,ed through
a shell and tube type heat exchanger called a
coa drain cooler, which transfers some of the
heat in the hot first effect drain to the evaporator feed water just before t entera the first
effect shell. It should be borne in mind that the
auxiliary exhaust atesta is the immediate source
of all the heat traed by the entice plant with the
single exception of the heat absorbed from the
74
DLSTILLING PLAN TS
air ejector jet steam in planta equipped with distiller condenser air ejectors in lieu of air pumps.
In order to prevent the generating steam from
blowing through the tubes before it has given up
all its latent heat, a ball float steam trap (not
shown) called a drain regulator, is provided in
the first effect tube nest drain line.
The first effect tube nest thermometer may occasionally indicate superheat, due to the initial
condition of the auxiliary exhaust steam and the
throttling action through the reducing valve. As
this temperature might be too high, resulting in
scale formation, the steam temperature is lowered
to the saturation temperature by means of a
desuperheating chamber (not shown) where condensate is brought back from the first effect drain
line after passing through the first effect draincooler (if installed) and is sprayed into the generating steam, absorbing any superheat present
therein.
(2) Vapor circuit. The vapor formed in the first
effect passes through a vapor separator to remove any entrained moisture carried over, and
then to a vapor feed heater. Here it gives up some
of its latent heat to the feed water going to the
first effect shell. The remaining vapor passes into
the second effect tube nest where it condenses
causing the brine in the second effect to boil. The
second effect brine is at a lower pressure than the
vapor from the first effect shell and the existing
temperature differential will cause the brine to
boil. In like manner, the vapor from the second
effect causes the brine in the third effect to boil.
The vapor from the third effect shell goes to the
distiller condenser and is there condensed by the
circulating water.
During the evaporating procese, when the vapor is disengaged from the brine at the water
surface and, although the vapor itself la pure,
small particles of raw, unevaporated feed water
are entrained by, and carried over with, the
vapor. The inclusion of there particles of leed
water in the vapor generated la known as "priming," or "carry-over." These particles of feed
water are removed from the vapor by a series of
baffies aboye the water surface in the evaporator
shells and by additional Jadies or yenes in the
vapor separatora. The vapor la forced to change
its direction of motion several times in passing
around the edges of the bailes or vanes at high
velocity. The particles of entrained moisture are
7-4
entrapped and removed by the hooked shape

edges of the baffies. All moisture colleeting hooks
and baffies are inclined to provide for satisfactory
drainage. Drain pipes leading below the surface of
the water are provided for discharging the separated moisture as far away as poasible from the
tube nest in the evaporator shell.
After passing through the vapor separator on
its way to the second effect tube nest, the vapor
generated in the first effect evaporator pasees
through the first effect vapor feed water heater,
where pan of the vapor le condensed giving up its
latent heat of vaporisation to the feed water pasaing through the tubes of the heater. Likewise the
second effect vapor la partially condensed in the
second effect vapor feed water heater. The third
effect vapor is of such a low temperature that the
use of a vapor feed heater at this point would not
give sufficient eeonomy to warrant the extra
weight and space involved. Vapor feed heaters
are shell-and-tube type heat exchangers.
(3) Fresh water circuit. The condenaste formal
by the condensation of (1) the first effect vapor lea
the second effect tube nest, and (2) the second effect vapor in the third effect tube nest, is combined with the condensate from the distiller
condenser. This combined total of the condensed
vapore from all three effecta is routed through a
shell-and-tube type heat exchanger called a condensate cooler, where some of the heat remaining
in the condenaste is transferred to the circulating
water on its way to the distiller condensen By
virtue of the different pressures (and boiling
points) within the second effect coila, the third
effect coila, and the distiller condenser, the drain
from the two effeets and the condenser are often
led to a flash chamber (not shown). The flash
chamber is vented to the distiller condenser shell,
and drains to the condensate pump suction. When
the second and third effect drains reach the lower
pressure of the flash chamber, part of the hot
water will flash into steam and be vsnted into the
distiller condenser where it is finally condensed.
In some plante the condensate cooler consista
of the lower rows of tubes in the distiller condenser itself, in which case, the condenaste level
in the condenser shell is maintained aboye the
tubes of the "condenaste cooler suction."
The distiller condensate pump (a centrifugal
type) takes suction from the flash chamber, ralees
the pressure of the condensate to a few pounde
7-5
7-4
AUX. STEAM
AIR EJECTOR
EVAPORATOR
FEED PUMP
VAPOR
SEPARATOR
AUX.
EXHAUS
STEAM
BACK
PRESS.
VALVE
VAPOR FEED
HEATER
2ND
EFFECT a,
1ST EFFECT j EVAP.
VAPORATO
IR
REMOVAL
DISTILLER
CONDENSER
3RD EFFECT
EVAPORATOR
COL DRAIN
COOLER
DIST. COND'T
PUMP
TO BOILER FEED
SYSTEM Skii
BRINE
PUMP
PUMP
COND'T.
COOLER
'e
OV'B'D FROM
SEACHEST
TO FRESH
WATER TANKS
FIG. 7-2. &tetada Arrangement of Triple-Effeet, Loa-Presume Distilling Plant

(Submerged-Tnbe Typo.)
aboye atmospheric pressurei diacharges to the

condenaste cooler and delivers it to two 50 gallon
cepacity measuring and testing tanks, (not
shown) whence the teated water may be measured by a meter and routed: (1) vis a fresh water
transfer pump to the reserve feed tanks (for use
in the bollera); (2) vis the fresh water transfer
pump to the ship's tanks (potable water); or (3)
by gravity to the bilges (in the case of unsatisfactory condensate) whence it may be pumped overboard by the bilge pumpe.
(4) Air removal circuit. Air and noncondensable vapors enter the plant mainly with the evaporator feed water in which they are dissolved. As
the feed water is heated, the dissolved air is freed
and tenda to collect in various units of the plant.
Air aleo entere the plant with the generating
steam and through various small leaks at pump
glande and imperfect jointe. anee the distiller
condenser is at the lower end of the hect flow
cycle of the distilling plant, the absolute pressure within this unit is lower than that within
any otber unit of the plant and all air and noncondensable gasee, which leak loto the system,
tend to odien in the ocedenser. In order that
the required vacuum may be maintained, the

noncondensable gases must be removed so that
they will not insulte the condensing tubas and
render the cooling sudase ineffective.
A series of vent linee connect sil shells and tube
nata with the distiller condenser, from which the
sir ejector takes suction. Designed vacuums of
the tbree effects vary from approximately 15' Hg
in the first effect to 27' Hg in the third effect.
These vacuums are initially obtained by the ah
ejector and are subsequently maintained by the
regulation of feed rate, circulating water rate,
and the proper operation of the vent system.
Two single ateo air ejecters having an alter
condenser common to both are usually provided
for removing the noncondensable vapore and air
which aceumulate in the distilling condenser.
(Only one is shown in Fig. 7-2.) Either of these
estora la capable of removing the air from the
distilling plant under normal conditions of air leakage, the second ejector being available as a apare
or for use under abnormal conditions of air kakage.
The air ejector suction piping is connected to
the air precooling section of the distilling condenser. The main function of the air precooler is to
74
Si
DISTIM4INQ FLAN
cool and remove all possible Tater vapor from the

sir to be
therY /educa
ing the total volume of thq gas Suma es prac1
ticable.
'
The, motive ate= la supplied to the air ejectore from the sualliary Mesan line threugh a re
the prefigure to about-ducingvalewhrs
150 pa.i.
The jet'oteara issuing from the nozzle of the
air ejector entrame the sir and noncondensable
vapore from the distiller condensa
rabea
the presaure of the mixture slightlyabsynatmosphezic. This atara is condenseelyand tire sir in
cooled, in the air ejector condenaer where the
vapor gives up its latent heat to the evaporator
feed water passing through the condensing tubas
of fide unit. The sir and noncondenaable vapore
are vented to the atmcephere either directly lato
the evaporator room or through a vent connection to the weather deck. The condenaste la returned to the boiles' feed system usually through
the fresh-water drain collecting system.
Dlatiller condensar circulating water circuit. The distiller condensar circulating water
pump takee suction from the sea and discharges
through the condenaste cooler and the dietilling
condensar. A strsiner la provided in the pump
suction piping. The cooling water usually makes
one pass through the tubos of the condenaste
cooler and two or more pasees through the tubas
of the distiller condensar. The cooling water is
then discharged overboard, usually through a
spring-loaded, back-pressure valva, set to maintain 5 pounds per aguare inch back pressure on
the astillar condensar tuba and heada.
Evaporator feed water draft. The evaporators are supplied with feed water by a series
feed circuit. The water necessary for feeding the
evaporators is drawn by the evaporator feed
pump from the dietiller circulating overboard diecharge line ahead of the spring-loaded back-pressure valva. The feed pump diechargea through the
varioua feed basten in the following orden
Feed heating section (upper tuba romos) of
the distiller condensar,
Combined second and third effeot drain
cooler when installed (not shown in Fig.
74),
(o) Air elector condensar,

Second effect vapor feed heater,
First effect vapor feed heater, and
(f) First effect tuba nst atn eooler.
rs
By-pass are usually, provided

hostas to amable theme units to b
anta of denmgement. In order
weight either or both of the
asolen arsentittedlaseme
stallations. It will baaited that
ranged so that Melo& latee pasen
heater to the nal in the ordir of the
lents in the various units, La.,
ales ti feed heating
" the vapor p
featj
which la
rtg medium
nen drain %calar, etc.
The only exception to this
that the air ejector condensar:
the series in order that a subs
difference will exist between the 40111411~
Mesa and the feed water, so that thesiseof this
unit can be reasonably mal In order toprovide
a sufficient quantity of cooling water for tinair
ejector condenen when a small asoma of leed
water in being usad for the evaporatea aulitihr
off line (not shown) is usually inetalled leadisg
from the discharge connection of the air estor
condensar to the circulating water pump
charge line beyond the back-pressure.valve.
leak-off line la provided with a mann* tperated stop valva.
In well designad plante, the evaporan' %id
water is heated to withir about 10! ed the temperature in the first effect evaporibirlditillit0he
series of feed heaters provided for moat ditilling
plant installations. After passhig throughtbeiteit
feed heater in the series, the feed water is
chamad to the first effect enPorater shell
through a first effect feed regulatointte if prbvided. Feed regulators, if rovided,
of the ball float type and are
with a mane of adjunto:sant to
level in the evaporator shell with
limita. In planta which are not
feed regulatore the feed water fiow in
manually by metate of a feed coand
automatic feed regulatore ate of
operation, mesas are usually provi
the regulatore open in case of
stop vaina are provided for maizal control oribe
feed levek when this condition occisa
The feed water entere the evapora.
through a eonnection.arded well"
working water levet in Se abol." Istalt
7-7
7-4
orators are provided with internal perforated feed pipes for distributing the feed water
evenly in the shell below the tube nest.
(7) Brine circuit. After being partially evaporated in the first effect evaporator shell, the den* sity or salinity of the feed water is increased and it
is then referred to as brine to distinguish it from
sea water. This brine is drawn, through a strainer,
to the second effect feed regulator valve and to
the brine inlet connection of the second effect
shell. An inter-effect feed booster pump is sometimes installed in the brine line between the
first and second effects. The preseure differential
between effects is usually sufficient to discharge
the necessary quantity of bine from one effect to
the next. In Chis case, the water level in the shell
of each evaporator is controlled by hand regulated feed valves.
The brine is distributed in the shell of the second effect usually by mean of perforated internal
feed distributing pipes similar to those employed
for the first effect evaporator. The arrangement
of these pipes is such as to prevent the vapor
which is flashed from the brine, due to the pressure drop from the first effect shell to the second,
from causing violent agitation in a localized ares,
of the second effect evaporator shell and thus
VAPOR IR NEMER
tends to prevent priming.

Brine from the second effect evaporator is discharged to feed the third effect evaporator in the
same manner as described abo ye for the second
effect.
The brine from the third effect evaporator shell
is continuously pumped overboard by the brine
pump. The amount pumped overboard determines the density of the brine in the third effect
shell and is regulated by a manually operated
control valve in the pump diseharge line. A
strainer is provided in the pump suction line to
prevent clogging of the pump with scale from the
evaporator. To prevent vapor binding in the
brine overboard diseharge pump and siso to
prevent excessive accumulation of scale on the
pump impeler, a small quantity of sea water is
usually admitted through a brine diluting connection (not shows) located near the pump suction
connection. This brine cooling and diluting water
la usually supplied from the distiller condenser
circulating water overboard discharge line. The
brine overboard pump is arranged to be vented to
the third effect shell. The glands of these pumps
are usually sealed against air leaks, the water for
gland sealing being supplied by linea from the discharge of the evaporator feed pump.
VAPOR FEEO NEMER
VAPOR OUTLET TO
DISTILLER CONDENSER
AIR EJECTOR CONDENSER
AUXILIARY STEAM INLET
SHELL
CONDENSATE
COOLER
FEO INLET
DRAIN CONN.
1ST EFFECT
ORINE PUMP SUCTION
2N0 EFFECT
3RD EFFECT
FIG. 74. Low-Pressure, Triple-Effeet, Submerged-Tube Distilling Plant.
7-8
go SEA WATER
al 'RINE
} STEAM-FROM
isa 110ILER
SYSTEM
VAPOR-FROM
1111111 SEA WATER
DISTILLED WATER
egBOILER STEAMCONDENSATE
CM VAPOR AND AIR
STEAM AND AIR
AIR
EJ EGO
legas.
110 STOREALUTTMIOW
hm. MACOM1 STRAINER

ONDENS
TEST
TANK
LEGEND
ANGLE VALVE
IP RELIEF VALVE
P. STOP VALVE
-E) T - MO ETER
itM GATE VALVE
ISCIrliaZI
wri
SWING CHECK VALVE
ai ST M SEMOR & T P
remaisac
iaru
El WATER METER
AIR EJECTOR
CONDENSER
rbi VACUUM GAUD11~1~11

WEIGHT LOADED
REGULATING VALVE
TO 2ND
EFFECT
SHEL
FROM i ST
EFFECT
TUSE
NEST
TREATMENT
MIrG
ANK
TREATMEN
SUPPLY
TAN
WATER
PUMP
C I 'E
SE
C OLER
'S'H'
PRA
INE
BRINE
PUMP
CIRCULATING
WATER PUMP.
TUSE NEST DRAIN PUMP
FIG. 7-4. Low-Pressure, Double-Effect, Submerged-Tube Type DietilJing Plaza.
7-4
[7 Infla
LD nemaa
ira hola taa eTr1"Pl9t."!
n7~ C1 1111~
SMIVATS
'MINI
3snAW nom acaut mar

I
~VAPOR FROM SEA /EME
~ VAPO R
IVA/ER
10+Uit STEAMO4DENSANI
O VAPOR AND AM
11.1 MAN 'AND' lt
TELEIMENT SOLETION
rz1~.L
rffi
Ki HAMO 57IAINEI adEr~ra
WATER NEM
-o gmln
MIGHT LOMEO
ILEGVIATING VAL*.
TRIMMENT MINING
/AM
NEIN
WATER
11041
YI
DESUIE'Y'03
SENAY
UNE
DRAIN
RIN MESE
DIAIN PLUM.
NINE PUM
FUI 7-5. Diagrammatio Arrangement of a Soloshen Low-Presaure, Double-Effoct Distilling Plata.
Connectione are usually provided so that the

brine pump may be used for pumping the brine
out of any evaporator !boli whenever desired.
In order that scale accumulation on the surface
of evaporator heating tubas will be kept at a minimum, it is necessary that the brine density in the
Last effect evaporator be kept at or below a maximum of 1.5/32 (sea water has a density of 1/32,
i.e., 32 lbs of sea water containe 1 lb of dissolved
salta). A salinity test pot is fitted on the last effect shell to faenaste drawing a sample of brine
for testing ita salinity. For plante not provided
with a brine diluting connection, the salinity test
pot is often replaced by a test cock in the overboard discharge line from the pump.
The various units which constitute the distilling plant shown in Fig. 7-2 have been indicated
as Repartas, independently mounted units. However, in den to reduce to a mnimum the weight
and space required for distilling planta and to
simplify the piping system, various units have
been eombined into a single shelL The first effect
shell contaba the first effect tube neet, vapor
separator, and vapor feed bestia?. The second effect contaba the second effect tube nest, vapor
separator, and vapor feed heater. The third effect

shell contaba the third effect tube nest vapor
separator and sometimos the distiller condensen.
Figure 7$ illustrates a typical triple-effect distilling plant asaembly.
7-5. LOW-PRESSURE DOUBLE-EFFECT SYSTEM.
The description given in Art. 7-4 for a triple-effect distilling plant will apply, in general, to a
double-effect plant. In a double-effect insta llation
the second effect evaporator ae described aboye is
eliminated, and the unit described aboye as the
third effect evaporator operates as the second and
final effect. Figure 7-4 shows diagrammatically
the arrangement of a double effect distilling plant.
No attempt will be made to trace the chimba of
this plant as it is very similar to the triple effect
plant. It is to be noted, however, that in this arrangement there are no coil drain coolers and the
feeding is done by a hand regulated valve located
at the discharge of the first effect vapor feed
heater. The various units of the plant may be
contained in one shell, with each effect at opposite ende of the shell or there may be two separate
shells. fe arrangement is dependent upon the
7-10
NI Eitel")
-CIMENSOI
1ST EFFECT
FEED UNE
VAPM TO 2N0
EFFMT COES
1ST (Fati SRAS
NET CMICTION
1ST EFFECT FEED

CHECK
2ND EFFECT RED

CHECK
FIG. 7-6. Dotah-Effed "Slositell" Distillin
2ND EFFECT
SEPARATOR
1ST EFFECT
SEPARATOR
VAPOR FEED
HUTU
SIGHT RASS
1ST EFFECT
COAS
1ST EFFECT ORAlti

"MATO'
DEBEN NATI
210) Frit MANI

MATO'
VIO. 74. natal tanagemeat of "Multe Dotibleabet Dia!~ Pint.

/en

VAPOR SEPARADA
DRAIN TUSE
GLASS
INSPECTION
PORTS
STEAM DR VAPOR FEED

HEATER CONNECTION
FRONT READ
SPLASH
BAFFLE
COIL DRAIN
TUSE NEST
CONNECTION--
INTERNAI FEED PIPE
FIG. 7-8. Internarkrangement ot
.15
vaporator Shell of a Thre Shell, Triple-Bife Plant.
capacity of the unit and the space available. No

feed pump is provided, the distiller circulating
pump providing the required pressure head.
7-6. LOW-PRESSURE, DOUBLE-EFFECT SYSTEM SINGLE SHELL.
This distilling plant (Figs. 7-5,74 and 7-7) is

of the low-pressure, double-effeet submerged tube
type. It la a small compact unit and la installed
as the main unit on small vessels and the standby
unit on large vessels. The two effect unit consista
of a horizontal cylindrical shell, within whieh are
incorporated the evaporating units, vapor feed
heaters, distiller condenser, baffles, vapor separators, etc. A vertical longitudinal wall divides it
into first and second effect chambera. The first
effect chamber contains the first effeet evaporating unit, vapor separator, and vapor feed heater;
the second effect chamber contains the second effect evaporating unit, vapor separator and distiller condenser. The distiller condenser vacuum
is maintained by a single stage air ejector discharging into a condenser externally mounted on
the evaporator shell, and cooled by the evaporator feed.
7-7. LOW-PRESSURE, MULTIPLE-EFFECT SYSTEM

GENERAL DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION.
Pumps. Motor driven centrifuga" pumps

are provided for distiller condenser circulating
water, condensate, brine discharge, evaporator
feed, and tube nest drains. Sine these pumps are
driven by constant apeed motora, any adjustment in pump capacity should be obtained by
manipulation of the discharge valve. All pumps
operating under a vacuum are water sealed to
prevent air leakage which would cause the pumps
to lose suction. The suction cides of these pumps
are vented to an appropriate place in the system
operating at a lower pressure.
Tube nest. The evaporator tube nest (Figs.
7-7 and 7-8) consista of tubes expended into a
tube sheet at each end and supported by an intermediate support plate. The tubes, consisting
of an upper set of eight or nine rows of horizontal
vapor tubes and lower set of two or three rows of
inelined drain tubos, are arranged for two passes
of the heating steam and hot condensate. The
front tube sheet is fixed, being bolted to the front
shell cover; the back tube sheet and head, and the
7-12
DISTILLINO PLANTS
VENT
VENT
VENT
7-7
EXPANSION IOINT
VENT
AIR EIKTOR
FEED INLET
ZINC PENCO
DRAIN
setnoN
DRAIN
FEED ()uno'
ZINC PENCIL
VAPOR
OUTLET
VAPOR
OUTLET
ZINC PLATE
CIRCULATING
WATER INLET
CONDENSATE DRAIN
CIRCULATING WATER OUTLET
FEO
INLET
VAPOR INLET
IMPACT
BAFFLE
AIR EJKTOR
SUCTION
INNER HEATER
SKTION
DISTILLER SECTION
AIR BAFFLE
AIR PRECOOLER SKTION
FIG. 7-9. Vapor Feed Heder.
FIG. 7-10. Distiller Condeaser.
intermediate tube supporting plate are supported

on rails in the shell so that the tube nest is free
to expand. Air is vented from both chambero of
the front head and from the rear head to the
shell of the last effect. The tube nests are made
of either copper-nickel alloy or admiralty metal
which is a copper-zinc-tin alloy. The tuba nest
may be withdrawn from the shell for removal of
scale.
(3) Baffling and vapor separators. Abo ye the
tube element a system of baffling is provided to
prevent water from entering the upper portion of
the shell due to prirning at high rateo of ebullition. Aboye these baffies are side baffies designed
to change the direction of the flow of vapor several times bef ore the vapor entero the separator
at the top of the shell. These side baffies, as well
as the bottom plate of the separator, are furnished with furled, hook shaped edges to collect
entrained moisture which is drained to points
outside of the main path of the vapor. The separotor consiste of severa! rows of vertical bent
vanes. They are arranged to cause additional
changes in the direction of the flow of vapor,
removing the last traces of entrained moisture.
Loop seals drain this moisture from a collection

tray to the lower part of the shell.
Vapor feed heaters. The vapor feed heater
is the term applied to the heat exchanger wherein
the feed water for the first effect shell is heated by
the vapor f ormed. Figure 7-9 is a straight tube,
shell and tube type heat exchanger. The feed
water makes four passes through the length of
the heater. The vapor from one effect entere at
the top of the shell, is deflected over the top
row of tubes by an impact baffle, and passes
downward over the tubes. The two vapor outleto
are bolted to Unges on the steam head of the
tube nest of the nest effect. The vapor feed heater
does not have sufficient cooling enrisco to condense more than a part of the vapor.
Distiller condenser. Figure 7-10 illustrates
a typical distiller condensen. After passing
through the condensate cooler, sea water makes
the following passes through the Distiller Condensen
First pass. In the circulating water inlet,
through a little leas than half the distiller section,
and all of the air precooler section.
Second pass. Returns through the remainder
7-13
7-7

STEAM INLET
Air ejector. The air ejector (Fig. 7-11) Le o
the single stage type with an after-condenser. It

uses live auxiliary oteara reduced to between 275
and 150 p.s.i., depending upon the design specifiNOZZLE
BAFFLES
cationes A strainer caga in the steam inlet proAIR SUCTION
tects the nozzle from rust, acte or other loose
foreign matter. The shell is baffled so that the expended jet steam, the air and the noncondensable
vapore have to pass over all of the cooling surface
before the condensate, air and gases reach their
FEED WATER OUTLET
respective outlets. The condensate la drained to
EMERGENCY CIRCULATIN
the fresh water drain system, while the sir and
W TER OYERBOARD
uncondensed vapore are vented to the atmosphere. The evaporator feed water is used as the
cooling agent within the after condenser tubes,
making three pasees before discharging through
the feed outlet.
Zinc protectora, in the forra of removable pencils, are inserted in the heads to combat galvanic
ZINC
action.
FEED
PENCIL
DRAIN
WATER INLET
Condensate cooler. Condensate from the
FIG. 7-11. Distiller Air Ejector and Condenser.
distiller condensen, and from the third effect flash
chamber, la cooled in the condensate cooler (Fig.
of the tubes in the distiller section and out the 7-13), which is a f our pass shell and tube type
circulating water outlet to the overboard dis- heat exchanger. Sea water en route to the distiller
eharge line.
c. Third, Fourth, and Fifth pasees. That por- VENT
VENT
tion of this slightly heated eireulating water that
is required for evaporator feed is then taken from
the overboard diseharge line by the evaporator
feed pump and given three pasees through the
inner heater seetions of the Distiller Condenser to
gain additional heat for evaporator feed purposes.
Vapor from the test effect shell entere the condenser through the vapor inlet, whence it pasees
down, first over the tubas of the inner heater
section, then over the tubes of the distiller seotion. A baffle plate, extending throughout the
length of the shell, deflects the vapor and its conCIRCULATING
densate away from the air precooler section. Air
WATER OUTLET
and other uncondensable vapore are drawn under
CONDENSATE
this baffle by the suction of the air ejector. These
ZINC PENCIL
INLET
BAFFLE
vapore and the air are precooled while passing
over the tubos of the precooler section, which
condenses any remaining water vapor and causes
the air ami vapore to contract(increase in density)
making the load on the air ejector and its condeneer lighter.
CIRCULATRIU
Removable zinc platea are attached to the
WATER INLET
hand-hole covers in the heads to protect against
galvenic action.
VIO. 7-12. Condensate Cooler.
STRAINER CAGE
7-14
DISTILLING PLANTE
CHECK VALVE
MANOMETER
TO 5 U.
224 F
ATMOSP14ERIC
PRESSURE 2I2F
214F
CENTER DOWN PIPE
FOR RKIRCULATION
VERTICAL TUIE STEAM
CHEST CONDENSING
STEAM AROUND
TUBES SEA WATER
501LING INSIDE
TUBES.
OVERFLOW YO F
FEED 60F
CONDENSATE 74 F
DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER
FIG. 7-13. Schematie Arrangement of Vapor

Compressioa Distilling Plant.
condenser pasees over the tubes within the shell.

A horizontal, longitudinal baffle plate provides
for efficient use of all tube audaces. Condensate
from the distiller condenser pasees through the
tubes. Zinc pencils in the entrence and exit openings of the shell protect against galvanic action.
Drain regulators. The drain regulators are
steam trape of the ball float operated type used
to maintain a seal on the evaporator coila (tube
nests). A gauge glosa is provided on each regulator
body to indicate the drain level. Means are provided for locking the regulators open in case o
derangement, and stop valves are provided for
manual control of the drain level when this condition occurs. The drain regulators are nothing
more than steam trape which open to allow the
condensate to flow but clase to prevent the steam
or vapor from blowing through.
Salinity indicator system. A constant
check on the salinity of the distilled water must
be made in order that the reserve tanks and
ship's tanks may not be contaminated because of
faulty distilling plant operation. Besides the
standard chemical tests required to be made on
every fifty gallons of water bef ore pumping it
from the measuring and testing tanks, electric
7-8
salinity indicator cells are provided. These celle

are provided at such places as the fresh water
pump discharge, the distiller condensate pump
discharge, the first effect coil drain and the air
ejector condenser drain. Electric salinity indicators are described in Chapter 13.
(10) Chill shocking connection. By alternately
rapidly heating and cooling the tubes in the tube
nests, the salt scale formed on the outer surfacee
of the tubes can be cracked loose from the tubes.
For this purpase, a perf orated "chill shocking"
spraying pipe is sometimes installed within the
evaporator shell just aboye the tube nest. The
chill pipe is connected to the ship's fire main. By
allowing the brin level to recede below the tubes,
the steam (or vapor) entering the pipas will maintain their temperature. If the steam supply is
then secured and cold salt water sprayed over the
gibes from the chill pipe, considerable cracking of
scale can be accomplished. By chill shocking the
tube nests once or twice daily, the period between overhauls can be considerably lengthened.
It will be necessary to secure the evaporator
every two or three days in order to haul out the
loosened scale through clean out holes located in
the bottom of each shell.
7-8. VAPOR COMPRESSION TYPE DISTILLING
PLANT.
This type of distilling plant (Fig. 7-18) is used

on some Diesel operated surface vessels and submarines.
Although the vapor compression distilling cyele has been known for a long time it has only recently been commercially developed.
Hot feed water entera the evaporator at atmospheric pressure. The vapor formed from the feed
water rices and pasees through a baffle to the vapor compressor. Here it is compressed to a pressure of from 3 to 5 pounds aboye atmospheric
with a correaponding temperature of from 220F.
to 226F. The compressed steam la admitted to
the steam chest of the evaporator. This consiste
of a horizontal steam chest with vertical tubes.
The steam condenses around the tubes, giving up
its latent heat and causing the hot feed water in
the tubos to boil. Every pound of compressed
steam that condenses, generates a pound of atmospheric pressure steam for the compressor suetion, so that the amount of steam in the system
remalla constant. The hot condensate flows out
7-15
74
through the heat exchanger, giving up its heat to

raise the temperature of the incoming feed.
The cycle is started by electrically heating coid
feed to its boiling point and generating dem to
supply the compressor. Once the compresor le
supplied with steam the distillation oyere -will
start and the heat by electric heaters is only required to make up heat loases. The heat input
by direct electric heaters is Telatively small when

compared to the total heat requirement. The
amount of salt water feed must be in caceas of the
condemiate and the exceas acta as a constant blow
clown to carry off the salt and impurities present
in the feed water from the evaporator. The exceso
feed pasees through the heat exchanger and le
cooled by heating the incoming feed.
7- 16
CHAPTER 1
FEED WATER SYSTEMS
bL ESSZATIAL ~TE; OF TUS LEED WATER
SYSInt.
The feed water system, in the broadeet senas,
may be conaidered as including the complete assembly of apparatue and piping between the outlete from the various imita which use steam, taken
coflectively, and the feed inlet to the unit which
genendes the ateam, Le., the boiler. 'This system
may be divided lato three principal component
parte, viz., (1) the condenaste system, (2) the
boiler feed system, and (3) the fresh water drain
system. The functions of these component parte
are as follows:
The condenaste system condenses the oteara
and removes sir alter it has paseed through the
various unta inetalled in the system and delivers
the condenaste to the boiler feed system.
'The boiler feed system removes sir from
the condenaste, heate and delivers the condenaste as feed water to the bollera.
3. The fresh water drain system collects and
delivers to the condenaste, and/or the boiler feed
system, uncontaminated water which is drained
from various apparatuses about the ship, such ae
feed water heatera, fuel oil heaters, first effect
evaporator coil drene, heating system, galley
steam *otero, ateam coila in fuel oil and lubricating oil tanks, etc.
The condenaste system consiste of:
The main and auxiliary condensers, the
former receiving *sant from the malaproplion
anginas, while the Iatter reeeive eteam from the
generator turbinas and br some cases from other
auxiliarles.
A mesas for removal of the condensate and
sir from the condensers. This is dfected by:
(a) A condenaste ptunp which removes the
condenaste, and an sir ejector which removes the sir, the condenaste pump diecharging to the honor feed system, and the
sir elector ejecting the air to the stmosphere. Air elector* are usually built in two
enes, with an inter-condenser between
Ataras and an after-oondonaer at the outlet
from the eecond stage which is sometimos
followed by a gland exbaust condensen
Usually, the diacharge from the conden-
aBate pump is usad as the teoling meditar

a
the mter- and alter-conclensers antistand
exhaust condenser.
The Boller leed system conejo*. of
A reservoir to receive and atore thekrmiensate for immediate use as feed "water. This neervoir takes the form of a deaerating feed tisk,
which will be described latera Heat is addedio
the water at this point.
A muna for deserating the fosa walehisi
fore it is pumped to the bollen. The modo*
usad for accomplishing this deseratiob otramoval of sir, will be explidned tater.
A mesas for heating the feed wat,er botera it
ie delivemd to the bollera. This lis aceomplished
the most part by (1) feed heaters, (2) esonendran
and (3) by the dea,erating feed tants, ~brame
siso as feed water heatera.
A mesas for delivering the feed water to the
bollera, which ie accomplished by feed piraras.
These are desead, according to the sern:ter
which they are intended, as (1) feed beide
pumpe, (2) main feed pumpe, and (3) emergettcy
or auxiliary feed pumpe. The feed boostersump'
may be considerad to be the firet etage (r Sagas)
of the main feed or au:dliary leed pumps. Met*
up feed pumpe are sometimos provided to transfer water from the reserve fecd tanka to the feed
system in order to make up for losara.
Meana for conveying the water between *e
various parta of the system, i.e., the bid
systems, including (1) main feed, (2) aun
feed, (3) make-up feed and (4) leed transfer
ing, with some minor linee which wili hediese**
laten
Sponse for storage of a reserve stipsdy of
feed water for future nes to melte up for unaveklable loases in the system. These aparas are callad
reserve feed tanks, and are located in the deuble
bottoma (between the inner and the catar *las
of the ehip),wmallybeneath the engke room; and
fire room They are located aleo, in some
in coffenlame between vertical bulkheade separsting adjnyant compartmente.
The .atar duda opinan.
Throughout the engiasedegglant nema is enetiman)! loeing heat by eanduldion to thefliliof
L-1
pipes which convey it and to the walls of units

through which it pasees. Some of this heat la lost
and cannot be regained, while some is transferred
to another fluid to serve a useful purpose. The
loes or removal of heat from saturated steam
causes condensation. The resulting water is returned to the feed system through piping called
drains. To call the water in the drain piping
"drains" is also correct and customary.
Initially, drains are at the same temperature
and pressure as the steam from which they were
condensed, but will lose some heat and therefore
fall in temperatura in the drain piping. A destination la selected for each drain to which it can
flow, and will flow, by virtue of the pressure
differential, whether thie differential resulta from
vapor pressures or from gravity. However, on
some drains, due to long drain fines with resulting drop in pressure because of pipe friction or
due to an elevated destination, pumps are neceasary to produce flow.
8-2. DRAIN DISPOSAL.
The four general types of fresh water drains

on naval vessels are:
(1) High pressure drains, originating at such
places as:
Superbeater headers.
Throttle valves.
(e) Low bends in main and auxiliary
linea.
Steam separators in main and auxiliary
steam linea.
Whistle and siren steam fines.
(2) Low pressure drains, from:
Auxiliary exhaust linea.
Safety valves.
(e) Sight-flow funnel dramas, also properly
called open-funnel drains. (These are atmospheric pressure drains. They are provided at the lowest point of all reciprocating engine steam cylinders, main and
auxiliary turbine casings, vertical leads of
steam and exhaust piping, all fresh water
pump cylinders and casings, fresh water
piping, superheaters, and in general all
parte of machinery from which it may
be desirable to drain fresh water when
such machinery is not in use, or just
prior to putting it hito use.)
(3) Drains which may have become contaminated with oil such as:
8-2
Fuel oil heater drains.

Drains from heating coila in fuel oil service, storage and settling tanks.
Drains from heating coila in lubiicating
oil settling and storage tanks, and lubricating oil heaters (to purifiers).
(4) Special dramas, among which are:
(4) Heating system draina.
(b) Evaporator first effect coil drains.
(e) Hot water heater draina.
Galley and scullery draina. (Drains
from heating steam used in cookers and
dish washing machina.)
High pressure drains are led to the deaerating
feed tank. Low pressure drains, if of atmospheric
pressure or aboye, are collected in a fresh water
drain collecting tank. The water so collected is
drawn luto the main or auxiliary condenser
through an automatic float controlled valve, or
it may be drained to a reserve feed tank. The
fresh water drain collecting tank is vented to the
gland exhaust condenser or to the atmosphere.
Some low pressure drains are below atmospheric pressure. They cannot drain to the fresh
water drain collecting tank. The air ejector intercondenser is drained via a loop seal to the condenser from which the air ejector is taking suetion. The evaporator first effect coil, if below atmospheric pressure, is drained to the auxiliary or
dynamo condenser, or it may be pumped to the
feed tank; if aboy e atmospheric pressure it is
drained or pumped to the feed tank.
All drains which may have become contaminated with oil are collected in the drain inspection tank from which they are conducted to the
feed tank, if not contaminated. The drain inapection tank is fitted with a gima; strip in ita side
through which oil may be seen, if it is present.
Provision la made for draining this tank to the
bilge, whence the contaminated water can be
pumped overboard.
Drains from the heating system, hot water
heaters, galley and scullery are led to the heating
system drain tank. In order to ensure proper
drainage for the systems or units far removed
from the machinery spaces, this tank may be
maintained under a vacuum of about 15 inches
of mercury by a single stage air ejector. An automatic float controlled heating system drain pump
FEED WATER SYSTEMS
VENT
CONDENSEN
OPEN FEA) TANK

FIFO WATER
WET
PUMP
FEED PUMP HEATER

TO MUR
OPEN FEO! SYSTEM

VENT
TO AIR EJECTOR
OPEN SURGE TANK
CONDENSEN
FEED PUMP
CONDENSATE PUMP
FEED WATER
BEATO!
TO MOLER
SEMI-CLOSED FEO! SYSTEM.

VACUUM VENT LINE
VACUUM SURGE TANK
TO AIR EJECTOR,
CONDENSEN
FEED PUMP
' CONDENSATE PUMP
FEED WATER
HEATER
ro atm
C. VACUUM CLOSED FEED SYSTEM

VENT
TO AIR EJECTOR
.-IAUXIUARY MAUS]. STEAM

DEAERATING FEED TANK
CONDENSEN
FEED
CONDENSATE PUMP
TO DOLER
D. PRESSURE-CLOSED FEED SYSTEM
FIG. 8-1. Stages in the Developmeat of Naval Feed Water Systems.
8-3
8-2
NAVAL AUXILIARY lifACHINERY
Cakes suction from the tank and delivers to the

feed tank. When not under a vacuum, the heating system drain tank may be drained to the
fresh water drain collecting tank.
All drains are fitted with a trap or water sea)
at the root connection on the unit being drained.
Drain water flows to the trap or sea) by gravity.
Therefore, the trap or sea) must be located below
the unit being drained and the drain pipe must
be connected to such unit at its lowest point. It is
important that all drains must have a continuous
slope without pockets. Damage caused by freezing is thus prevented when the engineering plant
la wholly or partly laid up or placed out of commission.
higher vacuum fa neeessary. One of the early

changos in the system shown in Fig. 8-1(A) to
improve the vaeuum was the addition of a single
stage air ejector used to augment the wet air
pump. This added unit called an augmenter took
suction on the shell of the condenser, removing
air and uncondensed vapore. The augmenter discharged to the suction side of the wet air pump
through a aman condenser called the augmenter
condensar. The function of the augmenter condenser was to condense the steam and vapore
drawn from the condenser and to cool the air in
order to inermee its density so that it could be
more readily handled by the wet air pump. Some
improvement in vacuum resulted from the addition of the augmenter. Modem planta use two
stage air ejectors with inter- and alter (mudensers.
The modem power plant uses a very large volume of water each minute at full power. A unit
delivering 50,000 shaft horsepower will require
- about 10,000 lbs. of feed water per minute. Such a
volume of water cannot be satisfactorily handled
by a reciprocating wet air pump. For this reason,
centrfuga! "condensate" pumps were adoptad to
remove water from the condenser hot well. It
should be kept in mind that the wet air pump
siso removed air and uncondensed vapore, a
function for which the centrifuga) pump la not
fitted. Theref ore, planta equipped with condensate
pumps require air ejectors which usually have
two stages. The student should note that the
change from the wet air pump to the condenaste
pump and air ejector combination has fulfilled
the need for both a higher vacuum and larger
capacity plante. This combination aleo is cesential to the proper deaeration of feed water which
will be brought out in the following paragrapbs.
Before reviewing the development of feed water systems from the standpoint of deaeration,
the subject of oxygen in feed water will be briefiy
covered so that the student will understand the
principies involved.
Air in solution in boiler feed water be usually
referred to as "dissolved oxygen" since the nitrogen content of the air, which is also dissolved
along with the oxygen, is inert and causes no corrosion of the exponed metal audaces. The carbondioxide content of ordinary air represente a small
percentage of the total constituents, but is of intereet in connection with feed water conditioning
THE DEVELOPMENT OP NAVAL FRED WATER

SYSTEMS.
8-3.
The design of feed systems has undergone a

series of modifications since the original open feed
system was established. Fig. 8-1 (A) shows this
original feed system in abbreviated form.
The development of the modera feed system
from the system shown aboye has been based on
three major factors, to wit:
Higher vacuum requirements;
Modem turbina installations require
greater vacuum than can be obtained by
the use of wet air pumps;
Greater load capacity;
The modem high power systems use
much more water per minute than can
be properly handled by reciprocating
pumps;
(3) Oxygen corrosion;
This is probably the most important of
the three factors because the higher temperitures and pressures of modem planta
enable soluble or entrained oxygen to produce considerable corrosion.
Theee three factors will now be discussed in
further detall after which the severa) well known
types of feed water systems which have been used
in the past will be atudied so that the student can
observe how the development has occurred.
The vacuum attained by the action of the open
feed system with a wet air pump was sufficient
for the operation of earlier reciprocating engine
planta but with more efficient enginee and more
particularly with the development of turbinee,
8-4
e
FRED WATER SYSTEMS
because it is more soluble than oxygen or nitrogen, and combines with water to form carbonie
acid, which tendera the feed water corrosivo in
the presence of dissolved oxygen. The relatively
pure, gas-free condensate absorba oxygen and
carbon-dioxide at a rapid tate when exposed to
the atmosphere, and to a much greater sapacity
than ordinary fresh shore water containing the
usual mineral impurities in solution. Feed water
with a given air content (either as free or diesolved air) becomes more corrosivo as the water
temperature increases. Under test conditiona, hot
water at 210F. has been found to produce about
twice the depth of corrosion as competed with
the same water at 85F. The weight of iron which
can be converted hito rust le directly propordonal to the quantity of oxygen in the feed water.
The solubfiity of air in pure water beata a deflnite relation to the presente and temperature of
the water as may be observed from Fig. 8-2.
These curves are based on exposure of pure water
to an atmosphere of ordinary air saturated with
water vapor at the various presentes indicated
for each curve. It should be noted that the capacity of the water to absorb oxygen rumbea alero
at a definite temperature. By reference .$0t*Muu

of the properties of saturitted ottani it witt hsentad that each curve meets the :ere
oxygen ordinate at the temperature e
mg to the boiling point of water at the gben
presente. The first step in the deacration utfled
water is, therefore, to raise the tompasture of the
water to the boiling point at the exieting ~nro.
This tendera oxygen and carbon-dioxide
ble in water. BUT, it does NOT autonbaitilly
remove all of the gas molecules, so ralead from
solution, from within the water mea Some oil
gas molecules adhere to the water taus. Sch
undissolved gas can be removed by mechankal
agitation which is often referred to as "Ball
bing." After being heated to its boiling point, the
water must be "scrubbed" in order to remove the
laat vestige of oxygen or carbon-dioxide. fis5e*
important in order to understand the action of
the deaerating feed tenles when they ar desented later.
The use of wet air pumps was detrimental to
the eliminado/ of air from the water. The pitinp
sucked the air along with the water from thOtondenser and delivered it to a higher preastare and
somewhat moler location with the result thatte
water was well impregnated with air. Unfortu240
nately,
the wet air pump was an effective aerator.
OREEEMEREMEEREERE
230
Following
the replacement of the wet air pump
2211
n
MIE
n
RME
nnnn
Rn
Enn
with
the
condenaste
pump and air ejector, subse210
n
ILnnn
ER
nnn
RnMn
quent
changes
have
been duo pritnarily t tila
291
191 nIMORMEME nnnnnnnn deeire to keep the oxygen content of the water at
111 MINEIMMENNE nMENnn a low level. Feed systems may be roughly divided
170 IIIRIMIREEERRERREER into four clases:
160 n ILInn Ennnnnn NENE n
The opon system, (Fig. 8-1 (A)),
150 IIIIM nInE nnnnnnnnn
The semi-closed system, (Fig. 8-1 (B)),
140
The vacuum-closed system, (Fig. 81 (C)),
n EnMMEnn
130 WRIUREN
and
n EnnMEnn
120 REOWNEW
The pressure-closed system (Fig. 8,1(D)).
RIMO
Mk
nnn
110
The
development
of theme systems, starting with
MERMEN
110 NUE
the
opon
system,
(Fig.
8-1 (A)), is covered brielly
NO
n
90
in
this
article.
Other
articles
in this chapter and
NEME
so
in
the
appendix
will
cover
the
four veWme more
IMIREnnMn
70
n
NInnE
nn
completely
with
such
details
as
draine and autal111
17(
~NEM
line
lary
50
The opon feed systems were eatisfeetory for
40
pressures under 300 p.s.i. With prefigures of kora
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 i910111213141516 17 800-400 p.e.i. it was found neeeesary todo sopeOXEEN SOl11111111, 11111111113 PEA UTE,
thing about the amount of air in the water, figure 8-1 (B) shows the next step; lulving the, feed
FIG. 8-2. Solebility Curvee of Ornen la Water
tank
"float" on the line. Instad othirrIntidjb
Exponed t. hit Saturated with Water Vapor.
nonnnnnn am
wassmom
8-5
rd
8-3
water go through an open feed tank where it

could be in contact with the atmosphere, the
great body of feed water bypassed the tank.
Only when therA were changes in load would there
be a flow of water from orto the open surge tank.
This cut down the amount of air in the water considerably and permitted operation at pressures
up to 400 p.s.i.
At pressures over 400 p.s.i. with moderate superheat the amount of air dissolved in the water
in the open surge tank caused corrosion. The open
surge tank at atmospheric pressure, and temperatures below boiling, admitted enough air to cause
trouble. In the vacuum-elosed system (Fig. 8-1
(C)) which was the next stage in development, the
surge tank was enclosed and vented to the condenser so that a much lower pressure existed on
the surface of the feed water in the surge tank.
Because of the lowered boiling point, this reduced
considerably the oxygen content of the feed water. At the temperatures and pressures existing in
the vacuum surge tank, the tank served as a deaerating agent, removing some of the air from solution in the water, the air passing over to the
condenser where it was removed by the air ejector.
The high pressures and temperatures of the
more modera plant, 650 p.s.i. and 850F., caused
too much corrosion even when using vacuum
surge tanks. Even though dissolved air was at a
minimum, there would still be air in suspension
in the water which could only be removed by
"scrubbing" as mentioned heretof ore. Figure 8-1
(D) showsin abbreviated form the pressure-closed
feed system using a deaerating feed tank. In this
system, auxiliary exhaust steam boils the feed
water (removing dissolved air) and scrubs it (removing suspended air). The steam is condensed
by the cooler condensate, and the air is vented to
the atmosphere.
feed water materially below that obtainable

with earlier feed systems, it leaves much to be
desired. Deaeration under the most favorable
operating conditions is still by no means perfect,
and the practical operating procedure necessary
to secure the maximum deaeration of which the
system is capable reduces the thermodynamic
efficieney of the cycle. In addition, the system is
quite complex and requires an excessive amount
of piping.
It is believed that the solution to feed water
deaeration problem has been found in the pressure-closed feed system employing deaerating
feed tanks, which differs in many respecta from
the vacuum surge tank closed feed system.
Figure 8-8 indicates diagrammatically the elements of the system for one main ship propulsion unit, with typical cross-connecting linea to
other engine rooms.
The deaerating feed tank employed in the
pressure-closed system replaces the surge tank
of the vacuum-closed system. In addition, ita
use eliminates the necessity for the conventional
shell and tube type feed water heater, the feed
water heater drain booster pump and associated
equipment used with earlier systems. This has
incidentally effected a substantial reduetion in
weight. Major functions of the deaerating feed
tank include:
Heating of the feed water to a temperature
closely approaching that of the auxiliary exhaust
steam;
Deaeration of the heated feed water; and
(3) Maintenance of the reserve supply of feed
water, stored in the lower par of the tank, in a
thoroughly heated and deaerated condition.
In designing the feed tank to perform ita
deaerating function, use is made of the fact that
the solubility of gases, such as oxygen and carbondioxide, in water becomes zero when the vapor
pressure
of the water is equal to the total pres8-4. OPEN, SEMI-CLOSED, AND VACITIIMsure
of
the
surrounding atmosphere; that is, at
CLOSED FEED SYSTEMS.
the
boiling
point
of the water. Although heating
In modero combatant naval vessels the open,
the
water
to
the
boiling
point renders the oxygen
semi-closed, and vacuum-closed feed systems
insoluble,
it
is
neeessary
to provide positive
have been superseded by the pressure-closed
means
for
removal
of
the
gas
molecules entrained
leed system. These older feed systems are dein
the
heated
water
in
order
to ensure complete
scribed in Chapter A-3 of the appendix.
deaeration. The deaerating feed tank accom8-5. THE PRESSURE-CLOSED FEED SYSTEM.
plishes this by scrubbing the feed water with a
While the vacuum-closed feed system is jet of auxiliary exhaust steam which not only
capable of reducing the oxygen content of boiler heats the water to its boiling point, but aleo
8-6
iiiirEraif:X.11:51MBra
VENT TO AlliOSPIERE
MANO MACE FAN \
MANO VAPOR FROM
TUJN MIME
JA 11!
/111111 1 111 In: 1111, 1 aleM
/1111111,1 h
CIA VAPOR FROM
SYSTEM DRAINS
RECMCULATION
MEMO
'11:,
DUNI Te RUE
SUMP AM(
BEAFRATING
FEO TANK
AFT.
CONO
MOLER
k EMERIENCY
DRAIN TO
BLUE SUMP
TANK
TO RESERVE
REO TANK
EMMEN
RED POR
CONDENSATE PUMP
ECONOMIZER
Mff TO
ATERRE
EJ 141
IR BOOSTER
PUMP
MAN FEO
PUM'
RAM TANK
ROAT
SME
SYSTEM
BRAM PUMP
FIG. 8-3. Pressute-Closed Feed System with a Direct Contad Type Deaerating Feed Tank.
go
8-5
NAVAL AUX-MARY MACHINERY
violently agitates it, literally scrubbing the gas from the upper part of the deaerating feed tank
moleculea free of the water molecules to which to ensure complete removal therefrom of the
they would otherwise cling by adhesion. The gases removed from the condensate. In order to
principal featurea of the pressure-closed feed conserve the heat in the vented steam and
system are deecribed in the following paragraphs. minimice losa of feed water, the vented vapor is
Condensate system. Condensate is with- led to tbe deaerating feed tank vent condenser,
drawn from the main condensara by the main where the steam gives up its latent heat to the
condenaste pumps. These pumps diecharge to the incoming condensate. A small amount of steam
deaeratjng feed tank via the main air ejector inter- is vented from the vent condenser to sweep out
and after-condenaers, the gland exhaust condens- the releaaed gases effectively. The flow of vented
en and the deaerating feed tank vent condensen, mixture to the atmosphere via the gland exhaust
condenser is controlled by use of a manually
in which the condensate acta as the coolant.
The auidliary condenser condensate pump dis- adjusted vent valve. The remaining steam is
charges through the auxiliary air ejector inter- condensed by the gland exhaust condensar which
and after-condensers loto the main condensate aleo serves to retrieve any water vapor carrying
line ahead of the gland exhaust condense, and over from the shell of the air ejector after-conthence to the deaerating feed tank via the densers. In practice, the vent condenaer is gendeaerating feed tank vent condensen
eraily located within the upper part of the
(a) Direct contad type deaerating feed deaerating feed tank, and the gland exhaust
tank. Deaerating feed tanks of the direct con- condenser is sometimos located in the lower part
tact type are described in detall in the next of the main air ejector after-condenser.
article. The following general description will
All air and uncondensed vapore are drawn from
auffice to explain the operating features of all the gland exhaust condensar shell by the motordeaerating feed tanks. fe condensate flows driven gland exhauster fan which discharges via
through tbe tubes of the vent condenser and is an escape pipa to the atmosphere aboye decks.
discharged finto the top of the deaerating feed
The gland exhaust condenser takes its narre
tank through spray nozzles. An atmosphere of from the system of piping which loada off essteam, surrounding the condenaste spray, beata caping steam from the main and generator turthe water by direct contact, removing a major bine glande located at each end of the turbina
portion of the contaminating gases. The partirles where the turbina shaft pasees through the turof heated water are collected by means of a coni- bine casing. By routing this steam finto the gland
cal balffing system provided below the spray exhaust condensar it can be condensed and renogales, and discharged by gravity lato a jet of turned to the feed system rather than be lost to
high velocity exhaust steam below the baffles. the atmosphere. Gland exhaust systems are
Vertical baffies disponed radially aboye the coni- found with alI turbina installations n3gardless of
cal baffles are provided for proper distribution the type of feed system used. In early types of inof the water over the steam jet remediase of roll, stallations gland exhaust condensers are salt water
pitch, or 1W of the veasel. The kinetic energy of cooled. In later systems, for economic reasona,
the steam jet la dissipat,ed in atomizing the the condensate system supplies the cooling water.
water, and thorough mixing and scrubbing of the
(2) (b) Flash type deaerating feed tank. A few
atomised water pardales takes place. During naval installations have been made in which the
this procesa the water particles are heated to the "flash" type deaerator is employed in lieu of the
temperature of the exhaust steam and the laat direct contact type In this type, the condensate
traces of oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc., are re- is heated to a temperature several degreea higher
moved. The deaerated water is collected in the than the temperature corresponding to the presstorage reservoir below the deaerating elemento sure maintained within the deaerating feed tank.
and the excess steam flows around the baflling This la accomplished by using a conventional
systems to the top of the deaerating feed tank, shell and tube feed water heater located in the
where it provides for the initial heating of the condenaste circuit between the vent condenser
condenaste sprayed into the tank.
and the deaerating feed tanks. The heated feed
It la necesskry that sufficient steam be vented water is discharged finto the top of the deaerating
8-8
a.
klYarnift
feed tank b the torna of a fine spray. A ~11 feed purap to take erudita dinset f
pan of %eh particle of this spray flashes into deaerating leed tank, and feed bond
oteara' as the proseare ie reduced in paasing mut be inataffed to augment the avalliff~
through the apray nulas. This &sabed etearn ity head. The lateat inetallations provittentt*
cantes away from the water pankles the gasee or three main feed booster ptunpit of /*Int
wbich were dissolved therein, before the con- capacity which operate in parallel at high pintes.
densate was discharged hato the deaerating feed In addition, an auxiliary feed booster 'With 'of
tank, these gasea being insoluble in the water smaller capacity la provided for use ande che*
under the conditiona existing at the top of the tions of port operation, or when titeaminpat low
tank. The flashed vapor la discharged from the powere. The auxiliary feed boosteniumptemdeaerating feed tank through the vent con- ployed aleo to provideifor recirculatimi of ?Sed
denser, es in the case of the direct contad type, water from the storage reeervoir of the deetntand the particles of deaeisted feed water drop ing feed tank back through the vent concitis'
to the storage space in the lower part of the tank and the deaerating elements, propender" te
over a series of bales. Scrubbing la not as effee- putting a secured deaerating feed tank hato use.
tive as in the direct contact type deaerating feed
The main feed pumpe take suction from the
tanka which are aleo more capable of heating the feed booster pumps and d'embargo throngtreitoncondensate to a temperature closely approaching mirare to the bollera. As in the case Oribe
that of the auxiliary exhaust eteam, and have main feed booster pumpe, two or three main feed
certain other inherent advantages over the flash pumps of equal capacity, deeigned for peralte'
type for naval installatione, including more operation at high powers, are provided. All ecinfavorable weight and space characteriaties. All deneate, booster and main feed pimpi are of the
reeent naval installatione, therefore, employ the centrifugal type.
direct contact type deaerating feed tank to the
The reciprocating emergency feed pump twexcluaion of the flash type.
ranged to take suction from the feed booster
Direct contact type deaerating feed tanks in pump discharge or from reserve feed
Itt
etafled &board new naval venda operate at pres- addition to ita primary function of supplying cold
sures ranging from O to 15 p.a.i., gauge, heat the feed water from reserve feed tanks to the Wats
feed water to temperature, ranging from 212F. in emergencies, it is usad (1) as the normal metan
to 250F., depending on plant operating condi- of supplying boiler feed water under pon opereta
tiene affecting auxiliary exhaust pressure, and ing conditiona, (2) to distribute reserve' feed sva.
are capable of reducing the oxygen eontent of the ter among severa' reserve tanks, (3) to punto out
feed water collected in the lower part of the the bollera by use of portable hose linee.
The emergency feed pump la arratiged to diestorage reservoir to lees than 0.01" milliliters
per liter, under al,t normal operating conditiona charge make-up feed water from reserve 'leed
Lanka hito the system via the main condenaste
up to and including full power.
It will be noted that all condensate linee are line to the vent condeneer and deaeratinteleander positiva pressure througbout, except for menta of the feed tank, although malee-t9 Teed
the short direet condensate pump suction linea, water is taken normally from reserve leed Unita
in contrast to the vacwam-closed feed system direct to main or auxiliary condensen. Prottehm
where the entire condenaste system, including la :nade for exceso feed retara to one resorte leed
croes-connecting water and vent linee, surge tank, tank from the main condenaste lime between the
etc., la under high vacunm, requhing constant vent condensar and the deaerating feed' Set
vigilance on the part of the operating personnel Automatic feed levet control is sometimes' proto keep the system abeolutely sir tight in order vided for by use of a float operated valve,
dicated in Fig. 8-3.
to prevent ingrese of atmospheric sir.
(4) Free& water dato system. Draln dial:Med
(8) Boiler leed system. Damage control coneiderations make ft mentid that the deeterating le as described in Art. 8-1 ensila Illustratelin
feed tank be located within the raschinety opacos. Fig. 8-3. It ehould be noted that, with the MeiIt Je not usually %asible, therefore to provide aura-01080d feed system, provhdon fs ende
for aufficient gravity head to perinit the main complete desestion d'al! &ale talbe Met8-9
8-5
ing elements of the deaerating feed tank. In general, high pressure drains (drains at high temperature which will flash hito steam in the deaerating tank) are led directly to the tank abo ye the
deaerating elements. Low pressure (low temperature) drains are led directly or indirectly to the
main condenser, and are discharged into the deaerating tank through the condensate spray nozzles.
(5) Recirculation. In order to provide an adequate supply of cooling water to the main and
auxiliary air ejector condensers, gland exhaust
condenser and deaerating feed tank vent condenser, when warming up the plant, and when
steaming at very low speeds, maneuvering or
standing by, thermostatistically controlled recirculating valves are employed to discharge
condensate from the vent condenser outlet back
to the main and auxiliary condensers. Since the
primary function of these valves is to ensure
proper cooling of the main and auxiliary air ejectors, the thermostatic elements which actuate
these valves are placed in the condensate discharge linea adjacent to the after-condensers, or
are located within the after-condenser discharge
water chests.
Under certain conditions of plant operation,
the flow of condensate through the air ejector
inter- and after-condenser may be sufficient for
proper operation of these units, but inadequate
to provide for normal functioning of the gland
exhaust condenser and the deaerating feed tank
vent condenser. The possibility of excessive lose
of water vapor to the atmosphere under these
conditions is eliminated through employment of
an additional thermostatic recirculating valve,
with its control bulb located in the vent condenser condensate discharge line, which provides
for recirculation of water from the storage reservoir of the deaerating feed tank back to the main
condenser. Thermostatically controlled recirculating valves are provided with manually operated pul-open devices or by-pass valves for use
when warming up the plant, or in the event of
derangement of the automatic feature. Provision
is made for manual recirculation from the feed
tank to the auxiliary condensers.
Although recirculation is thermodynamically
uneconomical, it is essential in naval installations, where normal cruising power is only a
small fraction of full power, to avoid excessive
lose of feed water and to ensure proper operation

of air ejectors. Air ejector inter- and after-condensers and gland exhaust condensers are designed with the specific view of eliminating the
need for recirculation, as far as practicable, under
all normal operating conditions. As previously
discussed the gland exhaust condenser performs
several important functions in addition to its
primary function of condensation of the water
vapor content of turbine gland leak-off vapor,
and an adequate supply of cooling water through
this unit, both in port and underway, la quite important.
Figure 8-4 shows the pressure closed feed system with many of the fess important details omitted.
8-0. DIRECT CONTACT TYPE DEAERATING FEED
TANICS.
There are a number of specific designs of direct

contact type deaerating feed tanks in general
use in naval vessels. Two will be described here;
(1) the Cochrane design (Fig. 8-5), and (2) the
Elliot design (Fig. 84). Both types of tanks operate on the same basic principie, the method of
construction being slightly different The Cochrane tank will be described first and then the
differences in detail and operation of the Efflot
tank will be discussed.
(1) The Cochrane Deaerating Feed Tank.
(a) Operation. The water entere the tank
through the condensate inlet header shown in
Fig. 8-5. From this header it passes through a
nest of tubes. This nest of tubes is a heat exchanger and is termed the vent condenser. Vapor
and air pass around these tubes on their way to
be exhausted from the tank, thereby heating the
water in the tubes as well as accomplishing condensation of the vapor entrained with the air.
From this preheater, the water pasees into the
water box. Extending from the water box is a
series of eight spring-loaded nozzles, so designed
that when water is discharged under pressure,
it is broken up hato a fine spray. This spray is
discharged into the dome of the tank where it is
deflected towards the center by a circular baffle
attached to the tank top. Breaking up the water
into this fine spray, while in its partially heated
condition, causes a great amount of the entrained
oxygen and air to be released. After striking the
baffle and the top of the tank the water drops
S-10
RESERVE
FEED TANKS
LP
DRAINS
LEGEND
CONDENSASE
FEED WATER
AIR AND VAPOR
DRAINS ~NUM
LP DRAINS
LP
DRAIN
TANK
MAKE UP FEED
MAIN
CONDENSATE
PUMP
FEED
BOOST ER
PUMP
THERmoSTA
CONTRO VALv
HP
DRAINS
TO
ATMOSPHERE
GLAND
EXHAUSTER
PAN
Simmagm. TO BOILER
ECONOMIZER
VENT CONDENSER
ENGINE ROOM
MAIN
FEED
PUMP
FIG. 8-4. Simplifled Ptessure-Closed Feed System.
FIRE ROOM

SPRAY YAPAS
VENT CONDENSE'
AM YENT
RECIRCIRATING
CONNECTION
ANUDAOS
EXHAOST
STLAN
VIET
ATOMONG
SALVE
WATER 111fi
DRAW "MET
DO POT
ATOMIZER
YALYE CONTROL
PUMP SUCTION
DISTANT REABRE
CAE CONN.
FIG. 8-6. Coehrane, Direct-Contad Type, Deaerating 'leed Tank.
downward and la caught by the inverted conical

baffle ahown in the figure. It is directed along this
baffle to ita base and then drops vertically downward around the atoan atomising and control
valve. Steam entera the tank from the auxfflary
exhaust line through the connection ahown on
the left. It pasees through the pipa lato the center
of the conical baffle and down onto the top of the

otean control valve. Passing through the porta
of this valve, the ateam la sprayed out and deflected upward by the fianged disc o the valve.
fe water dropping vertically from the conical
baffle is picked up by this spray of atoan and
driven along with it. This causes the water to be
8-12
FRED WATER SYSTEMS
heated and ecrubbed by the skarn, thereby re- percentage, the eetting of the steam control
leasing all oxygen and asir from solution and mix- valve can be adjusted to any specific percentage
ture with the water. This mixing of water and of maximum opening. When adjusted in tisis
steam causes condensation of part of the oteara, maman, the control gear prevente the valve from
which condenaste, along with the water, falle to opening beyond the figure set on the percentage
the bottom of the tank. The uncondeneed steam seale, but will uot prevent the valve Erg%
osing
poil
riges in the tank outeide the conical baffle, carry- below that figure Under natal o
, it
ing the liberated asir with it and, passing around will be only neeessary to set the hand
1 at
the baffles, entere the dome of the tank Muro it 100% and leave it there.. The valve wili then
mixer with the water being discharged from the operate automatkally at any and all conditions
spray aisles. Here, the steam is minad with the of load to maintain the tank proseare at a point
water spray and condensed. The freed sir, plus a which is 2 p.s.i. lees than that of the exhauat
small amount of vapor, travele from the dome line. The only timo it 'huid be necessary to
through the baffles in the vent condenser, where opemte the hand ~tad *mi Je when it is dethe vapor is condensed and the asir exhausted sired to hold the desatan tenle at a presente
from the tank through the sir outlet.
which is lower than 2 p.ej. less than the abatid
(b) Steam Control. Vain. The ateam control presente. This might ene when for some reason
valve, mentioned aboye, controle the amount of the atudliary exhaust canarit be controlled and
steam admitted to the deaerating feed tank. The risas toa presente which would allow the temperdegree of opening of dile val is controlled by an ature in the deaerating feed tank to rime to an
arrangement of springe and weighte attached excessive degree. The temperature of water in
externally to the tank. This control par is, nor- the base of the deaerating fekirtank will slwaYa
maily, so adjusted that the val
automati- be at a temperature which le about equal to that
cally vary ite opening to admit suffleient oteara of eaturated steam at the presura existing in the
to the tank to maintain the tank presente at a tank. If the proanue in the tank is at its n ogi
point which is approximately 2 p.s.i. lees than the level of about 13 p.s.i. amago the t
presente of steam in the atudliary exhaust line. water in tina hotwell ehould be appnlliitly
This figure of 2 p,s.i. has beca arrived at by con- 240F. Should the tank temperature risa tonto!,
sidering the stearm velocity neoessary to drive for normal operation, due to some externa' mune
out all the absorbed oxygen and asir from Intim euch as the high presente drilla, a recirculating
with the water. Experiment has shown that the connection is provided leading from the base, of
velocity obtained through this valve with an the tank into the main condenser. 'This will proexisting presente drop of 2
is erufficient to vide incressed circulation through the tank and
do this. Should increased load be placed on the the water will be diacharged back into it vis the
tank, and additional water be pumped to it, this condenaste syatem after being cooled by the
would cause inoreased condensation of the atesta condensar, thereby causing a reduction in presin the tank, thereby reducing the proseare. This ente and temperature within the tank. When riereduction in presente would cause a greater drop ring, it is very fnaquently neceseary to use the
between auxiliary exhaust and the tank presente. recirculating connection. If the tank tanda to
Consequently, the steam control valve would overheat due to high presente chaina, closing the
open wider and admit more oteara to main- eteam inlet will not reduce the temperature, since
tain the drop at 2 p.s.i. Should the load be re- the steam control valve will olose whenever the
duced lees water would enter the tank and the tank premura rima aboye 2 p.s.i. leso than the
tank presente would tend to rise. The risa in pres- auxilian, exhauat presente.
ente would reduce the drop through the control
(e) Condenaste Reeirculating System. It will
valva thereby causing the control valve to Glose be noted that the water inlet hender of the vent
and reduce the amount of oteara admitted to the condenser is divided into two comparta:*
tank. Attached to the control par is a manually Condenaste flows into the lower ose and, pepo
operated device by which the degree of maximum ing through the lower rowe of tubee, discharp
valve opening can be controlled. By turning the against a ~baffle. This vertical baffle dihandwheel until ite pointer shows the desired recta the water to the upperpart of dm teta
8-13
8-6
SPRAY VAIS
MR VENT
AUXILIAD
RECIRCULATING
EYJIAUST
STEAM
CONNECTION
INLET
WATER
INLET
DRAIN INLET
RECIRCULATING
CONNECTION FROM
FEO BOOSTER PUMP
DEAERATING
ELEMENT
AUTOMATIC CHECK
VALVE
MUSTIE AND SIREN

DRMN
CHECK VALVE
OPERATING LEVER
TANK ORAIN CONN.
PUMP SUCTION
FIG. 8-8. Elliot, Direct-Contad Type, Deaerating Feed Tank.
where it is communicated to the single upper row

of tubes. This upper row of tubes leads into the
upper compartment of the inlet header. Water
can flow back through this upper row and be removed through the recirculating connection from
the tank bel ore it has paulad hato the tank, and
thence back to the main or auxiliary condenser.
(2) The Elliot Deaerating Feed Tank. Except
for the following discussion all instructions and

notes on the operation of the Cochrane deaerating tank apply as well to the Elliot tank (Fig.
8-6). The condensate entera this tank in the same
manner as the Cocinarle tank, through a vent
condensar, and flows under pressure into the
water-box. The spray nozzles extending from
the water-box are spring loaded to open all at
8-14
FEED WATER SYSTEMS
once. There are 12 nozzles in all, so designed as to

open at a very low pressure and maintain good
atomization even under very low loada. The
water spraying from these nozzles is retained in
the center of the tank by the baffle shown, and
drops into the conical baffle. At the base of the
conical baffle a cup-shaped recess catches the
water. Surrounding this cup-shaped recose is
another baffle in the chape of an inverted cone
which carnes in it, baffies extending from its center forming helical passages. The overflow of water from the cup-shaped recess drops into these
helically ahaped passages. Steam entera the tank
from the auxiliary exhaust line through the pipe
shown at the left, and la led down on top of the
steam control valve. The steam control valve ha
this tank does not act to effect deaeration as in
the Cochrane tank but la merely a check valve to
prevent excesaive preasure in the tank from
backing hito the auxiliary exhaust lime. Due to
the presence of the helically shaped baffies a
specific preasure drop la not necessary to accomplish deaeration. The valve is wide open whenever the tank is operating normally, and the
flow of steam into the tank is controlled by the
rate of condensation of steam in the tank. Under
normal conditions the preasure drop between
auxiliary exhaust line and tank will be 4 p.s.i.
or lees. At low loada, the water overflowing the
cup-shaped neceas will fill the space within the
conical baffies. This will cause a cessation of
steam flow until the tank pressure has decreased,
8-6
by condensation, to the point wkere the preasure

drop is great enough to cause steam to blast
through the head of water in the helical baffies.
This continuously repeating action violently
drives the water out of the baffies and at the
same time accomplishes the agitation necessary.
At higher loada, the rate of steam flow la great
enough to prevent the accumulation of water in
the helical baffies, the steam driving the water
out as it overflows the cup-shaped recess. Thie
effects the agitation at higher loada. The only
pressure drop appearing at the higher loada la
due to the friction encountered by the steam in
passing through the helical baffies. A shaft extenda from the steam valve through the side o
the tank, and has a lever attached to it. When
this lever is thrown in one direction, it presses a
collar againet the check valve and forces it fully
closed. When the lever la thrown in the opposite
direction, another collar forces the check valve
open. When the lever la locked in the center,
neither collar beara and the valve la free to
operate automatically.
For purposes of safety, all deaerating feed
tanks are equipped with two spring-loaded relief
valves; one to prevent a high pressure from accidentally building up within the tank, and the
other, called a vacuum breaker, which prevente a
high vacuum from developing, by allowing atmospheric air to enter the tank whenever any
' ed amount.
vacuum therein exceeda a predetermin
8-15
CHAPTER 9
FUEL OIL SYSTEM

9-1. INTRODUCTION.
The fuel oil system of a naval vegas' consiste

of all the spaces designated for storage, the pipa
linee and pumps necessary for transfer, and the
apparatus for heating, straining, measuring, and
burning the fuel oil. The eseential unte of any
fuel oil system re as follows:
(1) Fuel oil tanks;
Storage,
Service,
(e) Contaminated oil or settling.
(2) Piping systems;
Booster and transfer,
Service,
Tank stripping,
Ballasting and deballasting for damage
control and stability (salt water).
(3) Fuel oil pumps;
Booster and transfer,
Service,
(o) Drain and strippmg.
(4) Fuel oil heaters;
Service heaters,
Tank heating coila.
Strainers;
(a) Discharge.
Measuring devices;
Meter:3,
Tank level indicating systems,
(c) Sounding tubes.
9-2. FUEL OIL TANKS.
cure oil tightness of the boundaries of fuel oil

tanks, the bulkhead seams are general. of the
welded type and are subjected to thorough teeting both during construction and periodieally
thereafter. Ingrese to the interior of tanks le provided for by manholee in the tope of double bottom tanks, and in either the top or inboard aldea
of wing tanks.
AB fuel oil tanks are provided with venta and
overflow connections. The piping is arranged for
groups of tenlo within the mejor watertight subdivisions of the ship to overfiow hato an overflow
tank via a common overflow line. Overflow teas
overfiow overboard. Tank vent linee are grottped
loto a common line and vent to the atmosphere
aboye an open deck. A flash sereen of fine vire
mesh is provided at the outlet to prevent outside
flamee from igniting oil vapor within the /alpe.
Sounding tubas are provided for determining
the tank oil level and consist of vertical tubas to
1 ocated that their lower anda reach the lowest
parte of the tanks. Soundings are taken with
weighted steel tape or folding sounding ralles
graduated in feet and luches. The tapes or roda
must be inserted until they reacia the bottom of
the tuba and when withdrawn the oil level will
show on the tape. By applyIng the tape measurement in feet and anches againert tank capacity
curves or charle which are provided for eaeh
tank, the quantity in gallons can be determined.
Diesel oil storage tanks are installed in the
same manner, and are equipped with the same
fittings as fuel oil teatro.
Fuel oil tanka are designated as:
Storage tanks which are located throughout the chip as double bottom compartments,
wing tanks, and deep tanks, and are usted to carry
the major portion of the ship's fuel stip*. The%
tamice are norma fitted with a filling and transfer connection and a stripping eonnection. Certain designated tamice may aleo be fitted with a
ballasting and deballaating conneetion.
Fuel oil tanks are special compartments built

hito the structure of the ship for the exprese pm.pose of storing the fuel for the ship's bollera.
They are located in the double bottom compartmenta under the engineering spacee and in other
parte of the ship, in compartments between longitudinal (fore-and-aft) bulkheads, in the outboard sectione of the hull (usually referred to
as "wing tanks,") and aleo in deep compartmenta
extending the fuil width of the ship. Wherever
located, these tanks require extreme tare in conService Mak', which are located adjacent
struetion, to prevent leakage of water luto, or to the firerooms, umally in inch a manar se to
leakage f oil out of, the trafica. In order to in- provide for gravity head on the ~ion sirle of
9-1
9-2
the fuel oil service pump, to maintain a reasonably large supply of oil ready for immediate use.
These tanks should be maintained between 95
and 50 percent filled in order to insure an adequate gravity head. The stand-by service tank
should be filled after shifting suction to the adjacent service tank to allow for settling-out of
water and sediment which may be present. The
service tanks are normally fitted with a filling and
transfer connection, a stripping connection and a
service connection. The service connection normally consiste of a high and low suction connection. The high suction minimizes the possibility
of pumping water or sediment (whieh may have
inadvertently entered the service tanks) into the
service system.
(3) Contaminated oil or settling tanks. One
contaminated oil tank is usually located on each
side of a vessel and serves as a storage space for
oil which is contaminated with water. Their total capacity is normally 2 percent of the total oil
storage capacity. Heating coila, of twice the ares
required for storage or service tanks, are installed
to heat the mix
' twe thereby enabling rapid settling out of the water. Water is drawn from the
tank via bilge pumps and discharged overboard.
The oil is transferred from these tanks to storage
tanks.
to prevent the inadvertent mixing of the oil.

Service system. This system consiste of a
service main connecting the service tanks
through "high" suction connections, manifolds,
service pumps, meters, heaters and strainers to
the boiler manifold.
Tank stripping system. A stripping system
is provided to permit clearing all fuel oil tanks of
water before taking suction with the booster and
transfer or the service pumps. This system is
connected through manifolds to the bilge pumps
and tank drain pumps, where provided, which
discharge to the contaminated oil tanks.
(4) Ballasting and deballasting system. This
is a salt water system which is provided for certain tanks designated for stability control. Independent tail pipes are installed in these tanks,
which are connected through manifolds to the
drainage and fire mains. On some vessels ballasting and deballasting is accomplished through existing fuel oil or stripping tail pipes and on other
vessels through separate ballast and deballasting
linee.
9-4. FUEL OIL PUMPS.
Fuel oil pumps are generally of the positive

displacement, rotary type and are installed as
follows:
9-3. PIPING SYSTEMS.
Service pumps supply oil to burners at the
boiler
frente. They take direct suction from servThe fuel oil piping systems are as follows:
ice
tanks
or from the booster pump discharge.
(1) Filling and transfer system. This usually
The
discharged
oil pasees through a meter,
consiste of two large linea, one on each side of the
heater
or
heaters
and a duplex strainer to the
vessel running f ore and aft from the farthest forburner
manifold.
Service
pumps are classified as
ward to the farthest after tanks. Cross-connecPort
Use
and (3) Hand ~pa.
(1)
Main,
(2)
tions connect these mains and the booster and
Port
use
pumps,
when
installed,
are motor driven.
transfer pumps. Risers are usually provided in
Hand
pumps
are
used
for
lighting
off boilers
the forward and after machinery space crosswhen
power
is
not
available
for
the
other
pumps.
connections for &ling tanks through the deck
Booster and transfer pumps take suction
connections. On destroyers and other small vesseis a single filling and transfer main is installed. from all storage, service, overflow and contamiThe filling and transfer mains are connected nated oil tanks through the filling and transfer
through manifolds to the suction and discharge main. The pumps are connected to discharge to
of all booster and transfer pumps and to the all storage, service, overflow, contaminated oil
tanks' low suction linee. The pumps are con- tanks and to the deck filling connections for denected to transfer oil between tanks and aleo to livery of oil to other vessels. They have three
discharge to the service pump suction. Cross- functions; (1) to transfer oil between tanks in all
connections are normally installed between the parta of the ship, (2) to transfer oil to another
fuel oil and the Diesel oil transfer system to allow vessel, (3) to supply oil to the service pump sucDiesel oil to be pumped to a service oil tank. tion in case the service pumps are unable to
Locked closed valves are installed in these linea maintain suction due to heavy oil, or when serv9-2
FUEL OIL SYSTEM

ice tanks are empty or service oil is contaminated.
Tank drain or stripping pumps (if installed)
are used for removing water from all tanks and
discharging it to the contaminated oil tanks before suction is taken with the booster and transfer or the service pumps. Bilge pumps are also
used for this service.
Ballasting and deballasting pumps, as
such, are not provided. Ballasting is usually accomplished by using the ship's fire and bilge and
flushilg pumps via the fire main. Deballasting is
done by mean of bilge pumps or high capacity
jet type eductors, f ollowed up by the stripping
pumps (if installed)
riod, and also the amount of fuel remaining on

board. They are of two general types:
Meters are installed in the discharge linea
from the fuel oil service pumps to measure the
amount of oil used by the bollero. They are calibrated in gallona and are used to record only the
flow of oil to the burners. A typical fuel oil meter
is described in Chapter 13.
Sounding devices are used to measure the
amount of oil in the tanks. Sounding tubes, as
discussed previously, are fitted in all tanks, and
on some ships pneumercators (tank level indicating systems) may be installed in addition. In the
pneumercator, a column of mercury la balanced
against the head of oil in the tank, and the mercury scale calibrated in feet of oil depth. A
pneumercator is described in Chapter 13.
9-5. REATERS.
Fuel oil service heaters are used, as their

neme implies, to heat the fuel oil to the proper
temperature for most efficient combustion by
the burners. These heaters are installed in the
discharge line from the service pump to the
burners. Some are similar in general design to
feed water heaters but their shells are of heavier
construction than the latter, because they use
higher pressure steam from the auxiliary steam
line for heating the oil. Piping is provided for bypassing the heaters in such emergencies as leakage in the heater or clogging of heater tubes. The
detalle of their construction have been described
in Chapter 5.
Tank heating coila, for heating cold oil to
reduce its viscosity and facilitate pumping, are
installed in fuel oil tanks, either in the f orm of
epiral coila around the suction pipe inlet, or as
flat coila in other locations in the tanks.
9-6. STRAINERS.
Fuel oil strainers are of the duplex type and

are designed so that the oil flow can not be disturbed when shifting operation from one strainer
to the other for cleaning. On all new chip construction the strainers are installed on the discharge side of the fuel oil heaters to reduce the
pressure drop through the strainer, by virtue of
the oil being lees viscous after heating than before.
9-7. MEASDRING DEVICES.
Measuring devices provide mean for determining the amount of fuel used for any given pe-
9-9
9-8. MISCELLANEOUS FITTINGS.
Under miscellaneous fittings may be grouped

those manifolds, valves, and Unes which are peculiar to the fuel oil system, and which are better
discussed in conjunction with operational features in a later article. Centrifugal oil purifiers,
installed for the purpose of extracting water and
sediment from the diesel fuel oil, are described in
Chapter 12.
9-9. A TYPICAL ELEMENTARY FUEL OIL SERVICE
SYSTEM.
Figure 9-1 shows the relationship between the

various units in a modern fuel oil system. The basic pieces of apparatus have already been described, so that now the fundamentals of operation can be considered.
(1) A recirculating line is installed at each
burner manifold and conecte to the service
pump suction. This line is used to warm up the
oil in the system prior to lighting off the bollera
and should be left open until oil at the burner
manifold reaches a viscosity of 150 S S U. The
oil temperature at this viscosity must be determined for the grade of oil in use. For Navy
Grade Special oil (see Naval Boilers) this is between 100 and 130F. A clearing line is also installed from the discharge side of the burner manifold to permit rapid clearing of service piping
and manifold after fires have been put out by
contaminated oil. This line discharges to the contaminated oil tank, to one of the oil storage tanks,
or overboard.
9-3
NAVAL AUVLIARY MACHINERY
SATURATED
FURNACE
SUPERHEATER
FURNACE
TO CONTAM.
OIL TANK OR
STORAGE TANK
SUPATFL SME
RKIRC. VALVE
ATOMIZER VALVE
CLEARING
LINE
MANIFOLD VALVE
BURNER
MANIFOLD
MASTER VALVE
TQ CONTAMINATED
OIL TANK OR
NR,
STORAGE TANK
"s SATURATED SIDE
RKIRCULATING VALVE
BURNER
MANIFOLD
EMERGENCY QUICK
CLOSING VALVE
DUPLEX
STRAINER
F.O. HEATERS
EQRCULA
NE
HE RMOM
HEATElt BYPASS VALVE
METER
BYPASS
VALVE
METER
REMOTE OPERATED
QUICIGCLOSING VALVE
F.O. SERVICE
PUMP
EMERGENCY .,
F.O. SERVI1
PUM
PORT F.O
SERVICE
PUMP
CHKK VALVE
F.O. BOOSTER, FIWNG

AND TRANSFER PUMP
TO FIWNG AND DISCHARGE

DKK CONNECTION
\e.
FUEL OIL SERVICE

TANK
I
/lel I
TO FUEL OIL
STORAGE TANKS
FIG. 9-1. Elementuy Diagram o! a
Fuel Oil System.
F. O. Fitting <and
Tren ef er Ponto
F.O.
' Stens057'
FO.
torne
F.O
Port F.O.
Service Peino
P
71%.
?ore "
I ar
IIP
1-
Ibnd
Poen,
F.O.Service
Pompo
F. O.
Servios
.0
- --/
F.0.14ea te r SS
'
\
/
\
Meter
LIVING ~VII
1
Ni
\
F. O.
Service
..--l 1

I--
\ i
..
%.,
/ sun... .. . . . . . . . -
ENGINE I ROOM
Duplex
Streirier
'
Boit
eAri
pm.
Fire S Sil.
_
l
Steve.*
....\......
%...
Service Mai
,,-)
11
11.
.,
II
le?
...----
>-,
__FIRE ROOM
O.
--I
O VO.
FA,9pviee
FilfieterulTriensf es"
Strieliew-Syttere
9-9

The master valve is installed in the line to
the manifold in order to provide a positive means

of cutting off all oil to the boiler. It is a gato type
valve and is kept either fully open or closed.
Mi emergency quick-closing valve is installed af ter the master valve to afford a means
of quickly securing the flow of oil to each boiler
in an emergency. It is a spring-loaded valve, the
spring being manually compressed when the
valve is oponed. A trigger mechanism permita the
spring to close the valve in a fraction of the time
required to close the master valve. Cable pulls
are provided so that this valve can be tripped
from the checkman's station and from the firing
platform.
(4) The fuel oil pressure regulating valves (frequently called "micrometer" valves) are installed
(one for each side of a divided furnace boiler) and
used to vary the pressure (and quantity) of the
oil being sent to the burners, thus controlling the
firing rate. By throttling the oil through these
valves, the pressure may be varied from about
50 p.s.i. to 300 p.s.i. or full service pressure. A
fuel oil pressure regulating valve is described in
Chapter 1.
Manifold valves are small globo type valves

installed in the burner linea at the manifold to enable the burner oil line to be isolated from the
fuel oil manifolds should the burner oil line be
damaged. It also serves as a guarding valve to
ensure against oil leakage when its particular
humor is not in use.
An atomizer valve is installed in each
humor oil line adjacent to the atomizer gooseneck connection.
A remote-controlled quick-closing gato
valve, installed in the common discharge line of
the service pumps, permits the flow of oil to be
stopped from a remoto station, in an emergency,
when the fireroom is inaccessible due to the presence of fire, water or escaping steam.
Pressure gauges and thermometers are
installed in suitable locations throughout the system to afford operating personnel knowledge of
the actual conditions therein. (Chapter 13.)
Figure 9-E shows the relationship between the
fuel oil service system, the fuel oil filling and
transfer system, and the stripping system. For
simplicity some detaila of the service system
shown in Fig. 9-1 are onaitted in this figure.
9-6
10-2
CHAPTER 10
REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT
10-1. GENERAL.
Refrigeration is the procesa of producing temperatures lower than that of the surrounding atmosphere. Ice is the most common refrigerant. A
pound of ice at 32F. in contact with a warmer
body will melt at 32F. and in so doing will absorb 144 B.t.u., its heat of fusion, from the
warmer body, lowering the temperature of the
warmer body. Ice is, of course, not generally
available f or shipboard refrigeration so that
some form of mechanical refrigeration must be
employed.
There are a number of mechanical refrigeration
processes, all of which use either work or heat.
These include the absorption machines, steam
jet refrigeration and the compression machines.
Absorption machines, used widely in the past in
shore installations, usually with ammonia, have
been largely displaced by compression machines,
although their use continues in some household
units. Steam jet refrigeration has been used
ashore and in a few chips of the merchant service
having large refrigerating requirements of moderate temperature. However, it is in the field of
compression machines that marine refrigeration
has developed. Earlier units used air compression
but the system was inefficient and has become
obsolete. The air compression cycle was somewhat similar to that of the vapor compression
machines that displaced it, except that the air
was not liquefied during compression.
10-2. VAPOR COMPRESSION SYSTEMS IN GENERAL.
(1) The problem. A simple vapor compression

system le shown in Fig. 10-1. The values shown
are approxirnately those which would be f ound in
actual practice on shipboard, using Freon-12 as
the refrigerant. The same cycle with changes of
values would apply to any of the other coma
monly used refrigerante. The problem in mechan=
ical refrigeration is to pump heat "uphill." In
Fig. 10-1 it is desired to transfer heat from a cold
room which has a temperature maintained between 13 and 15F. and transfer the heat removed overboard to the sea where the temperature may be as high as 86F. or more in the trop-
ics. This "uphill" transfer of heat may be done

by taking advantage of the fact that a liquid
vaporizes (or boils) and condenses at a temperature depending on the pressure to which it is subjected. Water under standard atmospheric pressure (14.7 p.s.i.a.) bolle at 212F. Under a pres4n FREON VAPOR AT 2I5 P.S.I.A. AND 5F.
FREO VAPOR AT 141 P.S.I.A.
AND APPROXIMATELY I25F.
TEMP. OF FREEZING
COMPARTMENT 15F.
COMPRESSOR
MIXTURE
OF VAPOR
AND 1.10UID
21.5 P.S.I.A.
AND -5F.
EXPANSION
VALVE -y
CIRCULATING
WATER
96F.
86
CONDENSER
FR
AND I05F.
AT 141 P.S.I.A.
FIG. 10-1. Simple Refrigeration Cycle.
cure of 600 p.s.i.a. found in modern bollera it will

bol at 486F. and under an absoluta pressure of
2' of mercuity, (a vacuum of 28') it will bol at
101F. Refrigerante, such as Freon-12, have similar characteristics but at different pressures and
temperatures. Freon-12 under pressures of 21.5
p.s.i.a. sud 141 p.s.i.a. boils at 5F. and 105F.
respectively.
(2) Expansion. With these facts in mind, the
refrigerating cycle of Fig. 10-1 will be traced,
starting with liquid Freon leaving the condensar
and entering the expansion valve where the
pressure of the Freon drops from 141 p.s.i.a. to
about 21.5 p.s.i.a. In this expansion procese, part
of the liquid Freon, about one-third in this case,
10-1
10-2
&ohm into vapor. The expansion is aleo accompanied by a drop in temperature from 105F. to
5F. This drop in temperature la due to the
absorption of heat by the part of the Freon that
titubea hato . vapor from the part remaining as a
liquid, with the result that both the vapor and the
remaining liquid are cooled. This is in accordanee with the well known principie that when a
liquid changos to vapor it la necessary for it to
acquire its "latent heat of vaporization."
Evaporation. The mixture of liquid and vapor entera the evaporator coila in the cold room
at 5F. where the remaining liquid ie vaporized,
absorbing its latent heat of vaporization. It is
helpful to think of the evaporator as a Freon
"bollen" The heat in the cold room actually
bolis the liquid Freon, changing it to a vapor.
Thus the heat in the cold room is transferred to
the Freon vapor. Alter the plant has been in
operation the heat transfer situation may be
summarized as follows. A certain amount of heat
flows through the insulation of the cold room
from an outside temperature of perhaps 70F. to
the balde temperature of 15F. This heat then
flows to the refrigerant at the still lower temperature of 5F. causing vaporization of the
refrigerant. Once the cold room temperature is
atabilized, the heat removed by the refrigerant la
equal to the heat "leakage" bato the room, and
thus the room is maintained at a constant low
temperature. In normal operating practica the
Freon is entirely evaporated bef ore reaching the
end of the evaporator coila and, while pasaing
through these last coila, becomes superheated by
5 to 10F. in much the same manner as steam
la superheated in a superheater. The refrigeration
cycle shown on Fig. 10-1, however, does not indicate this superheat condition.
Compression. fe Freon leaving the evaporator la entirely vapor, all liquid having been
boiled away. fe pressure is still 21.5 p.s.i.a. correaponding to a temperature of 5F. (although,
as mentioned abo ye, the Freon in actual operation is slightly superheated). It la now necessary
to restore the Freon to the liquid condition in
which it entered the expansion valve. This requires the removal of heat, but heat will not flow
"uphill" from the Freon at 5F. to the sea water at 86F. It is first necessary that the Freon
vapor be compressed to such a point that its
temperature will ri ge well aboye that of the sea
water in the condensen. Such a rise in temperature during compression la common to sil gases
and vaporo. With mechanical compression to 141
p.s.i.a. the Freon vapor will reach a temperature
of 125F. (a superheated condition for Freon under a pressure of 141 p.s.i.a.),
(5) Condensation. If the compressed Freon
vapor, at a temperature of 125F., is now led to
the condenser, the circulating water at a temperature of 86F. will not only cool the Freon vapor
to its saturation temperature of 105F. (a temperature of 125F. as stated abo y e indicates an
amount of superheating) but will condense it to a
liquid at that temperature. The cycle is then repeated.
In actual installatione the liquid Freon-12 la
further cooled below the condensing (or boiling)
temperature by 3 to 10F. This "subcooling"
is due to the contact of liquid Freon droplets
with the condenser tubos. (A eubcooled liquid is
any liquid below its boiling temperature for the
presente to whicb it is subjected. Thus a glosa of
drinking water on the table le "subcooled.")
Subcooling la advantageous, in that leas of the
liquid Freon need flash lato vapor at the expansion valve leaving more liquid to be boiled in the
coila within the cold room, thus increasing its
refrigerating capacity.
There are a number of refrigerante in use in
addition to Freon-12. The latter, however, has
displaced earlier types for various reasons and is
now considered standard for most new marine
installations. Among the many properties desired
in refrigerante are the following, which give an
idea of the operating and maintenance problema
involved:
Suitable evaporator pressure: preferably
abo y atmospheric to avoid air leaks into system.
Low condenser pressure: not so high as to
require heavy conatruction.
104. RIWRIGERANTS.
Refrigerant must have a critical temperature appreciably aboye that of the cooling water:
otherwise the refrigerant vapor could not be condensed.
Low freezing point: to avoid atoppages.

Low H. P. per ton: carbon dioxide and air
require more power than other refrigerante.
Noncorrosive: to permit use of standard

materials.
10-2
REPRIORRAnahr QUIPMENT
Suitable properlles with regid to oil: to

avoid compra:sor lubrication troubles.
No torio or irritad tputllties: in case of
leales.
Ko explosivo quanti...
Low pisten displacement reguiremiants
made posaible by a Iow volume of vapor to be
pumped per minute per ton; to allow small inexpensive compressor.
(11) Bconomy of manufacture.
The accompanying tabla compares the principal refrigerante in use today.
TABLE 2.
Refrigerant
Symbol
Flammability or Explosiveness
Poisonous or Torio
Odor
Pnomurrms os Itscarozasms
Ammonis
Ethyl
Chloride
Stdplaur
D'oxide
CCI,Ft
CO,
NII,
CeR,C1
80,
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No (1)
No--but
reduces %
oxygen in
the air
Yes*
Somewhat
(aneuthettc)
Yes
Slightly
Pungent
Very
Pungent
Sweet
Pungent
Faintly
Sweet
271.27.
869.07.
814.8F.
289.67.
None, excopt like

earbon tetraohloride when tu contration over 20%
Condenrng Presura
(p.s.i.a. at 86F.)
107.9
Pisten Displacement
su. ft. /min./ton
A "ton of refrigeration h is the standattl rati:41

of refrigerating unte and la broatify delted
the removal of heat at 200 B.t.u. per bit Bletorically this is basad on the meltbg of a ton-of
ice a day. (2000 lbs. X144 B.t.u. (heat of futdbn
of ice)=288,000 B.t.u. (per 24, houra)cc200
B.t.u. per min. Compressors are ofteq retened
to by tbnnage, although strictly speaking, the
term applies to the entire plant.
The refrigerating machinery requirements of
Carbon
Dlorlde
232.77.
Theoretical h.p./ton
(5-88)
annnfrroa
Frena-12
(Dichlorodifluoromethane)
Critical temperature
aboye whioh condeneation cannot take
place.
loreesing Point
104. 1191/11101~3100 un
REFRICIERATION.
252.47.
.997
5.81
.8F.
1039.0"
69.97.
1.84
.945
169.2
27.1
107.9F.
217.77.
.978
8.44
.95
24.0
/da!
adoste
00.01 '
Ya*
n............Smoi
Yes
(anesthetS)
'66.5
98.97.
95.5
1447.
. 996
9.08
5.95
Indiada undedrable oharaoteristics leading to abandonment of refrigerant in new inatellatione.

(1) Under sabed conditions heavy concentrations of Freon-12 in &red contad with atr apen *sol Mala
temperature will decompose luto harrabl products. Even in such cireumstances, circulaban of theemed
flama would be nesseary to cause much decomposItion, as only the Freon in direet contad with the
be decomposed. Tbe producto of decomposition are extremely pungent in minuto quantities and gire rearmo`
danger and the roed for ventilation. Sueb products are readily disolved by water from hose sisamos
10-8
SUCTION CONNECTION
DISCHARGE CONNECTION
DISCHARGE VALVE
DISCHARGE
VALVE PLATE
SUCTION VALVE
OIL DISCHARGE
OIL FILTER
GUIDE
SINGLE TRUNK PISTON

SUCTION SCALE TRAP
SPRING
RING PLATE
PISTON
GAS PORTS
SEALING
SURFACES
RING PLATE SUCTION VALVE PLATE
OIL PRESSURE GAGE

OIL FILLING PLUG
OIL RETURN
LINE
SPRING
CORRUGATED BELLOWS
SEAL RING
SEALING SURFACE
BELLOW SHAFT SEAL
FLEXIBLE COUPLING
SHAFT SHOULDER
1/41/4-1/41/4-1/41/41/4i1/41/41/41/4.
COVER PLATE Nzwk-rt1/41,

PACKING
OIL PUMP
ADJUSTABLE
PRESSURE
REGUIATING
VALVE
e~.4.1,4e
COLLAR
PACKING
MOTOR SHAFT
SEAL COLLAR
SHAFT SEAL
COVER PLATE
SHAFT SEAL
DRAIN PLUG
OIL LEVEL
OIL DRAIN PLUG
OIL STRAINERS
OIL SIGHT GLASS
DRAIN
COUNTER WEIGHT
FIG. 10-S. Two Cylinder Freon Compressor With Single Trunk Pistons.
BELLOWS HEAD
OIL RESERVOIR
BELLOWS SHAFT SEAL DETAIL
10-6
REFRIGE
naval vessels is approximated in this tab
Aircraft Carrier 3 6 ton units
Battleship
3 5 " "
23
Cruiser
2 1 " "
Destroyer
Submarine
1 h
These are, exclusive of air cooling, ships service,
water cooler and miscellaneous services found in
many ships. Refrigerant eapacity on cargo ships
carrying perishables or sir conditioned paasenger
linera will run considerably higher than in naval
ships.
It should be remembered that the tonnage rating of a refrigerating plant does not refer to ice
making capaeity. The ice making capacity of a
one ton unit is approximately one-half ton of ice
per day.
10-5. EVAPORATORSDIRECT MW INDIRECT
SYSTEMS.
Evaporators consist of systems of piping called

"coila." When these coila are placed in a room to
be cooled the system is referred to as a "direct"
system. This is the modern practice with Freon
units. Where high evaporating pressures or poisonous refrigerant characteristics are encountered, as in carbon dioxide or ammonia planta, the
indirect system is used. In the indirect system the
evaporator coila are placed in brine tanks. The
cooled brine is pumped through seeondary coils
in the rooms to be eooled where it absorba heat.
This heat is then transferred to the evaporator in
the brine tanks. The indirect system is heavier,
leas efficient and requires more maintenance.
Brine solutions are usually made with calcium
chloride.
10-6. COMPRESSORS.
Compressors in a Freon refrigeration system

are usually of the multiple cylinder, vertical, single acting reeiproeating type driven by an electric
motor. These compressors, furthermore, are of
either the single trunk or double trunk piston
type. The single trunk piston type, shown in Fig.
10-2, allows the Freon to circulate through the
crankcase bef ore entering the compression space
aboy e the piston. Due to the complete miscibility
of Freon-12 with mineral lubricating oil; this
type of admission is not desirable, since Freon-12
absorba appreciable quantities of oil. Furthermore, when the compressor has been stopped for
oil decreases and the presa-are on the evaporator side

of the compressor, including crankcase, rises.
These conditions allow the lubricating oil to absorb considerable quantities of Freon-12, with
the result that upon re-starting the compressor
with the consequent lowering of suction pressure
and increase of lubricating oil temperature, the
absorbed Freon has a tendency to "boil" out of
the oil, swing the oil to foam. This causes quantities of oil to be drawn into the cylinder heads,
and may so deplete the supply of lubricating oil
in the crankcase that there will be danger of the
bearings burning out. Also, the presence of oil,
which is comparatively incompressible, aboye the
piston may cause knocking, broken suction or
discharge valves, or even cracked cylinder heads.
To avoid these disadvantages, most naval installations are equipped with double trunk pistons,
shown in Fig. 10-3. In this type the refrigerant is
admitted directly to the cylinder block, and free
contact with the erankcase lubricating oil is
avoided by means of the lower trunk of the piston.
In either type, some Freon-12 is present ha the
crankcase, requiring a crankshaft seal at the flywheel or pulley end of the units. These seals are
either of the bellows type shown in Fig. 10-2, or
the diaphragm type shown in Fig. 10-3. In the
bellows type, a hardened steel collar which rotetes with the shaft, flts against a crankshaft
shoulder, with a rubber-like packing between the
two. A seal ring is held by a flexible metallie bellows and is forced against the collar by means of
a spring. In the diaphragm type of shaft seal, the
seal ring is held against the rotating collar by
means of a thin metallic diaphragm and a fulcrum ring. In both cases, a smooth, leak-proof
surface is maintained between the seal ring and
the rotating seal collar.
The compressor may be driven directly by the
electric motor or by some gear or belt arrangement. Due to the relatively low speed of the
compressor (600 r.p.m.), the gear or belt drive is
preferred since it allows a, smaller high-speed
motor to be used. A flexible coupling is provided
to absorb torsional vibration and to allow for
slight inaccuracies in alignment. In modera compressors, multiple V-belt drive is often used in
place of gear-drive, the advantagea being;
smoother and quieter operation, easier adjust-
10-5
10
IHSCH. COM .
DISCHARGE
1111.
RESERYOIR
DIAPHRAGH
SEAL
COLLAR
CK HUT
SEAL RING
VALVE
PLATE
GROOVES FOR
"Y" BELT
SUCTION
SHAFT"
SEAL
VALVE
MIT
SHOULDER
SEALING
FULCRUM
SURFACE
RING
DOUBLE TRUN
COVER
PISTOLA
PLAT
LUNING
SUCTION
CASKET
PORTS
Ot SIGHT
DRAIN
CLASS
OIL
DIAPBRAGM SHAFT SEAL OETAIL
DISCO. VALYES
NEM)
LEVEL
OIL
FILLING
DRAIN
VALVE
PLATE
VALVE
MANCAN
SEALING
SURFACES
GAS PORTS
DIAPHRACM SNAFT SEAL

SHAFT SEAL DRAIN PIPE
MAPHRAGM DISCO. VALE DEM
SIG. 10-3. Three Cylinder Precia Compressor with Double Trunk Pisten.
CIRCULATING
WATER OUTLET
,FRONT HEAD
ASKET
TUBE SHEET
TUBE
REPRIMAN! VAPOR
AIR PURGE CONNECTION /FROM COMPRESSOR)
VALVE
CONDENSER SHELL
BACK HEAD
VENT
ALVE
SOLDER
COATING
CIRCULATING
WATER INLET
hEFRIGERANT
LIQUID CONNECTION
SILVER SOLDER
FIG. 10-4. loar-Pass Proa Condensar.

10-8
RE wasRATION EQUIPMRPIT
REID VALlE
O?
INCLIATILA:
WATER
TO LOW
n WATER
4 curan
SWITCH
i TO LOW PRESS
K CIIIIMSVATO
---1

ice_ L
PIM'
SOMY
WATER
REGULAN':
SALVE
RACK
PRESSURE
REMATO'
r
p
SAME
1
MITRO
I
AS
e
+-1--
OVERBOARO REMATO"
u MEAT ROOM
MIME
L
.1
T10. 104. Typital Van System.
10-7
10-8
ment and maintenance, and less expense. Com

pressors may be either constant speed or variable
speed and often units are installed having two
speeds, one being twice the other.
even before reaching the valve. This will prob

ably occur, if there is no subcooling, where the
difference in head is over 15 feet. In such cases,
subcooling by one of the abo ye means is neceasary as the automatic features of the expansion
valve depend on having liquid Freon up to the
valve.
10-7. CONDENSERS.
Refrigerating condensers are of two types; water-cooled and air-cooled. The water-cooled type,
an example of which is shown in Fig.10-4, is used
for most marine installations with the exception
of small units in isolated locations. Water-cooled
Freon condensers are usually of the multi pase
shell-and-tube type. The Freon vapor is admitted
to the shell and the circulating water passes
through the tubes. In some installations, space is
provided in the lower part of the shell for the
storage of liquid Freon, while in others a separate
"receiver" is located beyond the condenser for
this purpose. Cireulating water is obtained by a
branch connection to the fire and flushing maine
or from individual pumps taking suction from the
sea. Air-cooled condensers consist of tubing provided with external fine to facilitate heat transfer. Fans are provided to insure positive circulation of air to carry away the heat released by
condensation.
10-8. PRECOOLERS AND HUT INTERCHANGERS.
In the discussion of the refrigeration cycle

mention was made that subcooling of the condensed Freon was advantageous. Some installations actually provide a heat exehange unit
known as a "precooler" in which circulating
water is used to subcool the liquid Freon below
its boiling temperature. The advantage of greater
refrigerating effect is, of course, balanced against
additional weight, cost and maintenance together with the requirement for more circulating
water.
Another type of device which subcools the
liquid Freon is the heat interchanger. This is a
unit in which the cold Freon vapor leaving the
evaporator is used to cool the liquid Freon before
the vapor entere the compressor. `Malle the refrigerating effect is increased, it is done at the expense of further superheating of the Freon vapor.
This increases its volume and requires greater
piston displacement in the compressor.
Sometimes the condenser is located at a lower
deck level than the evaporator. The Freon liquid
will lose considerable pressure due to loes of
gravity head as it rises towards the thermostatic
expansion valve and part may flash into vapor
10-9. OPERATION OF TYPICAL FREON SYSTEM.
The operation of refrigeration systems used on

shipboard is automatic. A typical system is
shown in Fig. 10-5, which includes the following
principal devices:
A. Control Valves
B. Safety
and Switches
Devices

Solenoid Valve and
(6) High Pressure
Thermostatic Switch,
Cut-out
Thermostatic Expan-
Switch,
sion Valve,
(7) Relief Valve,
Back Pressure Regulating Valve,
(8) Low Water CutWater Regulating
out Switch.
Valve,
(5) Low Pressure Cutout
Switch.
(1) The solenoid valve shown in Fig. 10-6, as
its narre implies, is a valve which opens and
Gloses by means of an electric current. This valve
is located in the liquid Freon fine just ahead of
the expansion valve and when closed cuts off the
flow of Freon to the expansion valve. An associated thermostatic control switch makes and
breaks an electrical circuit through the solenoid.
When the current is flowing, the valve is fully
opened and Freon is permitted to flow towards
the evaporator. The control switch is operated as
follows. A control bulb, which is located in the
room to be cooled, is connected by small tubing
to the switch. The bulb and tubing are filled with
a volatile substance (such as Freon-12) and sealed
so that temperature changes in the refrigerated
space will produce changes in pressure in the
bulb. A Se in temperature will cause a Se in
pressure in the bulb which will be transmitted to
the switch where the increased pressure cloaca the
switch contacta. The switch is set for about a 2 or
3F. range. In the case of the meat room shown in
Fig. 10-5, the switch would energize the solenoid
valve when the temperature rises to 15F. and
close the valve when the temperature reaches
13F. Note that Uds valve is always fully closed
or fully opened.
10-8
REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT
(2) The thermostatic expansion valve, shown
in Fig. 10-7, performs two functions; to wit:
Expansion of the liquid Freon to a mixture
of liquid and vapor, and
Control of the amount of Freon entering
the evaporator.
The first function is that required in any re.
frigeration cycle. The second function provides
for economical and rafe operation and may be
understood as follows. If the valve should open
wide, and a large flow of Freon should take place,
it might well happen that the flow would be so
great that not al! the Freon would evaporate before reaching the end of the coila. Thus, liquid
Freon at a low temperature would leave the
evaporator, which would be an obvious waste.
Furthermore, this liquid Freon would enter the
compressor where it would cause damage.
The operation of the valve to control the
amount of Freon flow depende on having the
Freon slightly superheated as it leaves the evaporator. The valve is actuated through the movement of a diaphragm. If the diaphragm is pushed
down the valve will be opened. The upper side
of the diaphragm is connected by a small tube
to a control bulb which is flrmly connected
(clamped) to the outside surface of the evaporator piping outlet, making a good thermal contact. The under side of the diaphragm is connected by a small tube to the evaporator outlet.
The pressure in the upper side vares with the
COI HOUSING
COL
!UNGER
CUIDE
NEME
PLUMEA
000V
FIG. 10-8. Solenoid Stop Valva.
CONTROL BULB
10-9
CONTROL TUBING
DIAPHRAGM CAP
DIAPHRAGM
DIAPHRAGM PLATE
VALVE STEM BALL
SPRING
VALVE STEM PAOCING
ADJUSTG SLEEVE 8 GEAR
SILVER SOLDER
ADJ STING Nur
SILVER
SOLDER
DIAPHIGM SUPPItT
BALL PIN
AD 'USTG STEM
PACKING
SEAL
CAP
EXTL EQUALIZIG PIPE

SEAT RETAINER
GASKU
ADJUSTG STEM
PINION
GEAR TEETH
SEAT
BODY
VALVE STEM & DISC
INLET
FIG. 10-7. Thermostatie Expansion Valva.

temperature in the control bulb. The pressure on
the lower side, however, is a function of the compressor suction pressure which is 21.5 p.s.i.a.
(Neglect for the moment the functioning of the
back pressure regulating valve which will be discussed later.) Now if the actual temperature at
the outlet of the evaporator coil is 5F. (10 of
superheat) the temperature in the control bulb
system will aleo be 5F. Since the control bulb
system is a closed system, the pressure will be
26.5 p.s.i.a., the saturated pressure for the 5F.
temperature. This will be enough pressure to
overcome the force of the spring which sida the
pressure on the lower side of the diaphragm, and
the valva will upen. The spring pressure is usually
set to operate the valve at from 4 to 12 superheat at the evaporator outlet.
In some small, self-contained equipment, an
automatic expansion volee is used. Whereas the
thermostatic expansion valve operates on a temperature differential, the automatic expansion
valve maintains a constant evaporative pressure
by regulating the amount of inlet refrigerant. The
valves are somewhat similar in construction, the
main difference in operation being that spring
compression is substituted for the control-bulb
pressure.
(3) The back pressure regulating valve, shown
in Fig. 10-8, is required whenever several refrigerated compartments of varying tempera-
10-9
NAVAL AUEILIARY MACHINERY
10-9
a force againat the spring pressure, tending to

opon the valve. U the condensation occurs so rapidly as to lower the pressure below the designed
pressure, the valve will act to shut down the sup-
ADJUSTING SUN
Miga STOP
Balas
ADJUSTING SPRING
BEILOWS KET
SOMA
SPRING
HM PUTE
B ODV
SOLOEA
ply of water. The setting of the spring presaure

will cause the water flow to be just sufficient to
maintain the designed pressure. Factors tending

to change the condenser pressure would include;
a chango in the temperature of the cooling water
inlet, a change in the amount of Freon being
evaporated, as when the load changos, and sede
deposite in the condenser tubing. In operations
where cold water ie available, there would be a
MOLE
NEM SUT
GASKET
GSM
CONNECTION
USE VAL
FIG. 10-9. Back Proseare Reguladas Valses

tures are on the same liquid Freon line. The
Freon temperature in the meat room la maintained at 5F. which allows a 20F. temperature differential so that heat will flow rapidly
from the meat room to the refrigerator coils. In
the fruit and vegetable room the maintenance of
such a low Freon temperature would cause molature to be deposited on the coils and would thus
lower the humidity of the sir and dehydrate the
fruits, vegetables, cheese, eggs, etc. By setting
the regulating valva so that the Freon will vaporizo in the coila at a temperature aboye 32F. the
coila will not frost and no dehydration will occur.
The back pressure regulating valves may be set
to maintain higher evaporating pressures with correspondingly higher evaporating temperaturas.
The back pressure regulating valve is of the adjustable spring operated type. It la set to maintain a fixed pressure in the evaporator
(4) The water regulating valve, shown in Fig.
10-9, controls the amount of circulating water to
the cooling coila of the condenser. In the case of
an inadequate water supply, proper condensation
would not occur, and the designed condensation
pressure would be exceeded dueto the presence of
an exceso of uncondensed Freon vapor in the condenser shell. The water regulating valve provides for an increase in the water supply in such a
case. The condenser pressure la connected to the
power saving in lowering the condenser pressure. Also, the presence of cool circulating water,
would permit the use of lees circulating water
with correspondingly leas erosion of the condenser tubas with an increase in condenser tuba
life.
(6) The low pressure cutout switch, shown in
Fig. 10-10, la designed to stop the compressor
when the suction pressure falla below a predeterminad level, and to start the compressor when
suction pressure risas aboye that level, Refrigerating planta are designed to run only about 18
out of every 24 hours to produce the specilied
tonnage rating. Consequently there are many
times when the solenoid valves will be closed and
REFRIGERANT CONNECTION
PRESSURE PLATE
111
WW\
\'
DIAPHRAGM HOOD
DIAPHRAGM
aimS,
for
DIAPHRAGM
BASE
SPRING
YOLK
11'2
STEM
SPRING YOLK
& GUIDE ROD
MAIN SPRING
PACKING
ADJUSTING
NUT
CIRCULATING
WATER OUTLET
BODY
RENOVABLE DISC
CIRCULATING
WATER INLET
GASKET
upper mide of the diaphragm el the valve, exerting

10-10
DOWEL PIN
DISC NUT
& GUIDE
DISC HOLDER
VALVE SPRING
BOTTOM CAP
DRAIN PLUG
FIG. 10-9. Circulada/ Water Regulada/ Vales.
1137810511rm SQUIPMINT
no Freon will be flowing finto the evaporator coila.

At auch times, the compreesor will rapjdly reduce
the prestare in the suction line, and the suction
presente control switch will cut out the pomar.
(8) The high prestare cut-out switch la inatalled in the compreesor outlet as a protection
against eacessive head presente. It la similar in
conatruction to the suction presente control
switch. It petates to stop the compreesor when
presagas are eacessive. A spring adjuatment is
provided for changing the pesare eetting.
A spring-loaded rele valva conecta the
compresor outlet and suction. This valve is set
at a higher presente and therefore does not perste except in ase of failure of the high preseas
cut-out switch.
The low water cut-out switch operates to
stop the compressor in the event of failure of the
water suppl y. Water presente is oppoeed by
spring presente. When the water presente drops
below the set low limit the switch is operated to
stop the compreesor.
Automatic operaba. The operation of the
plant will be traced, starting with all operationa
stopped, and all refrigerated apares ata temperature lees flan those abown in Fig. 104.
Heat gradually limes through the insulation of
the refrigerated Bases, entera through oponed
doors, and is brought in by warm supplies. The
temperature riges until the aolenoid valva of one
of the componente is actuated, releasing liquid
Freon to ita expansion valve. The thermostatic
capea:ion valve la open, since temperature and
presente conditions so provide, and the refrigerant entera the evaporator where it la boiled,
raising ita presente. As soon as the presente riges
sufficiently, the suction presente control switch
is activated, starting the compresor. Freon vapor is then compreseed and flan to the condenser. In the condensar the shell presente has
been low since no Freon was being delivered to it
by tke compreesor and the water supply cut off.
This Is so since most of the vapor from previa.
operation has been condenad. But the new supply of Freon vapor ralees the presente and the
water regulating valva opens. Now the system fa
b full operation.
During this time other compartimento may
have Asen in temperatura and Frece is now flowing to their evaporators. Finally, however all
compartments are afila 000led to ouch f:oint
that the solenoid valva* are sil a pead. The come
pressor will continuo tunaing a short time until
TRIP ARIA RKERSE AC11014

SUPPORT POR MAIN MM CONTAR',
TRIP ARM a ?LEONE'
.
MAIN ARM CONTAR.
CAKE
ENTRANCE
MAGNET
costamos
SPRING CAPLOWER
momea FOOT
NESSURE CONNECTION
O COMPRESSOR SUCT.
UNE
MAN
comenzaba mea
FIG. 10-10. Low Prenoto Caten Sane
shut off by the low presago control, maltabh

Shortly, thereafter, the condenar sitellires
will /gut to fall until it reacias II*
dalia time the circulating water wfil bel.***
by action of the water reatulatit41voloo,
1040. ItEVERSIID CYCLIC
It will be observad that in the refrille*

cae the compressed Freon beata the aitesidiret:
water or circulating air. The condenad ~rho/
usad as a heating device. Heating `by awilited
reversed volea has besa usad in ahoye iicIidlcO4tions and ideo in submarina. In thay mas*
yate the low presente refrigerada is evaporded
(heated) by the circulating water. MEGEt/ NOM*
prueba the hot refrigerant vapor is
by the passage of air over finad evapores
Thus the air is heated.
1041. YACUUM ItIMIGERATION.
Refrigerating systems ming premura

atmospheric, particularly for air conditionin~
cooling at moderate temperatura % bata base
ineressingly important TI% brins of twantaire;
frigeration have been usad W sane eident 4***
merobant seniee. Cae system, oftenafeanittila
"otean Jet refrigeration," uses wat ea thaolike
lag Huid and a otean jet ea the oranpriser. git
1041
10-1
BOOSTER JET PUMP

L
STEAM
NOZZLE
- .
TO NO STAGE
AIR EJECTOR

f.
WATER FROM
COOLING COILS
EVAPORATOR
29.6 * Hg. Yac. (50F)
CONOENSER
COOLING WATER
OUT, 95F
27
Hg. Yac.
CONDENSER
CONDENSER
COOLDIG WATER
IN, 15F
55E
ot 1/4 SPRAY
TO CONOENSATE
PUMP
WATER TO CORLE
COILS 50F
44..1===_

FIG. 10-11. Principie of Steam Jet Vacuum Refrigeration.
diagram of such a unit is shown in Fig. 10-11. The

action of the apparatus is as follows: The two
stage air ejector evaeuating the condenser, together with the jet type booster pump, will maintain an exceptionally high vacuum in the evaporator chamber as indicated in Fig. 10-11. The
temperature of the return water is aboye the
saturation temperature corresponding to the absolute pressure in the evaporator and some of the
water will flash into steam. The latent heat of the
steam f ormed is gained at the expense of the thermal energy of the return water, resulting in a lowering of the temperature of the water to 50F.,
corresponding to the saturation temperature for
the vacuum in the evaporator. That portion of
the return water, which did not form into steam,
the temperature of which has been lowered to
the existing boiling point (50F.) conecte at the
bottom. This water at 50F. is pumped to the regions to be cooled after which it is returned to the
evaporator, its temperature having been raised to
about 55F. The steam from the nozzle, the vapor
generated in the evaporator, and air and noncondensable gases are led to the condenser where the
vapors are condensed and the gases removed by
the two stage air ejector. Another type of vacuum system is the so-called centrifugal compressien system. The cycle for this system is very
similar to the standard re rigeration cycle, except
that a centrifugal compressor is used and the refrigerante have cbaracteristics more adapted to
large-capacity, moderate-temperature plants.
Vaeuum systems are more economical in handling
fluctuating loada, such as f ound in air conditioning.
10-12
114
CHAPTER 11
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS

11-1. CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS.
Compressed air systems on naval vessels are of

three types, viz.: (1) high pressure systems (3000
p.s.i.) for uses such as charging and firing torpedees, gas ejecting system, reserve air banks and
charging of gun counter-recoil cylinders, operating aircraft catapaults and arresting gear and
starting emergency Diesel generators; (2) medium pressure systems (100 p.s.i. to 200 p.s.i.)
for gun gas ejecting systems and an entirely
separate system (600 p.s.i.) for Diesel starting
when required; and (3) low pressure systems (100
p.s.i.) for general ship's use. The latter includes
operation of pneumatic tools, cleaning various
equipment, charging pump chambera, fligbt deck
warning systems, blowing out sea chests, and
other miscellaneous uses.
The practice of supplying the low pressure system from the gas ejecting or medium pressure
system is being discontinued, it being desirable
to reserve the gas ejecting system solely for its
intended service. With the exception of some of
the older installations, where the medium and low
pressure systems are cross-connected, there are
three complet and independent systems supplied
by separate air compressors.
11-2. PNEIIMATIC MAIN.
propriately located cross-connecting linea and

valves so that damaged sections can be isolated
in battle and the supply of air at the proper
pressure can be maintained.
114. AIR RECEIVERS.
One air receiver, or accumulator, is installed in

each compartment containing air compressors.
The purpose of the receiver la to help eliminate
pulsations in the discharge line of the compresson and alzo to set as a storage tank during intervals when the demand for air exceeds the capacity of the compressor. The volume of the air
receivers for low and medium pressure compressets should be approximately one-fifth of the
combined free air capacity per minute of the
compressors located in the respective compartment. The air receivers may be either horizontal
or vertical, their location and position being dependent on the space available for their installation. Vertically mounted receivers should have
bottom heada of convex shape to permit proper
draining of accumulations of oil, moisture, and
other foreign matter. Each receiver should be fitted with the following
__ accessories and connecene:
Inlet and outlet connections.
Drain connection and valve.
Connection for operating line to compres1
r regulater.
Pressure gauge.
Relief valve.
Manhole or handhole plate depending on
ze of receiver.
On most ships having compressed air systems,

there is installed a low pressure (ship's service) air
main running through the machinery spaces below the protective deck and connected to all low
pressure compressors. There are outlet connections in each machinery compartment, each
dynamo room and in the various workshops.
Connections to the various branch systems are The connecting line from a compressor to the
made to this main through suitable reducing receiver should be as short and straight as possivalves, with pressure gauges installed at each ble to catete excessive vibration due to pulconnection. The entire compressed air system is sations of air and to reduce lose in presente due to
complete with gauges, check valves, reducing friction. The inlet connection should be located
valves, drains, automatic pressure controls, oil near the top of the receiver with the outlet to the
and moisture separators etc.
system mains taken from a point aboye the botfe medium presente and high presente air tom of the receiver. The relief valve on the resystems are similarly run from their compressors ceiver should be set at 10 percent aboye the
to ultimate destinations. Each of these piping normal working presente of the receiver. The pursystems is usually arranged in duplicate with ap- pose of the relief valve is to prevent any excessive
114
NAVAL AUXILIARY MACH1NERY
pressure rine within the receiver in case the compressor unloading devices or preseure controle
fail to function.
direct connected through flexible coupling, reduction pared, belt chiven, or enbloc in which
the power cylinders of the prime mover are built
finto the compressor frame and connect to a com114. COMPRESSORS, GENERAL.
mon crankshaft.
(d) Compressors a aleo classified in accord(1) Compreseor componente. Compressors,
. wh
briefly, coneiet of the following elemento:
ichthev are used,
The compressing element, conaisting of sir Stwitatighrazslik~low-presaure
cylindere, heade and pietona, together with air
(31~2~ns. The following defimlet and diecharge valves;
nitions apply to various ternas in common usage
A system of connecting roda, piston roda, among compressor manufacturera and mera:
crossheads, crankshaft, and flywheel for trena- 3(a)) Vertical compressors are those which have
mitting the power developed by the driving unit the compressing elemento in a vertical plane.
to the ah cylinder pistons;
.l) Horizontal compressors are those which
(o) A self-contained lubricating system for have the compressing elements in a horizontal
hearings, geste, and cylinder walls, including a
reaervoir or sump for the lubricating oil, a pump
(o) Angle compressors are those of the multior other meane of delivering oil to the various cylinder type having the ares of the cylinders at
parte, suitable filters and coolere. On moat com- an angle with each other. Typical among compressors a separate forced-feed lubricator is in- pressors used in the Navy are the vertical V and
stalled to supply oil to the compressor cylindere; three cylinder radial (vertical W) types.
A cooling system for removing heat from --(a) Dupla compressors are those which have
the cylindere and heade, from the compressed sir two parallel sets of compressing elemento driven
(heat of compression) and from the lubricating oil; by 'vidual cranks on a common shaft.
A regulation or control system designed to
e) Single-acting compressors are those in which
maintain the preeeure in the discharge line and compression taba place on but one stroke per
receiver within a predetermin
' ed range of pres- revolntion in a compressing element.
ume; and
Double-acting compressors are those in which
(f) An unloading system which operates in con- compreesion takes place on both strokes per revojunction with the regulatore to reduce or elimi- lution in a compressing element.
nate the load put on the prime mover by comSingle-stage compressors are those in which
pressed air within the cylinders when starting the lintression from initial to final preseure la comple
a single compressing element.
) Multi-etage compressors are those in which
compreasion from initial to final presente is completej-in two or more stages.
Ratio of comprada. is the ratio of abaolute
are used primarily for deliverine large
diecharge presente to absoluta intake pressure.
volumes of air at very low pressures.~1,... This may be further qualified to the ratio for any
tive di .lacement com ressora are used for su .- p~ar stage or to the compressor as a unit.
p ying large volumes of air at s 119.ffl
/5) Displacement of a compressor is the volume
presentes t an cen ugal compressors. Such swept through by the firet stage piston or pistons
services are required for blowing submarine
on the compreasion strokes and la expreesed in
tanks and for Diesel engine scavenging.
cubic
per minute.
(b) Compresora o may be further claased at_
Free air is air at the atmospheric preesure
cording to the method of driving; i.e., steam re- and temperature at the place where the compresciprocating, electric motor, steam turbine, or in- sor isin~led.
ternal combuation angina.
tjActual capacity of a compreasor is the quan" (e) Cempressors are sometimea classified ser__tity of air actually delivered or compressed. For
cording to the method of connection to
low and medium pressure compressors, it le ex,
r7,
. q . , preased in cubic feet of air per minute at intake
dnven um ;
11-2
temperature and Oressurt For high preseure

comprogerp, it la espressed in cubic feet of compressed air per,
hour, i.e., at final diecharge prestare but at intake temperature. The actual capacity of a compressor la always lees than its dieplacement.
INIET SALTE
(COSED)
DISCIUME
UPA (OPEN)
the piston macho; the botera of 'tanteare(eto*

8 on diagram).
(b) Compreaaion stroke. As the pisten BIAS upward, compreesion begina and at point 4 has
reached the same presente ae exista In the otipressor intake, whereupon the inlet valva cha
As the piston continuos upward, *ir e eeet
presaed until the pressure in the eYliedeell
cornee great enough to open the &charter tau
againat the presente of the valve 'pringa smilthe
pressure in the discharge line. (Seo point litlen
the: point to the end of the etroke, peint4, the
air compressed within the cylinder is dlieharged
at practically constant prestare.
114. COMPRSEISOR DETALLS.
PRESSURE
FIG. 11-1. Typical Single-Acting Compresaor Cylinder

Pistos and Faino (Compres: ion Stroke).
(4) Orle of operation. A section through a typical single-etage single-acting compressor cylinder
la shown in Fig. 114. A typical pressure-volume
or indicator diagram for this cylinder la superimposed to the left of the cylinder. Inlet and decharge valves are located in the clearance space
and communicate through porte in the cylinder
head to the inlet and discharge connections. Operation is as follows:
(a) ~ion stroke. When the compressor piston
atarte on its downward stroke, the air under presente in the clearance space, rapidly expanda until
the presente falla below that on the opposite sida
of the inlet valve. (Seo points 1-2 on the diagram.) This difference in presente causes the inlet nave to opon, admitting air to the cylinder.
Air continues to be drawn lato the cylinder until
Air valves are the vital par of a compressen

AH inlet and clischarge valves of present day
compressors, except for some submarina 111811
preesure compressors, are of the autortiatielype,
i.e., the opening and closing of the valves lo
causad eolely by the difference in patitM be,
toreen the air within the compresor cylinder sed
the eternal sir on the opposite mides id the
vaina. Thin piste, low Hit vaina are the peetened type and are nowueed in all compromete
except for some high presente cylinders. Ose design of thin piste valve, shown in Fig. 114, eam
siete of a valve seat, valve plate, valva
a valva guide. The valve pate, being anmettin
chape, covers only the valve porta and motee
held in place by the guide plata. The guideae
fits around the guide stem and is riveted lgithe
valve pate. The guide plata is split, as ateten in
Fig. 114, so that whfie holding the vahee pite
radially centered, its spring-like flexilithy ott
mita the valve plate to mona up and downetther,
designe consist of arrangemente of simple diem
and rectangular atrips or cbannels.
On the down stroke of the piston, a pastel ter
uum la created in the first stage coniptstektesee,
allowing atmospheric presente to force thertaltt
valva from its seat againat the comprometed
the spring. When the pretere withintheoglimis
machas that of the atecosphere, the edet vate
Gloses automatIcally. At the same time, te* bt
ing drawn hato the seoond step comipmesem
space, as the pressun3 of the tez dime Met
compreesion is greater dan that width aviseond Maga cylinder on thattetiemettekt fdimp
wise the meted step inlet valve ~ that be
114
11-5
GUIDE PLATE
VALVE PLATE
VAIVE PLATE
WIDE PIAR
STOP PLATE
FIG. 11-2. Air Compressor Inlet Valves.
pressures become equalized on both sides. On

the up stroke of the piston, the outlet valves of
both stages remain closed until the pressure overcomes the combined force of the springs holding
the valves on their seats and the pressure of the
air on the other side of the valves. The valves
then open, allowing the air to escape from the
first stage cylinder to the second, and from the
second stage to the third, etc. There is one set of
inlet and outlet valves for each cylinder The inlet and outlet valves of the same stage are often
interchangeable, the arrangement being reversed.
Thin plate valves are made in a variety of
forms such as the annular discs just described,
thin section channels, strips and more complicated flat platee, and are known by several
narres such as plate, feather, channel, wafer, micro-lift, etc. Modified poppet valves of the automatic (lift-check) type are still employed in highpressure cylinders. They cousist of a valve seat,
valve spring, and valve guide or eage. Common
forms of valve are the mushroom and cup types.
Trunk type pistons are driven directly by the
connecting rods. They are fitted with long skirts

to transmit the guide pressure to the cylinder
walls or liner and to avoid "slap," since the piston
itself acts as the crosshead
Differential piston are modified trunk pistons
having two different diameters and are fitted hito
special cylinders so arranged that two stages of
compression are served by one piston, compression for one stage taking place over the piston
crown, and the other stage being the annular
space between the large and small diameters of
the piston.
Double-acting pistons, as their narre implica,
compress air on both strokes per revolution.
Double-acting pistons require some forra of piston rod and crosshead in order that the compressing element nearer the running gear may
be properly sealed against leakage by a piston
rod gland.
Cylinder arrangements. The various arrangements of cylinders and stages of low and medium pressure compressors are shown in Fig.
11-.5, and for high pressure compressors in Fig.
11-4
11-5
COMPRESSED MR SYSTEMS
blows cooling air over the finned cylinders and

heads. The path of cooling water for a compressor
system la first through the oil cooler, then the inter-coolers and after-coolers, and lastly through
the cylinder jackets and heads, when they are
water cooled.
Since the cooling medium is sea water, all parte
of the circulating system must be made of corrosion-resisting materials; cylinders and heads are
of gun metal or valve bronze composition with
water jackets cast integral with the cylinders.
Each cylinder must, therefore, be fitted with a
liner of special cast iron or steel to take the wear
of the piston. Cylinder jackets are fitted with
handholes and covers so that the water spaces
may be inspected and cleaned. Zinc plate protectora are provided to combat electrolytic corrosion.
Inter-coolers and after-coolers. Inter-coolers
and after-coolers are a very important part of
any compressor as the removal of heat of compression from the compressed air is necessary for
the condensation of vapor that would otherwise
be condensed in the receiver or air majas, causing
2-STAGE, 3 CYL. RADIAL

2
2-STA6E WITH
DIE ERENTIAI
PISTON
2-STAGE,. VERTICAL. WITII

2 DIFFERENTIAL PISTONS
FIG. 114. Low Pressure Compressor Arre omento.
11-4. The small numbers designate the atage of
compression.
Air filters. When air is compressed, the percentage of dust in a given volume of air is increased in direct proportion to the amount of
compression, and when the percentage of dust
becomes sufficiently high an explosive mixture is
formed. It is very important, therefore that air
filters be fitted on the air intake linee and that
they be kept in good condition, in order that air
free from dust will be supplied to the compressor.
Cooling systems. All high and medium pressure compressor cylinders and heads are jacket
cooled by salt water supplied from the ship's fire,
fiusbing, or water service mains. Cooling water
should be available to each unit from at least
two sources. Compressors located out of the machinery spaces are generally equipped with a
circulating water pump as a standby source of
cooling water. Brasil, low pressure compressors
for pneumatic main service are usually air-cooled,
the cooling air being supplied by a fan mounted
on or driven from the compressor shaft, which FIG. 11-4.
11-5
2
2
4-STAGE ARRANGEMENTS
1
3-STAGE ARRANGEMENTS
ements.
11-5
aecumulation at low points, water hammer,

freesing or burating of pipas in exponed locations,
maloperation of pneumatic tools and possible
damage to electrical apparatus where air is used
for cleaning. Removal of heat is aleo neceasery
for economy of compression. Multi-staging with
cooling of the ah between stages (inter-cooling)
reduces the power requirement for a given capacity.
Inter-coolers and after-coolers are of the same
general construction, except that after-coolers
must necessarily withstand higher pressures.
Water cooled inter-coolers and after-coolers may
be of the straight tuba (shell-and-tube) type or,
if size permito, may be of the epiral coil type. For
low pressures, below 250 p.s.i., and in small sizes
up to 600 p.s.i., the air flows either through the
tubas or over and around them. For pressures
aboye 250 p.s.i. the largar sisee require that the
air shall flow through the tubas. Suitable bafiles
are provided to direct the flow of air or water.
Tubas are secured in the tuba sheets or headers
by rolling and brazing. Suitable provision is made
for expansion of the tuba nest. Air cooled intercoolers and after-coolers may be of the radiator
type or may consist of a bank of finned copper
tubas located in the path of air blast supplied by
the compressor fan.
Each inter-cooler and after-cooler la required
to be fitted with relief valves on both the air and
water sides. Water relief valves should be set at
5 p.s.i. in exceso of the maximum workingpressure
which may be applied to the system. Air relief
valves are set ranging from fifteen percent aboye
normal working pressure for the first atage to two
percent aboye maximum discharge pressure for
fourth stage compression.
All inter-coolers and after-coolers are fitted
with moisture separators on the discharge sida
for removing the condensad moisture and oil
from the air stream. peparators for compressors
are of a variety of designa, the removal of liquid
being accomplished by centrifugal force, impact,
or sudden changos in velocity of the air atream.
Drabs are provided on each separator for removing the water and oil. These drains may be of the
entornado type.
Lubrication system. Lubrication for the running gear of modera compressors is supplied by
an attached oil p thpap driven from the compressor shaft. This pum which is generally of the
gear type, draws oil from the reservoir in the

compressor base. The pump delivera oil through
a filter and an oil cooler to the top of each main
bearing, to spray nozsles for reduction gears, and
to outboard bearings as necessary. The crankshaft is drilled so that oil delivered to the main
bearings is picked up at the main bearing j ournals
and is carried to the crank pin joumals. The connecting roda contain a passage from the crank
pin bearings up to the wrist pin bushing so that
oil will be carried up to lubricate it. As tbe oil
leaks out from the various bearings, it dripa back
to the reservoir in the base and is ready to be recirculated. Oil from outboard bearings is returned to the sump by drain linee. The working
pressure of the lubricating oil pumps varios from 15
to 40 p.s.i. with different designa. A relief valve is
fitted to each pump set slightly abo ye the working pressure. This relief valve by-pasees the discharge and suction aldea of the pump.
Lubrication of air compressor cylindera is generally accomplished by the use of a force-feed
lubricator driven from a reciprocating or rotary
part of the compressor. The oil is fed from the
lubricator to each cylinder by separata feed
linee. At the end of each feed line is a check valve
to prevent compressed air from blowing back hato
the lubricator. Lubricators are equipped with
sight feeds for each feed line. The lubricator will
begin lubrication automatically as soon as the
compressor atarte up.
Control Systems. Control or regulating systems for naval compressors are mainly of tbe
start-stop type in which the compressor stops
and atarte automatically as the receiver pressure
falla or risas to predetermined limite. On electrically driven compressors the system is very simple, the receiver pressure operating against a
pressure switch that opens when the pressure on
it reaches a given upper limit and which clases
when the pressure drops to the cut-in pressure.
On steam-turbine-driven compressors the receiver pressure is piped to a control valve, which,
when the proper cut-out pressure is reached, admita air to a plunger connected with the turbine
govemor valve, cauaing steam to be chut off and
the compressor comes to rest. When the preesure
falle to the cut-in pressure the control valve will
close and the air acting on the plunger is released
permitting steam to flow through the governor
valva and start the turbine.
11-6
UNLOADER
VALVE DISC
UNLOADER
VALVE DISC
SPRING
DISCHARGE
VALVE
111Ur TO
I0
ATMOSPHER
PISTON
CYLINDER
.. n
1111
UTLET
VALVE TO
ATMOSPHERE
COMPRESSOR
SUCTION
do
PISTON
UNLOADER
VALVE DISC
CYLINDER
jt
-
SPRING
DISCHARGE TO INLET
RECEIVER
VALVE
SOLENOID
CORE DOWN).
imo
OUTLET TO
our
ATMOSPHER
PISTON
\\\.: CYLINDER
GUIDE
f
H.P. AIR FROM

RECEIVER
VALVE BODY
SOLENOID DISCHARGE VALVE

(CORE UP)
DISCHARGE TO INLET
RECEIVER
VALVE
jai
GUIDE
H.P. MR FROM
RECEIVER
VALVE BODY
GUIDE
SPRING
ho'
GUIDE
OMPRESSOR
OPERATING
LEVER
SOLENOID
ARMATURE
ti
TO DISCHARGE
UNLOADER
(a) LOADED POSITION. MOTOR RUNNING
PISTON
UNLOADER
VALVE DISC
COMPRESSOR
SUCTION
CYLINDER
TO INLET
UNLOADER
OPERATING
LEVER
SOLENOID
ARMATURE
(b) UNLOADED POSITION. MOTOR STOPPED
MR AT ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
HIGH PRESSURE AIR
AIR AT ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
H.P. AIR FROM RECEIVER
AIR IN COMPRESOR
FIG. 11-5. Unloading Valeos and Magnetic Unloader.
P;1
11-6
Constan% speed control is a method of controlling the pressure in the receiver by mesas of
controlling the output of the compressor without stopping or changing the apead of the unit.
This type of control is used for compressors on
which the demand for air is fairly constant, making frequent stopping and starting of the compressor inadvisable. In this control the actuating
air from the control valve la piped to unloaders,
so that when a predetermined pressure is reached,
the control valve functions to admit air to the
unloaders, causing them to operate, which reduces the volume of free air entering or leaving
the compreasor to zero, and thereby reduces the
power required by the compressor to that neceasary to overcome friction and inertia of moving
parta. When the receiver pressure falle to that for
which the control la set to function, the pressure
is released from the unloading device which
tease to function and the compressor returna to
normal capacity.
By means of dual control the compressor can
be made to operate either under "stop-start" or
"constant speed" control at the will of the operator. This is of particular advantage on vessels
where the air mains are to be kept under pressure continuously for long periods, constant speed
control being selected when the demand for air la
continuous and stop-start control when the demand is light, such as at night. Since all compressors are required to be fitted with unloaders
for starting purposes, the addition of dual control la a simple matter.
Unloading Systems. Unloading systems are for
the purpose of removing all but the friction load
of a compressor. Automatic inlet and discharge
unloaders are fitted on air compressors to release the pressure in the cylinders when the current is shut off the motor, so that compressors
will always be started in the unloaded condition.
A complete description of every unloading device
or combination of devices used to unload compresor cylinders would be impracticable in this
chapter. The following metbods are frequently
encountered in naval compressors:
Closing or throttling the compressor intake;
Holding intake valves off their sesta to
unload a stopped compreasor;
Relieving inter-coolers to the atmoaphere;
Relieving the final discharge to atmoe-
phere, or opening a by-pase from the discharge

to the intake ;
Opening up a clearance pocket in the compressor cylinder; and
Combinations of the aboye.
Unloaders may be actuated on severa' principies:
Magnetic type for electrically driven compressors,
Control valve operated mechanically by
pressure switch,
Centrifuga' type, driven by the compressor
shaft, and
Hydraulic type, actuated by the pressure
in the lubricating oil system.
A description of a magnetie type unloader for
electrically-driven compressors follows. The unloader valve arrangement is shown in Fig. 11-5
(a) and (b). When the motor is running, the
solenoid of the magnetic unloader is energized,
and the core which operates the auxiliary valve is
up. In this condition, the upper ball of this valve
la on its seat and the lower valve la off its seat,
so that no air can pass through from the receivers
to the inlet and discharge unloaders, and any air
in the outlet line is allowed to escape. The valves
of the inlet and discharge unloaders are in the
location shown in Fig. 11-6 (a). When current la
cut off, the core of the solenoid drops. This action
causes the lower ball of the auxiliary valve to
malee contact with its seat, and the upper valve
to rise from its seat. Now high pressure air from
the receivers pasees through the auxiliary valve
to the inlet and discharge unloaders. This presura on the bottom of the inlet unloader valve
rabies this valve, thereby closing the intake to
the compressor entirely. At the same time, the
air from the receiver through the auxiliary valve
opens the lower valve in the discharge unloader,
thereby allowing the air in the compressor to
escape to the atmosphen, instead of passing
through the upper valve to the receivers. Figure
11-5 (b) shows the valves in the unloaded position.
11-6. TYPICAL LOW PRESUME TYPE Mit COMPRESSOR.
Figure 11-6 shows a sectional view of a vertical

single-acting, two cylinder, two stage, motor
driven, low pressure air compresor having water
cooled cylinders and inter- and after-coolers.
11-7
114
stallations in naval vessels. This compressor is

designed to deliver 20 cubic feet of air per hour at
a pressure of 3000 pounds per actuare inch. The
T O' AFT
COOLER ANO
compressor is reduction toar driven using either a
RECEIVERS
43
HP steam turbine (Fig. 11-8) or a 50 HP aleeFIRST STAGE
INLET VALVE
tre motor (Fig. 11-9) as a prime mover.
INLET
Four stages of compression are provided using
FIRST STAGE
LOADER
OUTLET
two
differential pistons with the first and third
MR
VALVE
INTAKE
stages
of compression in the first differential cylLINE
WATER
inder
ami
the second and fourth stages of com)ACKETS
pression in the other differential cylinder. The
two pistons are driven from a crankshaft with
FIRST STAGE
COMPRESSION
cranks 180 apart. Intercoolers are provided for
SPACE
cooling the air between each stage of compression
MOTOR
and an after cooler for cooling the air from the
INTER.
COOLER
fourth stage of compresson. These codera are
LYWHEEL
single pass, shell and tube type heat exchangers
with the air passing through the tubos and the
cooling water cireulating around the tubos. The
first and second stage, coolers are provded with
moisture trape and the third and fourth stage
coolers with separator botaos which baffle out
condensed moisture from the compreased air. An
FIG. 11-6. Water-Cooled, Vertical, Low
Premura Air Compressor.
air filter la provided on the suction sido of the first
stage of compression. Figure 11-10 is a longitudinal section of the compressor showing ita salient
The eompressor la driven by a motor directly features. Figure 11-11 shows the cooling water
connected to the crankshaft by means of a coup- system of the compressor and the general arrangeling. Air, after passing through a suitable air ment of the stages in the two differential cylinfilter, pasees through the inlet valve and la com- ders.
pressed in the annular epace between the difValves in the first and second compression
ferential piston and the cylinder wall. This stages are of the "feather valve" type consisting
constitutes the first stage compression. 'The air of light strips of metal held over the seat by a
now pasees through the outlet valve to the inter- guard and are operated by the air preasure.
cooler shell. Alter being cooled in the inter- Valves in the third compression etage are of the
cooler the air pasees through the second stage plata type and, in the fourth atage of compresnlet valve, and is compressed again in the space sion, are of the cup type, outside guided, and opaboye the piston. The air then pasees out through erate similar to the piale type valves.
the outlet valve, through an after-cooler similar
The air pasees through the units of the comto the inter-cooler, and thence to the air receiv- pressor in the following orden
ers.
Air filter
Figure 11-7 shows time views of a radial,
First stage of compression
single acting, three-eylinder, two etage, motorFirst atage inter-cooler
driven, low pressure air compressor having airFirst stage moisture trap
cooled cylinders and air-cooled inter- and afterSecond stage compression
coolers.
Second stage inter-cooler
Second stage moisture trap
11-7. HIGH PRESS17RE AIR COMPRESSOR.
Third stage m'apremien
ltCiption
e o ~mg de
covms a modern
Third stage inter-cooler
high preasure air compressor characteristic of inThird stage separator bottle
SECOND STAGE
INLET VALVE OUTLET VALVE
SECOND STAGE
COMPRESSION SPACE
DISCHARGE
UNLOADER
11-9
AFTER
IIISCRARGE TO
INTER CM,
NOM
SI1CTMN
SUCTION PALME
MOTOR
VID STAGE SUCTION UNE
AIR DILE!
FILTERS
DISCHARGE VAIVE
CURARSE TO
INTER COMER
1ST STAGE PISTON

INTER COMER
REUEF PALPE
2N0 STAGE . MON
INTER COMER
OISCHARGE TO
AFTER COMER
WATER AND DD TRAP

21111 STAGE DISCHARGE
TO AFTER COMER,
FIG. 11-7. Air-Cooled, Radial, Low Preasure Air Compreasor.
AFILACOMER
4COMPRESSND AM SYSTEMS
Tia 11-II. High Prusia Air Compress~Tarblne Drives.
11-7

sEPIWATOR BOTTLE,~TH STAGE)]
T HiRD STIGE'INTER COUR
FIRST. STAGE INTER COOLER

EL ECTRIC MOTOR
R4 ,01ALUI/Eis,TIRAP
OIL ; FILTER
P-UhrtP-11
FIG. 11-9. Righ Pressure Alr CompressorMotor Driven.

Fourth stage compression
fourth stage coolers on the other side. The two
Af ter-co oler
courses of circulating water rejoin in passing
Fourth stage separator bottle
through the fourth stage water jacket and pass
Most of this path can be traced on Fig. 11-11.
then through the second, first, and third stage
The circulating water cools and condenses water jackets bef ore leaving the compressor. This
moisture from the compressed ah . in the inter- and is illustrated in Fig. 11-11.
alter-coolers, removes heat from the cylinders by
The compressor has two separate lubrication
circulating through the water jackets around systems shown in Fig. 11-12. A simple gear pump
them, and, in the oil cooler, reduces the tempera- driven directly from the end of the crank shaft
ture of the lubrication oil. Part of the circulating takes a suction from the crank case and delivers
water passes through the oil cooler separately. oil through the oil filter and oil cooler to the main
fe remainder is diverted in parallel courses bearings, crank bearings, wrist pina, reduction
through the first and third stage inter-coolers on gear, and to the four stage unloader.
one side of the compressor and the second and
Cylinder lubrication is provided separately by
11-12
COMPRESSED da SYSTRIO3
a f orad fea, lubricator consiating of a single a Sart amd stop control, a compresor diseharge
plunger pump for each atage of compression. The thermostat, and, on the turbina driven compresplunger pumpe talco suction from a teservoir and sor, a apeed regulating goisS sud overspeed
feed to the auction inlet of the four ataos of trip.
compression providing lubrication for the cylinThe unloader is a hydraulk type and canalete
den and, in the tbird and fourth dagas, for the of four valvas, one for each flap of danproadon.
valva'. The plungera are driven by adjustable Each of these valvas embOtnea a silnton todo
rocker arma actuated by cama on a driving shaft. which the oil preesure from the lubricaring oil
The driving shaft is rotated by a ratchet drive pump la supplied ami a smallerlunloorairsive
from an eccentric on the end of the cranlcshaft. aboye the piston with the sir posma from that
Control features include a four atage unloader, sume operating on top of the vaho (Fig, 11-1,3).
FIG. 11-10. Eigh Puente Sir Compansor (Longitudinal sondan).
1r
FIG. 11-11. Cooling Water System in High Pressure Air Compressor.
COMPRESSED MR SYSTEMS
o
o
rc
o
1k
cc
o
U.
11-15
11
11-7
compressed air to the atmosphere, thus loading

the compressor. On starting, however, sufficient
oil pressure to Glose the valve is not produced by
U01.000014
VALVt
the lubricating pump until the compressor is approximately at operating speed thus unloading
the compressor to the atmosphere during that period. To further delay closure of the unloading
1/114.001110
valves on starting, a check valve with a small hole
SKI
OIOTOI
in the valve disc 113 sometimos included in the line
from the lubricating oil pump. Oil throttling
through thia hole builds up pressure in the unloader slowly but opening of the check valve permita quick release of pressure and unloading.
Automatic start and stop of the compressor is
accomplished by a Bourdon tubo connected to
the air bank which through electric contacte aparatos relays in the starting box of the motor
OLZ
WILOADING
PISO
driven
compressor or, in the turbine driven comVALVE
071.10000
pressor, by a trigger valve which uses air from
LIAIRIOATON 010
the air banks to open or Glose the throttle valva
PIOA
CII OK
to
the turbine.
OLLOO
A thermostat in the air discharge from the
FIG. 11-18. Unloading Velos for Bigh
fourth stage, or sometimos in the cylinder water
Pressure Air Compressor.
jacket, will stop the compressor in case of overDownward motion of these unloader valves per- heating.
mite the air from that stage of compression to esThe speed regulating governor and overspeed
cape to the atmosphere. When the compressor is trip used only on the turbine driven compressor
up to speed the oil premura forces the piston up are similar to typical units of that type used on
closing the valve and preventing escape of the other auxiliary turbines.
POS
00~1100
57,21103110,
00 4711 ~ti
11-16
CHAPTER 4%
CENTRIPUGAL OIL PI.JRIIrIERS

12-1. GIGGMAL
The greateet emite of

The modera machina hunde/. le 1100fila lo his cating oil system is the
knowledge that lubricante are avenabas So carry sion oscura when minuta
almost any load which he may reasonably ese ter will not separata esail
fit to inipose upon them. $o far as frictioa'm cona tan or gray-to-black viscous
cerned hin thought is not, as it once wats to charged from the water
minimise the need for lubrication, but merely to
CentAfugal mulera a
incorporate in the design of the machina a mane water and foreign
for efficiently applying lubricante in ample quan- Diesel fuel oil purifiere
tities and of the proper characteristics.
tion to the lubricating
In the case of fairly heavy maehinery, this ference being that allowan
usually involves the employment of premiare differeMies in !mec& gravity.
lubricating systems, which use the same n over
and over, exposing it to contamination by dirt, 12-2. PRINCIPLE OP A
water, and other impurities which shortly cause TIMG TAAK.
it to lose a par, if not all, of its lubricating value.
Figure 12-1 shows a settling tank whiriehas the
With older methode of lubrication, employing inlet and outlet at the same end. Stappom that
drip, wick, or manual lubrication, replenishment this tank is first filled with water and then a mixo the oil at regular intervals was the user's chief ture of oil, water, and din, comes hato tke tes*
concern. Today the problem is to maintain the from a supply tank, A. It seo don the Intel
purity of the oil so that ha lubricating value will passage, D, underneeth the partition,
10
be indefinitly maintained, thus makbag it possi- lato the main tank, F. The oil, being lighter,
rice to the top of the tank while the water lid
ble to keep it in service for a long period of time.
Lubricating oil really does not orear out, dirt will stay near the bottom. Sinos the mala
rathr it is robbed of ita lubricating proper- tank, F, is in free communication with pange,
tiee by foreign substances. It is a generally ac- H, as oil conecto In F, it dieplacesthe water WIdeas
cepted fact that once a lubricant has proved flows under partition, Gt, upward threugh pesecorrect for a certain service, ita subsequent age, II, and over the dam, L
failure to perform properly is not the result of
When the condition shown in Fig. 12-1 le
interna] changa, but of contamination with for- reached, the oil column, MK, must necemarlly
eign materials or the formation of sludge. No be longer than the water column, NI, for the oil
engineer would willfully pour bato his lubricat- la lighter than the water (that le, ita specifie
ing system a mixture of oil, water, sand, fine gravity is fess than that of water). Thus if an oil
metallie particles, sludge and asid. Yet many weighs .85 as muela as water, the ratio o the two
lubricating systems contain exactly this mixture columna would be 1.0+ .85, i.e., 1.18 to 1 0 and
if preventative melonares are not taken. Obvi- the height of MK would be 1.18 times that o
ously, the vast amounte of money and time spent NI in arder to han the columna balance efida
in refming of lubricante for certain purposes and other.
in perfecting the technique of their application
To put it another way, height MK la
would be wasted, if the introduction of foreign to height NI invensly as the
matter were ailowed to destroy the efficiency of the oil to that o water. tan
of the oil alter it lo put lato service.
operate in this mann rnight be
Removal of water and foreign matter from anced eolumn eettling tank.
lubrinting oil, usad in marine installations, fe To allow the last traces of water and dist t.
accomplished by the use of centrifugal purifiere. settle out of the oil, the tank is proportione4 ao
124
12-2
FIG. 12-2. Ineorreet Dam Size.

FIG. 12-1. Corred Dam Size.
BALANCED COLIJMN SETTLING TALAS.
that it will be nearly filled with the lighter fluid,
as in Fig. 12-1. The oil will then be held in the
tank for the longest possible time and will be
cleaned to the best advantage.
U the tank la improperly proportioned by
having the dam at I too high (as shown in Fig.
12-2), the tank will become nearly filled with
water matead of with oil, and adequate cleaning
of the oil will not be accomplished, for the oil will
not be held in the tank a sufficient time to allow
all the partirles of dirt and water to settle. If the

dam or discharge ring, 1, la raised too high, the oil
and water will not separate, for the water would
flow out of the oil outlet. Thus, it is seen that a
change in the proportioning of the tank is made
by changing the height of the dam, 1.
12-3. PRINCIPLE OF THE CENTRIFUGAL PIIRIPIBE.
11 a mixture of dirty oil la left to settle by

SOLO
OIL
WATER
WATER
SOUS
IL
111::111111:11:11:1111111:11:E:111111
DIRECTION O
GRAVITY
FIG. 124.
DIRECTION OF
CENTR1FUGAL FORCE
FIG. 12-4. Rotating Settling Tank
Stationary Settling Tank.

12-2
CENTRIFUGAL OIL PURIFIERS

gravity in a container, the water and heavy impurities would separate slowly by settling. The
speed with which the solid particles will settle
depende upon :
the difference between the specific gravity
of the solid particles and that of the liquida or
liquid;
the size and form of the solid particles;
the viscosity of the liquid;
the magnitude of the separating force, in
this case gravity.
The oil would rise to the top while the water
would sink below it azul the sediment would
come to rest on the bottom Likewise, oil subjected to centrifugal action will seek a central
zone, water an outer adjacent zone, while sediment deposits againat the wall of the container.
These actions are illustrated by Figs. 12-5 and
12-4.
It is the function of the centrifugal oil purifier
to accelerate the settling action. A separating
force up to severa! thousand times that of the
force of gravity may be attained by rotating a
suitably designed container at high speed. Centrifuga] force varice directly as the radius of the
centrifugal bowl, and as the square of the angular
velocity in radians.
Before going further, it is necessary to get a
clear understanding of just what centrifugal force
is and the best means for its production and control in oil purifying equipment. Everyone knows
that when you turra a sharp comer in a car, there
is a force which tends to turra the car over on its
side. This force vares with the speed of the car
and with the rata of change of direction. This
outward force is centrifugal force. It may be defined as the force which la directed outward when
a moving object la compelled by externa! force
to travel in a curved path. It is the result of the
disinclination of a moving body to make a
change in direction.
A small weight, such as a rifle bullet, twirled
on the end of a string can generate enough centrifugal force to break the string because there is
a ehange of direction. That a body at a given
linear speed generates more centrifugal force
when it turna a sharp comer than when a changa
of direction is more gradual is illustrated in
Fig. 12-6.
If the balanced column settling tank, described
in Art. 12-2, la turned on one sitie and another
placed oppoaite it, and both are distorted some-
FEET PER MINUTE
1
1
2 FEET LONG
CENTRINGAL FORCE GEITERITER IS 4.3 TIMES BRAM

% SPEED-1000
FEET PER MUTE
nirs'
LONG
CENTRIMISAL fORCE SENERATEO a 8.8 TIMES GRAVITY

FIG. 12-5. The Effect of Rete of Chane of
Direction Upen Centrifuga! Force.
what, a cross section of a crude centrifugal oil

purifier bowl la formed. The dam, /, now takes
the chape of a flat ring. As the bowl la rotated,
gravity settling is now replaced by centrifuga!
force which acts in the same manner as gravity,
except that it pulla away from the aria of rotation. Itere the change of direction la fixed, depending on the diameter of the bowl. Every
molecule of liquid in the bowl is attempting to
travel in a straight line and la having a constant
change of direction foreed upon it by the structural strength of the cylinder. The liquid contents of the cylinder obey the same laws as the
bullet on the string; that le, the centrifugal force
acting upon each molecule is proportional to its
speed and, for a given linear speed, is inversely
proportional to its distance from the center of
rotation. The methods employed for applying
these principies are illustrated by means of the
description of two specific designa of centrifugal
purifiers in the succeeding articles.
12-4. TUBULAR BOWL TYPE CENTRIFUGAL PURIFIER.
Figure 12-6 illustrates a centrifugal oil purifier

of the tubular bowl type. It consista, briefly, of a
12-3
NAVAL AUIILIARY MACHINERY
BELT GUARD
BELT
BEARING BASE
MOTOR PULlEY
SPINDLE
MOTOR
VAPORTITE SLEEVE
COUPLING NUT
UPPER COVER
LOWER COVER
FUNNEL COVER
FUNNEL BODY
FRAME
BOWL
FIG. 12-8. Tubular Bowl Typo Centrifuga' PurBler.
12-4
CSNfllfl!oL OIL FliIIIFIERS
The belt ttmsion is maintalned by su idler

under swing tension.
Tbe lower end of the bowl entolda lutoa
drag bushing mounted in a dmg assembly. Tbe
function of the drag assembly is to restrain the
movement of the bowl bottom, yet allow ad&
cient movement so that, when the purifleo is in
operation, the bowl can center iteelf abona
center of rotation, which may not coincide with
the geometria center of the bowl. The drag obtains ita narre from the dressing or restraining
action of the assembly. Figure 12-7 Illustrator
the bowl with the tspindle and beating from
which it is suspended and the drag whith **Mes
the bowl bottom.
Tbe contaminated oil, under propinare from the
purifier pump, la fed by a stationary pipo luto the
feed nozzle, ~untad In the drag osera which
jets the oil lato the revolving bowl. Inside the
bowl is a three-wing deviee, consiating of three
flat platee equally spated radially, which inaparts
the rotary motion of the bowl to the contaminated oil. This 3-wing deviee is held in a fiad position at the top of the bowl by springe mounted
on each wing tip. For lubricating oil, the thtee-
FIG. 12-7. Tubular Type %diez Bow4
hollow rotor, called a bowl, connected by a coupling nut to a flexible spindle which is suspended
from a ball bearing assembly mounted in the
head of the purifier frame. Mounted la conjunction with the bearing la a pulley driver by a belt
from a motor mounted on the back of the trame.
18-5
FIG.12-8. Detalla of lIp Borden ot a

.
Tubular Bowl Typo
12-4
friction clutch aasembly fastened on the motor

drive shaft.
The principal features of the bowl construction
are shown in Fig.12- 10 which aleo illustrates the
purifying action o the machine. Dirty oil entere
the top of the revolving bowl through the atrainer.
It then puses down the inside of the tubular
shaft and out at the bottom, into the stack of
discs. As the dirty oil flows up through the distribution holes in the discs, the discs impart the
rotary motion of the bowl to the contaminated
oil. The dirty oil rotating at high speed is subjected to centrifugal force, which causes the dirt,
or sludge and water to move outward and the
purified oil to move inward toward the tubular
shaft. The rotating speed of the bowl is approximately 7200 r.p.m. The conical dices aleo
serve to divide the contaminated oil into a number of thin layers of about .05 of an inch thick
in which separation takes place, therefore the
impurities, in settling, travel a minimum distanee, thus redueing the centrifugal force neceesary for successful operation. The liquid confined within the space between the disco is restricted to flow only along the passage.
Most of the dirt and sludge collect in a more
or lees uniform layer on the inside vertical surface of the bowl shell and remain in the bowl to
be cleaned at the end of the run. A layer of water
forma next to the dirt and is discharged into one
cover. The layer of clean oil floats on the inner
surface of the water and is drawn off into another
cover. The dividing line between the layer of
water and the layer of oil is controlled by the
diecharge ring and the top disc, which differs from
the other discs in that there are no holes through
it. The top disc aleo extende out further toward
the outside of the bowl.
The drain hole in the bottom of tbe bowl provides automatic drainage whenever the bowl is
12-5. DISC TYPE CENTRIFUGAL PITRIFIER.
stopped.
Figure 19-9 illustrates a centrifugal oil purifier
The application of the balanced column setof the disc type. It consiste, briefly, of a unit, tling principie can be readily discerned by viewin which rotates a vertical bowl spindle which ing Fig. 12-10 from the left and noting the part
carnes the bowl on its upper end. The weight of of the , figure that then lies below the center-line
the bowl spindle, together with any thrust due to of the bowl. By using diecharge rings (dame) of
driving, is taken by a radial thrust bearing in the various inner diameters, oils of different specific
lower end of tbe bowl spindle. The top spindle gravities can be purified.
bearing is flexibly mounted to permit the bowl
to center itself about its center of rotation. The 12-6. DISCHARGE RINGS.
spindle is rotated by means of a worm wheel and
The dividing line between the layers of oil and
wing device has a cone on the bottom against

which the jet of oil impinges. The oil striking the
cone is accelerated smoothly to the bowl speed
without forming an emulsion. Diesel fuel oils do
not tend to emulsify, therefore the cone is unnecessary. hatead, a triangular piste is attached
near the inside bottom of the fuel oil bowl. The
oil striking the plate is directed immediately outward in the bowl.
The contaminated oil, being forced to rotate at
high speed by the bowl, is subjected to centrifugal force which separates the dirt, or sludge and
water from the oil as they pass through the bowl.
A layer of solide is formed at the periphery of the
bowl, an intermediate layer of water forma next
to the dirt and a layer of lean oil "floats" on the
inner surface of the water.
Figure 12-8 illustrates the discharge porta in
the bowl top which are so arranged that the
clean oil can be drawn off from the center of the
bowl and discharged into one cover, and the
water is drawn off from the periphery of the
bowl and discharged into another cover. The
dividing line between the layer of water and the
layer of oil is controlled by the inside baffle and
the ring dam. The solide, which are deposited
against the wall of the bowl, remain in the bowl
to be cleaned at the end of the run.
Tubular type bowls rotate at 15,000 r.p.m.
or aboye, depending upon the diameter of the
bowl.
The application of the balanced eolumn
settling principie can be discerned readily by
viewing Fig. 12-8 from the side and noting the
part of the figure that then lies below the center
line of the bowl.
Note, that by using ring dama of various inner
diameters, oils of different specific gravities can
be purified.
12-6
CENTRIFUGAL OIL PURIFIERS
FIG.12-9. Disc Type Centrifugal Puritter Showing Anangement of Bowl, !horade and Driving l'achantara.
12-7
12
NAVAL AUX7LIARY MACHINERY

STIAINER
COMER
TUBULAR SHAFT
OVERFLOW
OVERROW
COMER
PUES
DISCHARCE
OIL
RING (DAM)
MIDOLE
CRIAR
BOTTOM
COMER
TOP DISC
INTERMEDIATE
DISC
BOTTOM DISC
BRAKE
WATER
DISCHARGE
BOWL SHELL
FIG. 1S-10. Cross Sodio: Showing Operados of a Typical Disc Type Purifier Bowl.
water in any purifier bocal is determined by the Although the discharge ring may be removed, and
location and size of the discharge ring, (ring dam) another sise insertad, it is best to leave it in posias was shown in Art. 12-2 in the case of a bah tion as long as the same type of oil is usad and
anced column settling tank. Since the specific satidactory resulta are being obtained. If the sise
gravity of lubricating oils varios with the type of discharge ring recommended for the type of oil
oil, each purifier is provided with a set of dis- used does not give good resulte, the correct sise
charge rings of various sises; that is they have the ring must be determined by the trial-and-err or
same outside diameter but different incide diam- method.
eters. Since location of the discharge ring on a
given purifier is constant, the dividing line of the 12-7. OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS.
When the purifier is to be operated, it la eslayers of liquide is determined by the sise of the
discharge ring used. In one instante it was found mafial that water be fed to the bocal before the
that only one discharge ring, of those provided, oil flow le turned on. This water serves to seal
would produce anywhere near the desired resulte. the heavy discharge porte and create an initial
12-8
GENTILIVOAL OIL PUBIPIER,8

batanee of leyera as deserilied in Art. 12-2. Ilfle
bowl is not "primed" with water, the oil Will
How from the water disoharge porte and be loet
to wasto. fe bowls bf modera purifiers are
prizned by opening the valve in the priming line
between the water diecharge port and the suotion
sida of the bid pump. Hot fresa water le then
peinad into the water diecharge obaervation port
until water la asen flowing into the* water dincharge from the cona. It is recommended that
priming be done in this way rather than by
permanent connection to the water system, unce
in the latter case a leaky priming valve would
permit oil to water the water system alter the oil
flow has started. Aa a general guide, turizine lubricating olla ehould be centrifugad at a temperature between 150 and 180F. and Diesel lubricating oil at a temperatura of 100 to 180F. Allowing the temperatures to get below the aboye
stated points will result in inefficient operation
which can only be improved by a diem reduction
in flow. For the light oil, known as "Diesel oil,"
a temperature of 100F. is sufficient.
Solida will not diacharge. Inatead*they deposit
againat the wall of the bowl. The operator will
soon learn by experience how long he can run
between bowl cleanings, and if the run is, prolonged boyad the deeirable point, provhdon la
ordinal* made by the 'manufacturar for liquid
to overflow at the feed when solida have filiad in
toa point where the feed cannot enter. This la a
direct evidence to the operator that cleaning is
immediately necessary.
Since the bowl cleaning is a regular routine
requirement, adequate proviaion ehould be made
to handl(' Mili easily and satisfactonly. The
manufactura'e recommendations should be studied in regard to the type of cleaning bench
neeessary and the best ways of handling the job.
It is important that the eleaning bench be adjacent to the machina so that the operator will
not have to carry a heavy bowl over alippery
lioseplates kis seaway. Adequate lighting should

biltyltlatat the cleaning bench, anda portable
li4a providefi so that it can be extended bato the
bowi to Mai sure that solide have beim adequately remabas:4. It must be remernbered that
the emooth ruaoing of a centrifugo depende pon
ita being in balanbe. A poorly cleaned bowl may
result in an exceso of wear on the bearipp, and
may result in improper separation beesealeOrtbe
clogging of one or more dischazge portskita mannot be tao strongly
therefore, that
one of the raoet Important thiam abouthanciltag
a purifier is to seo that the bota la conapletly
cleaned of solide.
In the tubular bowi, solida may be permitted
to build in toward the canten without materially
affectizas the cleaning problein. With the dise
type it is neeemary that cleaning be done luziore
the solida pack into the dime.
It la irapossible to avoid soma of the producto
of combustion working finto the lubricathig oil
of a Diesel engine, with the result that the Water
sida of the boort gre.dtapily develops corrosivo
characteristies which ara,in some cases bufan:L.1y
bad when in contact with ordinary iron or atad.
Where corrosion exista, the operator should keep
in mirad the faet that although the purifier has an
adequate factor of eafety ea originally destetad,
pitting may result in a dangerous condition,
and bowis found subject to such attack should
be returned to the manufacturar for recheck and
high speed teating. All eentrifugal type purifiers
are high speed machina, therefore the proper
cara and operation of the equipment cannot be.
overemphasised.
The Bureau of Shipe Manual and manufacturera' instructions ora lubzication and maintenance ahould be carefully stadiedand an operating
schedule laid out to conform strictly to theae
requirements.
12-9
CHAPTER 13
CONTROL INSTRUMENTS
13-1. GENERAL.
314
Control instrumenta have a dual function, that

of indicating the immediate conditions of the
machinery in use to the control personnel, and
that of furnishing information for the engineering
log for the purpose of analysis both in the determination of current efflciency and leading to
future improvement. By the use of instrumente
control personnel are able to readily regulate the
machinery in use and are warned of abnormal
conditions such as excessive apeed, temperature,
or pressure.
Some instrumenta such as boiler gauge glasees
and turbine clearance indicators, being speciflcally designed for the particular machinery with
which they are used, are discussed with those
unta. In this chap ter will be found descriptions
of the following instrumenta:
Temperature measuring instrumente in
the form of thermometers, pyrometers, and exceas temperature alarma;
Superheater flow meters;
Pressure measuring instrumente; gauges
for high pressures and vacuums, manometers for
low pressures;
Gauge testing apparatus;
Tachometersfor rotational speed meastITC;
Propeller revolution indicator systems;

Fluid measuring devices; meters and pneumercator systems;
Salinity indicators; and
(i) Combustion control instrumenta; CO, indicators and fine gas analysis apparatus.
13-2. THERMOMETERS AND . PYROMETERS.
The accompanying table shows the range and
the limita of error of the temperature measuring

devices used in the Navy.
There are many schemes for measuring temperature and there are variations of the foregoing
types, but a study of these should be sufflcient to
acquaint the student with the general principies
involved in measuring the temperatures incident
to modem engineering plant operation.
(1) The pyrometer appears in several forms.
The electric pyrometer will be described here.
It is the accepted instrument for determining
high temperatures in scientiflc research, and is
used extensively for the same purpose in engineering planta. It ~pasees the simple mercurial
thennometer in range, adaptability and ruggednese, and can be used for many purposes where an
ordinary thermometer would be quite nacieses.
A thermoelectric pyrometer, used to determine boiler uptake temperature, is shown diagrammatically below in Fig. 13-1. It is nothing
more than a galvanometer activated by a thermocouple, which is a mechanical junction of two
platinum compounds or of two dissimilar base
metals such as iron and constantin, or chromel
and alumel.
When heat is applied to the couple an electromotive force is generated which is indicated by
means of a high resistance galvanometer or milivolt meter. The unit is calibrated in Fahrenheit
degrees. If a new thermocouple is installed, the
instrument must be recalibrated.
Three common types of pyrometers are (a)
"indicating" for simple temperature indication,
(b) "recording" for continuously recording temperatures, and (c) "controlling" for temperature
control. Ali of these features may be incorporated
in a single instrument.
TABLIC 3. TEMPERATURE MEASURING DEVICES USED IN NAVAL SERV/CE
Type
Rango in Deg. F.
Thermoeouple pyrometer

Liquid-in-glase thermometer
(3) Bourdon tubo thermometer

LiquId fdled (mereury)
Vapor premura
(e) Gas fdled
13-1
Limite of Error
300 to 2,000
2 to 20
35 to 750
0.5 to 7
38 to 1,000s
20 to 700
80 to 3,000
2 to 10
2 to 10
2 to 10
13-2
Az?
THRM00011111
{YA? A ......
TEMPERO* CACE
(CALYANOMETER CALIBRO@
TO MATE TEMPFIATURE)
CRIBUSTION GASES
PIG. 13-1. Pyrometer Principie Schematic Arrangemente.
(2) The liquidin-gliow thermometer depende

for its operation upon the expansion of the liquid
sealed in a glass bulb attached to a graduated
stem of fine bore. A capillary glose tube, generally referred to as the stem, is closed at one end
and terminates at the other end in a spherical
or cylindrical enlargement, known as the bulb.
The bulb and a portion of the stem are fdled with
a imitable liquid, the remaining par of the
stem being filled with the vapor of this liquid
or usually with this vapor mixed with an inert
gas. Temperature readings are talco by noting
the position of the meniscus of the liquid in the
stem, when the bulb la suitably immersed in
the medium the temperature of which is desired. This thermometer appears in armored and
unarmored types, as well as in straight stem and
anglo stem types; aleo a metal bulb and sede
case may surround the Caes bulb and stem.
TRAIGH
Some types are shown in Fig. 184. Mercury,
T
alcohol, benzine, and tolueno are coramon liquide
ARMORE
used. The principal advantage of this thermometer la that it is complete in itself.
Mercury la widely used in the various temperature measuring devicea. Because of this,
some of its characteriatics will be set forth. In the
liquid-in gises thermometer, when mercury
816. 13-2. Typo of
13-2
Gima Thermometere.
CONTROL INSTRUMENTS
used, the smallness of the expansion neceesitates
an extremely fine bore for the capillary tubing,
which introduces errors in consequence of the
high surface- tension of the mercury. However,
such errors are small and fairly regular and may
be corrected within certain limite. A more serious
trouble, especially at high temperatures, is the
imperfect elasticity of the gime which causes irregular changos in the volume of the bulb. This
contributes greatly to the inaccuracy of this type
of thermometer and renders it unsuitable for precise measurements of high temperatures.
The chief advantages of mercury from a temperature measurement standpoint are its high
boiling point, low freezing point, inappreciable
evaporation at the temperatures for which it is
used, and the fact that chemically pura mercury
does not adhere to the walls of the stem. Its high
conductivity and low specific heat render it quick
and sensitive in its action, and its opacity facilitetes accurate readings.
(3) The Bourdon tube thermometers may be
grouped finto three general types: (a) "liquidfilled," with liquid completely filling the bulb,
capillary tube and Bourdon tube (Bourdon
spring); (b) "vapor-pressure," having a free sur-
FIG. 13-3. Distant Reading Thermometer.
13-2
POINTER
HAIR MING
GEAR
PET ATORAN?'
SEGNENT
BASE
PEONE
CONNECTION
FIG. 18-4. The Boardon Principie.
face of liquid in the bulb; (e) "gas-filled," with

gas completely filling the thermometer like the
"liquid-filled." An instrument of this general
type is shown in Fig. 15-8.
The Bourdon tube, very widely used in the
construction of both distant-reading thermometers and pressure gauges is illustrated schematically in Fig. 15-4. The pressure of the liquid or
gas inside the Bourdon tube is acting equally on
both the inner and outer arce of the tube. Taking
a small increment of the tube, AA'-BB', it will
be noted that the outside circunaferential increment, AA', is slightly larger than the corresponding inside increment, Bif. When a pressure is exerted inside the tube, there is a resultant
tendency for the pressure to rotate the tube in a
clockwise direction. As the tube is restrained at
its base end, this tendency resulte in a temporary
straightening of the tube. This motion, shown at
point X, is multiplied and translated bato rotary
motion of the pointer as shown.
The tube is elliptical in cross-section with the
aman diameter in the plana of motion. This increases the effective force tending to bend the
tube, making it more sensitivo to pressure
changes.
13-3
13-2
-4
CAPEAD
TOBE
LIMO
temperature. In liquid-filled thermometers, the

length of the capillary tubing is limited to approximately 25 feet. Lengths of capillary tubing
may be longer than 25 feet if compensated for
temperature changes along the tubing; however,
installations with lengths ander 25 feet are more
desirable. The liquids most commonly used are
mercury and alcohol.
The chief disadvantage of the liquid-filled
type is that it is subject to considerable error due
to temperature effects along the capillary tubing.
(b) The vapor-procure thermometer. The elements of a vapor-pressure thermometer are
shown in Fig. 184. Its action depends upon the
fact that the pressure inside the tubing la determined by the temperature of the free surface of
the liquid. If the capillary tubing and pressure
spring (Bourdon tube) contain vapor, the indicaMons of the instrument are not subject to error
due to the variation of the temperature in the
tubing and spring, therefore, when properly installed, any length of capillary tubing up to 200
feet may be used. The liquide most commonly
BOURBON
NUBE
BULO
VIO. 13-6. Schematic Arraagemeat of a LiquldPillad Thermometer.
HUMO
The action of the liquid-filled and gas-filled

types depend upon the pressure created by the
thermal expansion of the liquid and gas respectively, while the action of the vapor-pressure
type depends upon the fact that the pressure inside the thermometer la determined solely by the
temperature of the free surface of the liquid in the
bulb. Thermometers of these general types, and
pyrometers, compite the group of distant-reading, dial-indicating, recording and control thermometers now used in modern :tipa. The Bourdon tube thermometer types are described below.
(a) The liquid-filled thermometer. The component parte of a distant-reading, liquid-filled
thermometer are shown in Fig. 18-5. When heat
is supplied to the bulb, the liquid in the bulb expanda, exerting a pressure in the Bourdon tube
which 'pendo to take the chape shown by the
dotted fines. The pointer of the indicator, which
is operated through linkages and gears by the
movement of the end of the tube, moves over a
scale which is graduated to read directly in
13-4
TOBE
FIG. 13-6. Vapor-Preasure Thermometer.
CONTROL IRISTRUMINTO
used are alcohol, bensita, water, toluene,

SO, and ether.
(o) The gas-filled illerwsometer is similar, except
for the sise of the capillary tubing, to the liquidMed type. The gas most commonly ueed la nitrogen. Its chief advantage je that there is no restriction in the length of capillary tubing. The
principal disadvantage is that the thermometer
is subject to error if the capillary tubing is at
different temperature while in service than during
calibration.
fe bulbs of Bourdon tuba thermometers may
vary in sise, chape, and material depending upon
the application. Commonly used materials are
gima, steel, bronce, copper, monel metal, and
brass. The capillary tubing used in the Bourdon
tuba thermometer la generan ralada of steel,
bronce, copper, or lead-covered steel. It la sometimes strengthened by flexible armor. All connections in the tubing should be soldered or
welded.
To get an accurate reading with a thermometer, the bulb must be so located as to
acquire and maintain the temperature of the me-
terial under oosideration. When the material $n

which Lis immersed is substantially at raer, aare
musa be tains to ensure that the ~triad in
contact with the the rraometer 108 the sume tem"
Perature as the main body of the substance.
ta-s. sundarana TEMPERAltana
In addition to the abo ye deacribed the.'

mometers, the Bounion principie is utilizad S
actuate superheater temperature alarma. As
shown schematically in Fig. 13-7, the Bourdon
tuba in this type instrument is ma.de in ttie
of a helix to which is mechanioally
"cantilever" arra. The mercury q ' 3,
fltted in a well in the superheater a *nes
Figure 13-7 is of the "alerta-signad-Sr type
which is the type now being installed S naval
vessels. As the temperature reacias the upper
rafe operating temperature of the su
say 860F.the cantilever ama clases the tnieroswitch. It opereta devices electricen 'which
cause a warning light to bus and A warning
howler to sound. In some instelltdbeeit. alome
the quick-closing fuel oil supply vahea to the
121.7. Behematie Anaagemaat o a Superflua Temperatare
13-5
1
12-3
Vall PLUGS
N'ATAR RESERVOIRS
EMERCENCY
SWITOFF VALVE
USGINS
SUPERHEATER
OILEi
MON CORE
MOVEAFILE CORE
TIWISFORMER
TELEMETER TRANSMITTER
MUAMMAR
VALVE
DIFFERENT1AL BELLOWS
11" PIPING-4
SUPERNEATER
PROTECTIVE ONCE
EMERGENCV
OMAR VALVE
115Y
RO!
FLOW INDICATOR
RUMBEARA
011TLET
WARNDIG SEMI
L_ _
FIG. 13-8. Superheater Low Flow Protective Deviee.
superheater side of the boiler involved. The alarm

continues to ring until the temperature drope 10
to 15 below the alarm temperatura
Superheater temperature alarma in late practic,e are an adjunct to the superheater low-flow
protective device to be described in the following
article. Both instrumente actuate the same set of
alarm signals.
13-4. SUPERE:SAT= LOW-FLOW PROTECTIVE DEVICES.
These devices are installed in superheater

bollera to wam operating personnel of a dangerously low rate of flow of steam through the superheater. A low-flow protective device is illustrated in Fig. 13-8 and Fig. 18-9. It consiste of a
transmitter, which is actuated by the difference
in steam pressures at the superheater inlet and
at the superheater outlet, and an indicator with
attached warning howlers. The indicator has a
pointer and a dial which indicates the amount of
the steam pressure differential. The dial is usually
calibrated in inches'of water (1 p.s.i. = 27.7 inches
of water) in order that the small pressure dif-
ferentials existing at low steaming ratee may be

apparent. There is aleo a red light over which is
mounted a tmnslucent sign reading "Se cure
Superheater Burners."
When the pressure drop (which is proportional
to steam flow through the superheater) reaches
a dangerously low level the red indicator light
is lighted behind the sign and the howlers sound
simultaneously.
The general layout of the device is shown in
Fig. 13-8. In Fig. 13-9 will be sean the detalle of
the differential pressure transmitter. The high
pressure connection (from the superheater inlet)
leads to the area outside the bellows. Superheater
outlet pressure is simultaneously impressed on
the inside of the bellows. This arrangement resulte in a tendency for the bellows to be compressed.
The radiator reservoirs (Fig. 18-8) are for
maintaining a fixed head of water on the differential bellows. They are designed and installed so that rolling and pitching of the ship
will have little effect on the delicate flow measurement. These reservoirs, the transmitter, and
13-6
CONTROL INSTRUMENTS
connecting piping are filiad with condensate by
use of the venta and the equalizing valve prior to
placing the equipment in operation.
The tendency for the bellows to be compressed
is opposed by a calibrated balancing spring attached to the free end of the bellows. Any resulting movement of the bellows la then transmitted through the rigid vertical link sean inside
the bellows to the moveble iron core in the
transformar located aboye the bellows cylinder.
Motion of the iron core vatios the ratio of the
voltages across the two output windings provided in the transformar. This variable voltage
ratio la usad to operate the indicator on the bollar
control board.
The maximum and miniatura stops (Fig. 13-9),
which are adjustable, prevent damage to the instrument in event of cucas pressure differential
in either direction. At such times when it la
definitely known that there is no flow through
the superheater, the zero adjustment is utilizad to
set the free end of the bellows in the proper postion to register a cero pressure differential.
13-5
TO
RECEIVER
VENT PLUG "A"

MOVEABLE CORE
TRANSFORMER
LOW PRESSURE
CONNECTION
115V, BO- SLIPPL

FROM RECEIVER
IRON CORE
RICH PRESSURE
CONNECTION
COIL
ADJUSTMENT
VENT
PLUG "B"
13-5. PRESUME GAUGES.
The types of pressure measuring devices usad

in naval engineering planta are described briefly
in the follovving aubparagraphs:
(1) Manometers. For the measurement of
fireroom pressures, other low pressures, or lowpressure differentials, the simplest and most baexpensive instrument la the liquid manometer.
Liquid manometers are available commercially
in a wide range of sises and designa. The liquida
commonly used are water, oil, and mercury.
Figure 13-10(c) shows a standard commercial
product of the II tuba type. It consista of a oneplace pyrex glass indicating U-tuba mounted on a
metal base, with an adjustable acate mounted between the legs of the U. One leg of the manometer tube la connected to the source to be
measured, the other to the atmosphere. The difference between the heights of the liqud columns
la plainly visible and may be converted finto
units of pressure faene in haches of water).
The single-tuba manometer la shown in Fig
13-10(a). This particular instrument may be usad
to mentira vacuum or pressure. It functions the
same as the II tuba manometer, the primary
difference being that only one leg of the U-bend
la made of glass.
13-7
PRESSORE
CHAMBER
EQUALIZING
VALVE
BELLOWS
VERTICAL
LINK
MINIMOM
MAXIMUM STOP
STOP
CALIBRATED
SPRINC
ORO PLUG
ZERO
ANIUSTMENT
FIG. 113-9. Differentiel Trananilltec of Superheator

Low Flow Protective Dedeo.
13-5
14) SINGLE TUSE
(6) MLTIPLE SINGLE TUBE
U TUSE
FIG. 13-10. Typea of Manometero
Diaphragm gauges. The diaphragm-type

gauge offers a sensitive and reliable mean of
indicating small pressure differences without the
use of liquid which is subject to inaccuracies
when the chip rolla. Figure 13-11 illustrates a
phantorn view of a single, vertical-dial gauge
which may be calibrated and designed for the
service desired. Figure 13-12(a) shows the principies of operation this type of gauge. Figure
13-12(b) shows the special pivot bearing of the
pointer.
The operating mechanian consiste essentially
of a elack leather diaphragm and phosphor
bronze cantilever spring attached to a pointer
mounted on a pivot bearing. The diaphragm is a
pliable, tough, gaa-tight membrane. It merely
transmite the force of the presente to the counterweghted pointer and produces a readng on the
scale in direct proportion to the magnitude of the
force. 'The spring is harneseed directly to the
pointer in the simplest possible manner, by a
non-kinkable chaira. The large ares of the diaphragm ensures sensitivity and great magnification of force.
Sometimes two interna! diaphragm units are
incorporated in a single case and made to show
comparative presentes. Such a gauge is suitable
for comparing presentes n the boiler smokepipe
and the furnace.
Bourdon type presente gauges. The Bourdon type of gauge is the most satisfactory instrument for measuring high presentes. It is available
for measuring very low premura' and vacuums,
but the manonaeter or diaphragm types have the

advantage of greater accuracy. Gauges of the
Bourdon or diaphragin types should be calibrated frequently, lance they are subject to inaccuracy through use.
In practiee, the pressure and vacuum units are
simply connected to the source by tubing. The
operation of Bourdon instrumente has been explained in Art. 13-2(3). A conventional dial type
presente gauge is shown in Fig. 13-13.
In the manufacture of Bourdon type pressure
gauges the tube is made of chrome vanadium
ateol for all gauges operating at pressures in
excess of 100 p.s.i., and of phosphor bronze for
lower presentes. There are threaded connections
between the tube ami the stationary base and
aleo at the tip to which the range link is connected. Monel metal gaskets are used to make
metal to metal ground joints which are tested,
at from 50% to 100% overpressure. Solder le
used over the joints to bind them. Note that the
movement is mounted directly on the stationary
base or socket in order that movement of the
case will not affect the accuracy of the gauge.
Thie is known as an independent mounting.
Occasionally, "compound" gauges are found
wherein a single Bourdon tube is installed with
elasticity of such quality as to allow a seto scale
point and measurements of vacuum to the left
13-8
BRACKET
PIVOT
BEARING
CELLULOID
4PLY LEATHER
SCALE
DIAPHRAGM
BEAD
CHAIN
HOUSING
CURVED
CALIBRAT'G
GLASS
SPRING
LUMINUM
POINTER
3-WAY
COCK
ZERO ACUUST.
SCREW
ZERO ADJUST.
SPRING
P10. 13-11. Diaphragm Gano.
CONTROL INSTRUSIRNTE
.4 a
ICE
PNOT DENING
CELLULOID
SCALE
PNIIT DEPARO
(A) SPBTIAL
BETA..
CURVEO
GIASS
MING
3-VIAT
COCK
1
PRESSURE
IN
FURNACE
PANEL OR
'BREES
(e) DRAFT CAVE ala

(a) ASSEMBLY ZERO ADJUSIDIG SCREW
SIG. 1112. Glaphregm Air Preutare Gauge.
CEAR SEGMENT
PIVOT
SIG. A3-13. Burdo* ZIP, Priman
13-9
Gnu.
13-5
to a plunger F, of known area, aecurately fitted

into a vertical cylinder G. The weighted plunger
applies pressure to the Huid (usually a light
mineral oil) in the cylinder, which in turra is
transmitted to the gauge by piping J, through
control valve D. The plunger itself usually corresponda to an initial pressure of 5 or 10 lbs. and
5, 10, and 20 lb. calibrated weights are provided
with each set Weights are added in increments
and pressures to the right. Sueh a gauge would

be found to record the gauge pressures and vacua
existing in the lower pressure stages of turbines,
under various operating conditions. A duplex
gauge is one in which two entice Bourdon tube
mechanisms are installed with pointers both
swinging across the same scale. These gauges are
frequently utilized to show that lubricating oil
strainers are open. By connecting one of the con-
111111111111111111111111111111111111.1111111111111111111111111
REMAN FOR PRESSURES
ABOYE 500 LBS.
%eff,n-r
noimilinoo
0 0, ,,,,:4114
"
n".>7.22
1k.,
4111111111rs'
BESEN FOR PRESSURES

UP TO 500 LBS.
FIG. 13-14. Gauge Testing Apparatua.
tained mechanisms to the strainer inlet and the

other to the outlet, a clogged strainer is indicated by a noticeable pressure difFerential.
13-8. GAME TESTING APPARATIIS.
At intervals specified by the Bureau of Ships

Manual, all important pressure gauges are tested
either by comparing them with a standard test
gauge or by testing them with a gauge testing
apparatus. Aboard ship the latter type equipment is found. Figure 13-14 illustrates a standard
gauge testing apparatus. It operates on the
principie of subjecting the gauge under test to a
hydrostatic pressure created by applyitag weights
desired and the actual reading of the gauge is

compared with that pressure being created by the
calibrated weights. Cylinder A is a simple pump
provided for initial filling of the instrument.
Cylinder C and plunger H are used to maintain
the correct vertical position of the weight platf orm of plunger F (about 2' aboye cylinder G)
when calibrating a large gauge.
134. TACHOMETERS.
Tachometers indicate directly the speed of

rotation of the machine in revolutions per minute
and some indicate in addition, with the use!of a
small attachment, the linear peripheral speed of a
la-lo
CONTROL INSTRUMENTE
wheel or journal to which they are attached or
to which they may be applied. The most common
type of tachometer dependa for ita action upon
the centrifuga! force of revolving weights. In
appearance it la similar to the simple dial gauge,
with an indicating needle attached in such a
manner that the number of revolutions per
minute is indicated by the position of the needle
upon the dial. There are other successful typea
such as Huid tachometers which consist of small
centrifuga! pampa discharging hito a suitably
calibrated manometer or presaure gauge, and
electrical tachometers which are small dynamos,
the voltage generated by the rotation of an
armature being a measure of the speed of rotation. Also, the resonance tachometer affords a
convenient method of measuring speeds over
great ranges. It consiste of a number of steel reeds
of different frequency, mounted side by side in
a suitable frame which la connected to the machine whose speed is to be measured.
The vibrating reed type tachometer is a simple reliable instrument. It dependa for its action
13-7
on the resonant vibration of one of a row of reeds.

The vibrating element of the instrument is essentially a multiple pronged tuning fork whose
appearance is like a wide toothed comb. The
reeds are secured in the row in order of resonant
vibration and the row is mounted with the reeds
perpendicular to the back of the instrument in
such a manner that only the free ende of the
reeds extend through a horizontal rectangular
slit acroas the face of the instrument abo ye and
below which the scale is stamped. When the
instrument is placed on the foundation or casing
of the machine whose rotational speed is desired,
the machine' rotational vibration seta that reed
nearest ita speed in resonant vibration. This instrument is particularly useful in the measurement of the high rotational speeds found in
modern high speed generators, blowers, and
various turbines.
Tachometera should be calibrated frequently.
Their principal use la to determine blower, turbine, and other rotating machinery speeds, to
ensure that the unit is operating a t the correct
FIG. 18-15. Oil Meter.
13-11
13-7
,BAINZI RECISTER
speed, or that the allowed maximum speed is not

exceeded.
13-8. PROPELLER REVOLUTION INDICATOR SYSTEMS.
11
ROUND READING
RECISTER
RECISTER CHANCE
METER
alCEAR
CHANCE
CEAR
er-STUFFING BOX NUT
BRONZE TOP
CASING
2. INTE
TRAIN
CIAR
scanv-4
INTERM. GEAR
1. INTERMEDIATE
TRAIN CIAR
PLATE
DISC CHAMBER
COMPLETE
DISC
ni
DISC CHAMBER
BOTTOM WITH
DIAPDRAGM
"BOLI
BRONZE BOTN
CASING
FIG. 13-16. Exploded View of Oil Meter.
In order that the engineering control personnel

may know what propeller speed is being made by
the main engines, propeller revolution indicator
systems are provided. These systems as now installed are generally self-synchronous eleetcal
transmission systems. Installed on each shaft is a
self-synchronous transmitter which is electrically
connected to indicators at the engine control stations. These indicators show both inetantaneous
shaft r.p.m. by a pointer activated by a tachometer arrangement, and total shaft revolutions by
the inclusion of a mechanical counter. They also
indicate whether the engine is going ahead or
backing. Various arrangements of this basic system are installed to meet the needs of the specific
engineering plant involved. The control engine
room generally has an indicator from eaeh engine
or shaft to assist the watch officer in controlling
the speeds of the various shaf ts. R.p.m. indicators
are aleo provided at important ship control stations to supplement actual ship speed indicators,
the latter being actuated by the motion of the
ship tbrough the water.
13-9. FLUID METERS.
The measurement of quantity of fluida is highly

important in naval vessels, particularly as regards Diesel-engine and boiler !uds. The quantitative, hourly computation of fuel expenditure
provides a daily check againat the soundings of
fuel-oil tanks and promotes engineering analysis
and economy.
The detaila of design of commercial Huid meters vary widely.
Meten suitable for use in ships must be rugged,
durable, and suitable for prolonged use with little
adjustment.
The dise type commercial oil meter illustrated
in Fig. 15-15 operates by volumetric displacement of the liquid measured. The principies of
operation apply equally to a water or a gasoline
meter. Oil entere the meter from the left as
shown and pasees upward tbrough the coarse
strainer int the gear space abo ye the measuring
chamber. It then entere the measuring chamber
through the entrence port in the side of this
13-12
CONTROL INSTRUM$NT8
chamber. Referring to Fig. 18-16, note the veru

tirai dividirla Piste in the lOwer Port of. ~mur-.
ing chamber. Oil entera the dist abombes on Use
left-hand sida of this dividing piste. Tho disc
in the meaturing chamber la free- to nutate
(wobble around) about ita lower spherical bou,
ing surface but la not free to rotate, being constrained by the fixed vertical dividing plata tic&
runa through disc as shown. Tisis nutational motion, which la shown in Fig. 18-17, la simi, to
that of a spun coin just before it settles flirt on
table. It is to be noted that the action of the
nutating disc la a proceso which has no defmite
cycle in the cense that there la a starting point
and a finishing point.
The position (a) Wii8 taken as a etarting pode
tion for the purpose of the explanstlon. If the
meter starts with the disc tilted up Orr the side of
the chamber where the dividing piste is issc ted,
as shown in Fig. 13-17(a), the fiuid, as it fiows
around, will force the disc to nutate in a decirwise direction as viewed from aboye. As the
ktighest point of the disc parees a point 1009
(Fig. 18-17(c)) from the dividing piste,, the admission of the huid to the bottom of the dirstwill
FIG. 13-17. Magros of Principie of Operados

of Brotadas Pisten.
TO CAUCE
MERCURY
CAUCE
CONTROL
VALVE
COMPRESSED Alit
BALANCE CHAMBER
FIG. 13-18. Parsdnarcator System.
FIG. 13-19. Prununeraator Coarto* Vaina

13-13
13-9
be shut off due to the position of the dise. Meanwhile fluid has commenced to ente aboye the
dise. The force of the fluid now entering aboye
the dise will continue to sweep that fluid below
the disc around (clockwise as viewed from aboye)
and out the exhaust port of the measuring
chamber (just to the right of the dividing plate).
As the din nutates in the aboye described manner, the pin extending from the upper bearing
sphere rotates the gear counter arm, shown in
Fig. 18-15.
As the pin nutates, it is restrained and guided
by the conical-shaped bearing housing which
supporta the counter arm shaft. This construction prevente the disc from ever attaining a neutral (horizontal) position. The leakage around
the edge of the disc ie very small and can be accurately ealibrated. The flow of fluid is even and
continuous with no pulsations.
mercury gauge, (c) closing of all leads to the

balance chamber, and (d) venting the balance
chamber to the atmosphere.
When a reading is to be mude, the fluid must
be forced from the balance chamber by compressed air until the fluid is at the level of the
orifico and maintained there until the reading
of the gauge is taken. The sir pressure has no
effect on reading as it is balaneed aboye and below the mercury column by the piping arrangement. It is left on only suffieiently long to alear
the balance chamber of fuel oil through the
orifica. Any excess air will vent through the
orifico and travel through the tank vent. This
blowing out of the balance chamber la necessary
for otherwise were there a minor leak, say at the
control valve, the oil in the balance chamber and
piping would seek the tank level and there would
be no pressure differential between the top and
bottom of the mercury measuring column. When
the control handle is turned to "Gauge," the
compressed sir system is isolated.
13-10. TANK LEVEL INDICATOR.

Tank level indicator systems are used to determine the volume of fluid in tanks or reservoirs.
In naval vessels, they provide a convenient 13-11. SALINITY INDICATORS.
mean for measuring quickly the number of
The use of sea water for condensen and evapogallons of fuel oil in the tanks.
rating plante makes possible contamination of the
One tank level indicator in use is called the fresh water wherever spaces containing sea water
pneumercator. In the pneumercator, a column of adjoin those carrying fresh water. The greatest
mercury is balaneed against a column of the source of danger is in condensing equipment,
fluid which is in a tank whose contenta are to be where hundreds of tubes often have a total
measured. Its essential elements, which are length of several thousand feet. These are Hable
shown in Fig. 18-18, are: the balance chamber; a to leakage, due to failure of the joints or to cormercury gauge; compressed sir supply; the con- rosion of the tubes. The problem of locating salttrol valve; piping for connecting the units. The water leaks and preventing salt water from reachcontrol valve is shown in Fig. 18-19.
ing the boiler feed water is a serious one. Once
The balance chamber, which is located so that the water is seriously contaminated the chip is
its orifice is near the tank bottom, is connected incapable of prolonged high power operation.
te,' the mercury-filled bulb of the indicator gauge
The Bureau of Ships Manual outlines and
by a small pipe. The pressure in the balance describes in detail the routine chemical tests for
chamber will be measured by the gauge and, all fresh water in ships. These tests were dissince this pressure bears a definite relation to cussed in Naval Boilers. The salinity indicator
the height of the fluid in the tank, the gauge sur pigmente these tests. It is an electrical instrumay be calibrated suitably to indicate volume ment devised to warn the macbinery operators
in barreis or gallons in the tank for which it is immediately of the entry of salte in the fresh
installed. A pipe connects the top of the mercury water system and to indicate at all times the
column to the top of the tank, so that inaecurate approximate salive content of the fresh water.
readings will not result should tire pressure at Its accuracy is sufficient for this purpose but is
the surface of the tank momentarily vary from not equal to that of the chemical test.
atmospheric.
The operation of the salinity-indicator system
The control valve permite (a) blowing out the is based upon the principie of the proportional
balance chamber preparatory to obtaining a variation of electrical conductivity of water
reading, (b) connecting the balance chamber to which takes place with the variation of its electro13-14
CONTROL INSTRUMENTS
Iytic impurities. By immersing a "cell," consisting of two electrodes, in the fresh water a
fixed resistance la secured when voltage is finpressed upon the system, provided the impurity
content and the temperature of the water remain
the same. This resistance la read on a power
factor meter type of indicator graduated in
"grains of chlorine per gallon." II the saline
content of the water mercases, as is the case
when leakage of sea water occurs, the conductivity between the electrodes increases and the
indicator pointer mover upward in proportion,
warning the operating personnel so that action
can be taken before a dangerous condition la
reached. Other salta, such as boiler compound,
will increase the conductivity of the water and
give falso indications.
Salinity indicator cella are located in such
places as main and auxiliary condensate fines
from each condenser, distilling plant tube nest
drains, distiller condenaste linea, fresh water
pump diacharge fines, distiller air ejector drains,
etc. Indicator meters and selector switches, for
selecting the cell to be used, are conveniently
located at naain engine control stations and on
diatilling plant instmment boarda.
13-12. COMBUSTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT.
(1) Theory of combustion. The esaential element of the combustion procesa la oxygen which
is furnished by the air. The producto of this
procese, providing it la done completely with the
exaet amount of air required, are N,, CO2, and
water vapor. A sample of the flue gas from a
boiler showing only the presence of these would,
theoretically, be evidence of complete combustion. However, in practice a certain amount of
excess oxygen must be provided to ensure complete combustion of the greater part of the fuel.
It still may not be possible to obtain 100 per
cent combustion without an extravagant excess
of oxygen. Consequently, appreciable oxygen and
perhaps a slight amount of CO will be present in
the fine gas under the be,st practica! conditions.
The actual volume of CO2 resulting from
complete combustion of a specific fuel la constant, irrespective of exceso sir, but the percentage by volume of the flue gases decreases
as the excess air increases. Therefore, we may
take the pereentage of CO, as a good index to
the amount of caceas sir, when combustion la
13-12
complete. When combustion is not complete, the

percentage of CO2 la not an accurate index to the
amount of exceso sir, uniese the character and
amount of the unburned combustibles la known.
However, the amount of unburned combustibles
la normally so small in naval bollera that the percentage of CO2 may be accepted as an index
to the amount of excess sir under all conditions.
(2) Instrumenta for combustion control The
security of the fieet at sea demanda the smkeleas operation of all ships' bollera. In the interesta of economy (radius of action), this should
be effected with a mnimum of exeess sir. A
working balance between these divergent demanda is usually conceded to obtain when a
light brown haze is emitted from the atack. In
any case the control of combustion within proper
limita is highly desirable, and to this end severa]
successful instrumenta have been deaigned to
assist the personnel operating the bollera. The
Wager smoke indicator described in Naval Bollera and the CO2 indicator and recorder are designed to indicate immediate combustion conditions, while the gas analysis outfits provide for
a scientific analysla of the producto of combustion.
(a) The CO2 indicator and recorder shown in
Fig. 18-10 is an instrument for determining,
indicating, and recording the amount o CO2
in the products of combustion. It is read easily,
la senaitive to any change in combustion conditions, and serves as a ready and convenient guide
to the operating personnel.
The principie of this instrument is based on
the fact that the apecific weight of flue gas
vares in proportion to its CO2 content, CO2
being conaiderably heavier than the remaining
constituents of the fine gas. Figure 15-20 illuatrates how this principie la applied. A rotary
motion la imparted to the flue gas by meana of a
motor-driven fan running in a cylindrical chamber. This drives the gas againat the blades of an
impulse wheel located opposite the fan in the
same chamber and produces a torque on ite shaft
which is directly proportional to the density of
the flue gas, and, therefore, to the CO2 content
of the gas. In order to eliminate the influence of
changes in fan speed, temperature, humidity, and
atmospheric preasure, a comparing torque la
produced on another impulse wheel with atmospheric air from a second fan driven in the
opposite direction, by the same motor.
13-15
NAVAL AUXILIAR Y MACHINERY
13-12
ROVI MAGUA
iiii
t,I, L.,
11 ra

COMER. AIR
CONNECTION
FOR CLEANING
FILTER
THE EXCESS
TOROUE OF THE
GAS OVER THE
AIR MOTES THE
TOR WHICH INDIEATES
CO. CONTENT,
THESE VAHEE IMFART
A WHIRLING MOTION
TO AIR
IR CHAMBER
ii
FLUE GAS
CHAMBER
MOTOR
PULLEY
HR UollsBE
AIR FUER
THESE VANES
CONTINUOUSLI
DRAW/ AIR IN.
THROUGH AIR
INLET
MR HUMIDIFIER
WHIRLING MR
STRIKES THESE
VANES AND IM
FARTS TOROUE
TO SHAFT
*IR INLET
MR CHAMBER
WATER LEG
WHIRLING FLUE GAS

STRIKES THESE VANES
WITH CONSTANT
FORCE IN OPPO.
SITE DIRECTION
TO ROTATION OF
AIR
'OLER
THIS IMPELER
ROTATES IN OF
POSITE DIRK.
MON' TO THE
ME IMPELLER
fLUE GAS
CHAMBER
-FLUE GAS
.0Vral
FLUE GAS
INLET
FIG. 13-20. CO, Indicator and Remorder.
The two impulse-wheel shafts are coupled together by mean of two le yere and a link. The
coupling system must be balanced very accurately. It prevente rotation of the impulse
wheels, but the difference of the opposing torques
permita a limited movement of the system, which
is transferred to a pointer moving over a scale
calibrated in terma of the CO, content of the
flue gas. The synchronous electric clock-driven
recorder shown in the outside view of the indicator (Fig. 15-10), keeps a olear, continuous
record of the readinge on a circular 24-hour chart.
Figure 15-20 shows the fiow of the gases in a
diagrammatic illustration. The gases pasa through
a porous filter (not shown) inside the uptake,
where suspended particles are removed bef ore
the gases enter the pipa line. A permanent compressed-air connection is provided so that soot
may be blown off the porous filter. The moisture
which condenses from the gases, upon cooling le
collected in a water leg, from which it overflows
automatically. The gases then pass through the
steel-wool filter which serves a double purpose.
It removes any soot which may have passed
through the porous filter and it aleo eliminates

corrosive sulphur compounds by chemical reaction with steel-wool, thus protecting the instrument against corrosion. From the steel-wool
filter, the gases flow through one compartment
of the double humidifier, where they are brought
to the same temperature and degree of humidity
as the air. The air pasees through the other
humidifier compartment simultaneously with the
gases. The humidifier is merely a baffted container of water with a gaa-tight dividing wall, the
gases and air passing over the water surfaces.
The air is filtered by a small porous disc attached
to the humidifier,
(b) Flue gas analyzer. The gas analysis supplemente information obtained from smoke-indicator observations and the CO, recorders, promotes better draft regulation, detecte improper
firing methods, and provides a portion of the information which is used in making the "heat
balance" on the bollera, from which may be obtained the following data:
The calorific value of the fuel,
The heat absorbed by the boiler,
13-16
CONTROL INSTRUMENTS
F16. 13-21. Blue Gas Malan.
The loes due to the sensible beat in the

stack gasee,
The loes due to the evaporation of moisture
in the stack gasee, i.e., moisture which was present in the fuel and in the air,
The lose due to the combination of the
oxygen of the sir with the hydrogen in the stack
gases,
The loes due to incompleto combustion,
and
(7) The radiation and other unaccountable
loases.
One of the instrumente which has been successfully used in the Navy for a number of years
is the gas analyzer illustrated in Fig. 1341. It
consista of the draft recorder, for measuring
presentes, (U tuba manometer) the armored
thermometer for determining stack tempera-
1.42
tures, the 3-unit test set, and the Impact case

for stowage.
The analysis with this instrurnent la volumtric, although in reality it le based upon the
determination of pardal presentes. According to
Dalton's laws, when a nurnber of gases are confined in a given space, each gas occulies the
total volante at its own partial presente, and the
total pres,sure ie, theref ore, the stim of all the
pardal proseares. When one of the gases -js absorbed by a suitable medium and the remaioing
gases are compressed to their original total irmesute, a volume decrease resulte and, if the temperattue remains constant, this decrease equals
the volume absorbed.
The instrument consiste of a graduated meseuring tuba hato which the gases are drawn and
acctirately measured under a given pressure, the
treating pipettes containing the neicessary absorbing magenta, and ah aspirator, fe operation
consista of forcing a measured volume of the
sample of gas euccessively through the pipettes
containing the aborbing reagents for carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, and oxygen, the contraction of volume being ~asurad in each case
to determine the amount of each constituent.
Sine the test la nade, usa, on a 100 c.c,
sample of flue gas, the amount of esa tontitaent in c.c. representa the percentao
that.
constituent in the whole sample.
With this apparatus, a CO, reading can be
obtained in about 30 seconds and a complote
analysia in about 5 minutos. Operating inettnotions will not be given here, as they val" with
different designa of apparatus and are set forth
in detall in Ifureau of Ships Manual.
18-17
fr.
144
CHAPTER 14
MACHINERY OUTSIDE THE ENGINEERING SPACES

14-1. GENERAL.
There are a number of auxiliaries under the

cognizance of the Engineering Department for
maintenance, upkeep and operation, which are
located throughout the chip, outside the engineering spaces, i.e. outside the boiler rooms and
engine rooms. Included are the steering gear,
anchor windlasses, deck winches, cranes, airplane
elevators, emergency diesel driven auxiliaries,
ventilating, heating and air conditioning equipment, and boat engines It is the purpose of this
chapter to describe and to discuss the operation
of certain types of the aboye mentioned auxiliarles.
Some of these auxiliarles, for example the
steering gear and anchor windlasses, are required
to operate at variable speeds over a considerable
range, with close control of speed between the
maximum and minimum limite. Also, a common
requirement is a high starting torque and ability
to accelerate to maximum speed quickly. In
modem equipment these requirements are met
with the electrohydraulic type of drive. Since
the application of positive displacement, rotary,
variable stroke pisten pumps to hydraulic transmission of power has been described in Chapter
BRAKE OPERATINC ROD
3, the discussion in this chapter will be liinited

to the methods of application to the particular
machinery under study. Some consideration will
also be given to electromechanical driven and
steam driven auxiliaries still in use, in the older
chips.
14-S. STEERING GEARS, GENERAL.
(1) Requirements. Properly speaking, the

steering gear is that meehanism which transmits
power from the steering engine to the rudder
stock. The term steering gear is, however, applied frequently to the entire assembly of the
driving engine and transmitting mechanism.
The steering gear must have the following
characteristics:
It must be rugged;
It must be so designed that the rudder cannot "take charge" of the controlling wheel or
lever, and,
(c) It must have a high mechanical advantage,
so that a relatively small force applied on the
driving end will produce large rudder torques.
These characteristics are embodied in the old
light-and-len screw steering gear shown in F ig
14-1, which was used extensively in early nava
DRIVING
PEDESTAL SEGURO)
TO DECK
LINK
CUIDE
ROO
. ffl o meilti c3iwid004 ,
go o liffig
SLEEVE
RUDDER
VOKE
BRAKE BAND
TRANSMISSION SHAFT
RUDDER STOCK
FROM STEERING ENGINE
FIG. 14-1. litight-and-Left Screw Steering Gen, Plan View.
14-1
14-2
tions and contraed by the motion of the wheel,

suitable electric leads, and a self-synchronous
type receiver connected through a differe,ntial
type follow-up mechanism to the control shaft of
the variable stroke hydraulic pumps. Self-eynchronous transmitters and receivers are alternating current electric generator-motors so designed
that the rotor of the receiver follows exactly in
speed and amount of angular displacement, the
motion of the transmitter rotor. Motion of the
steering wheel, which is mounted on an extension
of the shaft of the transmitter rotor, is, therefore,
transmitted directly to the steering engine control mechanism which acta to cause the steering
engine to produce the desired rudder angle. The
follow-up system which has the function of maintaining the movement of the rudder proportional
to that of the steering wheel, so governs the
action of the control that the engine is stopped as
soon as the rudder matches each motion of the
wheel. The electrical systems of remota rudder
control are simple and reliable, there are no great
friction loases and all transmission linee may
pierce bulkheads and decks at the most desirable
locations.
Wire rope control. In the older destroyers
equipped with steam steering engines, and in
some new small ships, the steering engine control
mechanism is connected to the wheel by wire
ropes. This system le satisfactory for small ships,
but it has the disadvantages of long leads involving large friction loada; the location aboye decks
make the ropes extremely vulnerable to gunfire;
the passage of the cables through bulkheads and
decke impairs the ship's water-tight integrity;
and the time required for their upkeep is comparatively great.
The hydraulic telemotor, which was devised
to overcome these difficulties, is used in all largo,
early vessels equipped with steam steering engines. It consiste of two similar cylinders, each fitted with a piston and connected by copper pipas.
The transmitting cylinder is located near the
wheel and the receiver near the engine. The entire
system is filled with a special oil. Movement of
the wheel displaces the piston of the transmitting
cylinder and displaces a quantity of fluid which
The alternating current, synchronous trona- produces a corresponding movement of the remistion type of distant control is used in modern ceiving piston, thus operating the engine control
vessels. It consiste of self-synchronous type mechanism. Tbis system is simple, and ite pipas
transmitters located in the several steering eta- may be led through bulkheads where the water14-2
vessels and in many merchant ships, in conjunction with steam and electrie steering engines. The
steering engine drive; the trimemission shaft and,
through spur gears, turna the right-and-left
screw. The thread at one end of this screw is righthand and at the other is left-hand. The opposing
threads drive the two mita in opposite directions
and, by means of the link baca, tura the rudder
yoke. The sleeves which elide along the guide
roda prevent the mita from rotating. The guide
roda and screw are supported by pedestal blocks
which contain the bearings in which the screw
shaft turne. A brake is provided to hold the rudder amidships when it is necessary to disconnect
the steering gear. A friction disc is secured to the
rudder stock and by pulling the brake operating
rod the brake band le contracted and holds the
disc by friction.
Modem naval vessels are equipped with eleetrohydraulie steering systems, in which the steering gear consista of a hydraulic tranernission using a variable stroke, rotary pump. A constant
speed electric motor drives thia transmission.
Remote control of the tilting box (or &Ming
ring) of the pump is effected either by electric
or hydraulic distant control systems.
(2) Distant control systems. The electric dietent control systems, used with electrohydraulic
steering gears, are divided bato two general
types; viz., the direct current, pilot motor type,
and the alternating current, synchronous transmission type. Wire rope and hydraulic telemotor
systems were used with early steam steering engines.
The direct current, pilot motor type of distant
control, used with early electrohydnulic steering gears, consista of a small reversible direct current motor whict is connected through a differential gear to the control shaft of a variable
stroke, rotary pump. The control of the pilot
motor is effected by means of a magnetic contactor control panel, located adjacent to the motor,
and through master controllers located at the
distant control stations. The motor is equipped
with a magnetic brake which promptly stops and
holds the motor when the master controller is returned to the neutral position.
onitnirk ISFCIM
M ACHINERT OUTSPDE
SDPW
RUDDER
RUNNING
MOTOR
CONTROLSNAFT
ELKTRK LEADS
FROM STEERING STAND
s {
sueft,
SELF SYNCHRONOUS
RKEIVER
KANgrAgy
DIfFERENTIAL GUA
RETURN
FIG. 14-2. Simple Arrangemeat ot a Two-Ram, Elearehydraulle, Steeriag Gen.
tightnees of the ship will be least affected.

Gyro-repeater compase control to produce
gyro-pilot or automatic steering control may be
used to supplement any of the aboye described
controls. Thia equipment is not used in combatant ehipe but only on some merchant type
vessels and, sine the equipment is basically electrical in charaoter, it will not be described here.
types of electrohydraulic steering gears ara

same, so pnly two types will be described in the
following paragraphs. One is illuatrated and described as having axial piston variable (rake
pumpe and the other as having ~ijar en
pumps. It must be borne in mirad howner
either type pump may be used in each, case
(1) Double-ram type. Figure 144 I a
matic repreaentation of the elsOrohydraulic
steering gear of the type installed in batiteib pie
144. ELECTROHYDRAIILIC STRERING OSAR.
and other large vessels. The *der yoke ie un,The electrohydraulic steering gear was denected to two hydraulio pionera or rama), etkohf
veloped to overcome a disadvantage inherent in which la fitted with cylindere at both ende u
the electric motor driven, right-and-left serew shown. The working fluid, a special oil, is papad
equipment which stems chiefly from the friction in a closed circuit by the "A" or pump end
and inercia of moving parte; principally the either one of the two rotary, positivo
heavy sorew and gears. The electrohydraulic ment, variable stroke, axial pisten , pulpa,
equipment has the further advantages of low rata of oil delivery le regulated by chulos the
power consumption, senaitive response to move- anglo of the tilting box as deacribedl in O'haprter
mente of the wheel with little lag, small deck epace 3. The tilting box is operated by the 4000
and head room required, and aavings in weight, shaft and gearing shown la the diwum.,,this
and flexibility in the arrangement of the hydrau- installation is equipped with/ the snohuttens
lie cyliuders, pumps and control mechanhan transmission type of dietut control.
The principies governing the operation of all
It will be noticed tbat the fonvard-pert Aud
143,
14-3
after-starboard cylinders are interconnected, as

are aleo the forward-starboard and after-port
cylindere. A double-acting relief valve le located
as shown. Its function is to by-pass the oil from
the supply (or diecharge line) to the return (or
suction) line, and thus relieve the piping from
excessive strain in case unusual resistance to
the rudder, such as may be caused by wave action
or jamming, resulte in abnormal oil pressure.
The motora are designed to run at practically
constant speed.
Suppose the tilting boxee are in the neutral
position, so that there is no pumping action and
hence no flow of oil, and at the steering station
the steering whePl is motionless. Now suppose the
steering wheel is put over to the right. The
synchronous receiver will turn a corresponding
amount, counter-clockwise (viewed from the
reader's left as shown in the figure). Shaft A is
turned clockwise and carnee with it the gear B,
which is secured to shaft A. The gears C, which
mesh with B and with an internal gear on casing
E, turra counter-clockwise. The shafts of gears C
are earried by D, and at this time D is restrained
from turning on shaft A by the gear system
connected to the rudder which up to this time
has not moved. In consequence the casing E,
which is in the form of an internal gear meshing
with gears C, turne counter-clockwise and turna
the control shaft which operetas the fitting boxee
on the pumps.
A quantity of oil now flows to the forward-port
and after-starboard cylinders, the rama move as
shown and an equal quantity of oil is returned to
the pumps from the opposite cylindere. The rudder la moved to the right.
Now suppose the steering wheel (and the
synchronous receiver) to have stopped by this
time. The starboard ram in moving forward operates the rack and pinion and tums gear D
clockwise. Gear B and shaft A are now held by
the motionless synchronous receiver, and as a
result gears C and casing E turn clockwise, the
direction which returns the tilting boxee to neutral and stops the flow of oil.. Thus the planetary
gear (epicyclic train) operates as a follow-up
mechanism.
If the wheel at the steering station is turned to
the left, the synchronous receiver will turn clockwise, and will be displaced to change the direction of pumping and thus the rudder is turned to
the left.
The action of the follow-up gear waa described
aboye in two steps. It must be remembered,

however, that in actual operation the synchronous receiver and the follow-up mechanism operat,e simultaneously. At a certain critical speed
the motor and the follow-up gear just counteract
each other and the casing E remains still, keeping
the tilting boxea at a constant position, which resulta in continuous oil delivery and, therefore, a
continuous motion of the rudder. Any change in
relative motion between the synchronous receiver and the follow-up gear resulte in a slowing down or speeding up of the pumping.
In actual installation, two sets of synchronous
receivers as well as two seta of electric motora and
pumps are provided in order to gain reliability
and flexibility in the control of damage. The sixway plug cock provides a means of quickly lining up the standby pump in case the one in use
fails in service.
(2) Single-ram type steering gen. Figure 144
is a diagrammatic sketch of a destroyer steering
equipment having the self-synchronous control
feature and shown with rotary, positive displacement, variable stroke, radial pistan pumps. Ita
operation is as f ollows. Suppose the rudder to be
amidships, as shown, and that it is desired to put
it over to the right. The wheel on the bridge is
turned to the right the desired amount and held
there. The motion is carried through gearing to
the self-syncbronous transmitting unit. This motion is then routed successively to the receiving
unit, the differential, (follow-up mechanism), and
the control spindle of the variable stroke, radial
pisten pump, moving the floating ring of the latter to an eccentric position (as described in
Chapter 3, such that oil is delivered to the
port cylinder and suction taken from the starboard cylinder, resulting in a movement of the
plunger suffieient to compensate for the displacement of the oil, causing the crosshead and rudder
stock to move as indicated and the rudder to
swing to the right. Pumping action continues until the position of the rudder corresponde exactly
to the position of the wheel on the bridge, at
which time it ceases through action of the f ollow-up mechanism. Similar action can be obtained by moving the wheel on the after deckhouse, or the trick wheel. The trick wheel is
located in the steering compartment for testing
the gear or steering chip from that station.
When the plungers move in response to the
wheel, their linear displacement is transferred
through gens and shafts back to the pump con-
14-4
MACHINERY OUTSIDE THE ENGINEERINO SPACES

STEERING WHEEL
ON AFTER DECK HOUSE
AUTOMATIC BY-PASS
VALVE
14-4
STEERING WHEEL
ON BRIDGE ......"
ELECTRIC CONTROL'
SYSTEM
.
TRANSMITTER UNIT
TRANSMITTER UNIT
PORT
PORT
CYLINDER
PORT OR STBD. CABLE

TRANSFER SWITCH
CRANK FOR HAND OPERATION
OF PORT PUMP
PORTI
PORT CABLE
RUNNING PU
AFTER
DECK
SIX-WAY PUMP
TRANSFER
COCK
jSTARBOARD
OFF
RUNNING ELEC. MOTOR
PORT
ARD
STARBOARD
CABLE
WORM WHEEL
CROSSHEAD
RECEIVING UNIT
PLUNGER
FOLLOW UP
SHAFT
TRANSFER SWITCH TRAN$MITS

CURRENT THROUGH EITFIER
CABLE OR EITHER TRANSMITTER
TO RECEIVER AS SELECTED
TRICK WHEEL FOR
HAND CONTROL
UNIVERSAL JOINT
STBD.
CYLINDER
IDLE PUMP
IDLE ELECTRIC
MOTOR
WORM
WHEEL
WORM
STARBOARD
SUPPLY
SPIRAL GEARS
gi RETURN
IV -N
AUTOMATIC BY-PASS VALVE
FIG. 14-3. Simple Arrangement of A Single-Ram, Electro-Hydranlie, Steering Gen,

Showing a Method of Obtaining Flextbility of Control.
trol spindle through the differential. This action

places the pump on neutral after the steering
wheel has come to rest and the plungers have
brought the rudder to the position corresponding
to the wheel setting.
The transfer switch allows flexibility in the
choice of (1) remoje steering stations and (2) port
or starboard steering control cables. A similar
switehing arrangement, not shown, permits selection of power circuits for the two electric motora.
The six-way, plug cock type, pump cut-out valve
makes it possible to select the hydraulic pump
unit to be used.
In case of total power failure, a hand crank is
provided for the application of manual power for
turning the shaft of the port hydraulic pump.
Many modern electrohydraulic steering installations have an emergency steering pump for use
in case the steering engine room is flooded, but
the hydraulic piping and rama remain in operable
condition. It consiste, primarily, of a positive
displacement pump, usually of the gear type,
tocata in a line connecting the rara cylinders.
Turning the pump in one direction will transfer

oil from one cylinder to the other. Reversing the
direction of turning will give opposite effect. The
pump may be driven through reach roda by
hand cranks aboye decks, or by a reversible electric motor controlled from aboye decks. The
electric motor and pump are completely enclosed
by a watertight casing.
14-4. ANCHOR WINDLASSES.
General. The anchor windlass gear must be

simple, rugged, reliable and capable of reversa].
It must aliso have a high mechanical advantage,
suitable brakes, and a control for "veering" the
chain must be provided. The equipment which
incorporates these features has developed from
the hand windlass of the age of sails through
steam driven and electric motor driven windlasses to the electro-hydraulic driven anchor
windlass now installed in the newest large combatant chips and most other recent naval vessels.
Electrohydraulic driven windlasses. Hydraulically driven windlasses are particularly
14-5
14-4
NAVAL AUXILIARY MACHMERY
adapted for anchor handling where the load handwheel. When disengaging the locking head,
varice through a larga range due to such condi- the anchor may be held by the decir stoppers or
tions as the amount of chain cable out, the by the brake on the wildcat. On later inistallations
atrength of wind and tide, and the anchor being the brake is mounted below the weather deck.
imbedded in the bottom. Mk electric motor is Each windless gear unit may be used to drive a
provided to rotate the hydraulic "A" or pump- espetan head on the weather deck through shaftend variable apeed gear, (rotary, positive dis- ing geared to an intermediate gear.
Each windlass pump is controlled from the
placement, variable stroke pump). Oil under
pressure is delivered from the "A" end to the weather deck or locally by handwheels on shafthydraulic motor or "B" end variable speed gear ing leading to the pump control. This shafting is
through piping. The "B" end rotates the wind- equipped with an indent and spring-loaded pawl
laso through suitable reduction gearing. The to insure centering and holding the control in
quantity of oil delivered by the "A" end deter- neutral. Replehishing pipes from each "A" end
mines the speed of the "B" end and hence the and "B" end casing leed to an expansion tank
windlass speed. The rate of delivery from the overhead. Pressure gauges with shock absorbers
"A" end may be regulated by varying the pump are provided for each side of the line. Relief valves
stroke by the control handwheel on the weather in the hydraulic piping are set to prevent excesdeck. For heavy hnailing, the windlass speed may sive strains in the chain and in the mechanism.
be reduced and the torque and oil pressure
When starting the electric motor, it is essencreased without affecting the horsepower, thus tial that the control wheels be at neutral in order
preventing overloading of the electric motor. For to avoid overloading the motor. A centering denormal load, operation is permissible at full "A" vice and an interlock switch (not shown) are
end stroke as indicated on the control wheel dial. provided in the control on late hydraulic windWhen bringing the anchor borne, the stroke is laases. These enable the operator to place the
reduced so that the anchor entera the hawse at hydraulic pump stroke definitely on neutral or
reduced speed.
no-stroke position and serve to prevent starting
Figure 14-4 shows a diagrammatic arrange- the motor under load.
ment of a typical hydraulic windlass. This instal(3) Steam and electric driven windlasses.
lation consista of a 100 horsepower, continuously Many old naval vessels are equipped with geared
operated, constant speed electric motor which windlasses driven by reciprocating steam endrives .two variable stroke pumps through a gines. Some old vessels and many new light verscoupling, and reduction gear. On most later in- ada are equipped with geared electric motor
stallations, two electric motora are provided driven windlasses.
each of which drives one of the variable stroke
Specific design arrangements vary, but all
pumps. Each variable stroke pmp normally operate on the same principie of design. The
drives one of the two wildcats but, by reason of motor or steam engine drives a worm which
the three-way plug cock, provided in the pipa meshed with a wheel on the windlass shaft.
linea, either wildcat may be driven by either
It is the practice to provide band brakes at the
pump. The motor is equipped with a magnetic wildcata on the upper deck and clutches at the
brake designed to hold 200 percent of the motor lower end of the vertical shaft. Worm geara are
rated torque in order to prevent dropping the provided with thrust bearings to take the thrust
anchor if power is lost.
in both directions when hoisting and lowering.
The "B" end hydraulic motora (rotary, posiFigure 144 illustrates the anchor windlass of
tive displacement, pumps used as motora) (see a modem destroyer. It is of the vertical electric
Chapter 3) are mounted vertically upon a gear motor driven, spur gear type. A spur gear train
casing and drive the wildcat shafts through mul- of three pinions and three gears, provides a speed
tiple reduction spur gearing and a locking head. reduction ratio of about 164 to 1.
The locking head permite diaconnecting the wild144. WINCBES AND CAPSTANS.
cat for dropping the anchor.
Considerable confusion sometimes exista as to
On each wildcat, just below the "whelps," 113 a
lined brake band, which is operated by local the correct meaning of the words "windlass,"
14-6
MACHINERY OUTBIDE E ENGINEERING &dna
1.1YDRAUIJC
MOTOR (G/
B-END
TO STIBID yINDLASS r
SAME AS PORT
IN
VARIABLE STROICE
PUMPS
SECTION THROUGH POR WINDLASS
FIG. 14-4. Hydraulic Windlau Arrangement.
"winch," "espetan," and "gypsy." Present day

usage of the word windleas generally implies (as
in Article 14-4) a chain sprocket or sprockets
known as wildcats, usad primarily for handling
the anchor by mean of chain. The word capotan
denotes a vertical-barrelled, rotativo device.
with pawle at its base to prevent it from revendng
and generally used for handling linee for warping,
or pulling objects in a horizontal direction.
Winches are used for a great variety of rope
handling operationa. A winch usually consiste of
a largo winding drum for wire rope mounted on a
horizontal shaft and upon one or both ende of
which a winch head, often called a gypay, is aleo
mounted for hauiing on linea. The shaft is suitebly connected to the powered driving mechanism.
Among the various types of winches for general
cuy handling are: double-drum, double-gypsy,
and eingle-drum single-gypay units. Four drum,
two-gypsy mohines are generally used for mine
sweeping. Two-gypsy winches without drum are
frequently used for handling boato, for some
mooring operationa, and for other general handling of fines by mean of power. Winches are
normally poned by electric motora but eteam
emitan, hydraulic tranamiasion systems, and
Diesel angina are aleo installed. Electro-hydraulic drive winches are usually installed where
delicate control and high acceleration without

jerking is required, such as for airplane handling.
In some cases capstans are preferablet to
winches as the leed of the line may be in ny
horizontal direction and the power equipment
may be located below the weather dock mote
readily, thus aleo reducing the deck spacroectt.
pied.
14-6. MUNES.
When a hoieting winch la built into a uait laaving a rotating mast and boom or derrick, the
equipment la called a crane. The normal %notaos
of cranes on naval veesels is boat and itirpleate
hoisting, although the cranes may be, and frequently are, used for other hoisting purposee.
Airpiane cranes are combined with boat manee
on some heavy cruisers and battleships and aleo
on the various tendera. On other V00116/4 the aplanes are handled by separata manee designed
especially to handle lighter loade at higber
speeds.
The hoisting whip and topping lift are conventionally driven by hydraulic variable *Sed
geare (through imitable gearing) which afforde
a vide rango of apeada and delicate control
needed in airplane hoieting. The emanes are lotated eitber by an electric motor conneetetto
14-7
14-6
connection under the platform with two vertical,

hydraulic rams. Oil from a high pressure tank,
at a pressure of approximately 900 p.s.i., is introduced into the ram during the raising operation. Lowering is accomplished by discharging
the oil from the rams into a pressure tank, which
is under a pressure of approximately 300 p.s.i.
FRICTION SME
Pressure is usually maintained in the pressure
tank by means of electrically driven, variable
LOCKING HANDWIIEEL
stroke pumps which take suction from the exhaust tank. These pumps are usually two in
number, either one of which is capable of maintaining operation of the elevator at reduced
speed. Two electric motor driven sump pumps
DRIVE
keep the volume of oil in the pressure system
MOTOR
within specified limite.
Special control valves in the pressure and ex11110W- 1111
haust fines regulates elevator speeds by varying
the amount of oil admitted to or discharged from
iqa~s iiinfistiret
the raros. These valves may be operated either
inaltiffi Ni
by pilot valves or by an electric motor.
Positivo stops and mechanieal locks, interMOTOR OPERATED BRAKE
locked with the elevator control circuit, enable
FIG. 14-5. Destroyer Type, Electro-Mechanical,
the platform to be etopped, locked, and held in
Anchor Windlaas.
position at the flight deck. The platform is guided
worm and spur gearing or by an electric motor throughout its travel by guide rollers or shoes
and hydraulic variable speed gears, connected to attached to the platform and engaging guide ralle
suitable reduction gearing. On the latest cruisers attached to the ship's framing. An equalizer sysand battleships the airplane cranes are equipped tem is necessary to maintain the platform level
with an automatic tensioning device for taking within specified limita and in its proper path
up Bleck and paying out the line. When the hook under conditions of unequal loading.
is fastened to a plano in a seaway the automatic
In case of damage to the electric controla, a
tensioning device can be used to maintain con- hand control system is provided. Quiek-closing
stant tension in the hoist line preliminary to automatic valves are provided in the oil line, as
hoisting.
clase to each ram cylinder as possible, to prevent
In the older ships the boat cranes are either the free or unrestricted fall of the elevator. In
steam driven or electric motor driven.
some instantes, in case of damage to the main
pumps, the sump pumps will provide sufficient
14-7. ELEVATORS.
power for one upward run of the platform, otherElevators on shipboard may be divided into wise this emergency run is accomplished by the
two distinct classes: viz., hydraulic and mechan- reserve capacity of the pressure tank.
In order to provide adequate working space on
ical.
(1) Hydraulic elevators. Aircraft carriers are the hangar deek while the platform is at the
provided with elevators of the hydraulic clase flight deek level, an auxiliary pit elevator is
which are capable of handling airplanes between often provided beneath the main elevator. This
the 'light and hangar decks at relatively high elevator is raised and lowered simultaneously
velocity. This clase of elevators may be divided with the main elevator. It rises only to the hangbato two types: the direct plunger lift, and the ar deck level. The operating pistons receive
power from the same pressure tank and displunger actuated cable lift.
The platform of the direct plunger lift type hy- charge into the same exhaust tank as used by the
draulic elevator is raised and lowered by direct main elevator.
14-8
MACHINERY CISME THE ENGINEERING SPCES

The main difference between the cable lift,
plunger actuated type hydraulic elevator and the
direct plunger lift type is that, in the former, the
platform la raised by cables fastened to the platform at four symmetzically placed poin ts. These
cables, through a series of sheaves, are actuated
by a horizontal hydraulic plunger, or ram, located beneath the hangar deck.
Instantaneously acting safety devices engage
the guide rails, to stop and hold the platform if
one group of cables should fail.
(2) Mechanical elevators. Electrically driven
mechanical elevators are provided on some plan
carrying chips. The platform is releed and lowered by two groups of cables which pass over
sheaves and thence to the hoisting machinery.
Two hoisting drums, coupled together, are
driven through a reducing gear unit by an electric motor. The motor is of the two-speed (full
speed and one-quarter speed) type, the control
arrangements being such that the elevator atarte
and runa on the motor high speed connection, the
low speed being used for deceleration as the elevator approaches the upper or lower limit of
travel. The platform travels on two athwartship
guides. Manually operated locks equipped with
electrical interlocks are provided for holding the
platform in the raised position.
Freight, bomb, mine, and torpedo elevators are
quite similar in design to the mechanical airplane
elevator previously described.
Aircraft escort vessels converted from merchant ship hulla are provided with one or two
elevators which are capable of handling airplanes
between the flight and hangar decks at relatively
medium velocity. fe hoisting machinery, in
most cases, consists of the cargo winches which
were a part of the hull equipment before the vessel was converted to aircraft escort service.
In mechanical elevator arrangements found on
some vessels, the cable drum is operated by hydraulic variable speed gears, the "A" ends of
which are driven by constant speed eleetric
motora.
14-8. HEATING, COOLING, A/PD VENTILATION.
(1) Purpose of heating, and cooling and venti,
lation. Heating, cooling and ventilation are for
the purpose of keeping the crew confortable,
physically fi t and mentally alert by providing an
atmosphere such that the body can maintain a
14-6
proper heat balance with air that is free from

hernia' components and having a sufficient oxygen supply. Mechanical cooling or ventilation is
provided for ammunition epaces to prevent deterioration of ammunition componente due to
adverso temperature conditions. Ventilation is
provided, aleo, in spaces containing electrical
equipment to limit the ambient temperatura to
that for which the equipment is designed. The
heat added, the space occupied and the power
eonsumed by ventilating and cooling equipment
on naval vessels must be at the expense of militan requirements. Therefore, the minimum of
equipment is provided to maintain an adequate
supply of air, circulation, and exhaust.
(2) Heating. Heating is accomplished by ventilation heaters, radiators (convectors), unit
heaters, and electric heaters. Ventilation heaters
are installed within the ventilation ducts and are
used whenever practicable because of the saving
in weight. Radiators or convectors are generally
used in epaces that are not fitted with mechanical
supply ventilation. Unit heaters, which are actually ventilation heaters installed separately
with individual fans, are used in special cases
where the heat load is high. Electric heaters are
used for spaces located a considerable distante
from the steam piping system.
There are three types of steam heating systems
used with ventilation systems which supply living and working spaces on naval vessels; vis.,
sone heating, central heating, and individual
space heating.
Ventilation heaters are usually installed in two
sections; namely, a preheater and a reheater. The
preheater is generally installed near the intake to
heat the air sufficiently to prevent condensation
on ventilation ducts within the ship. Reheatera
are provided to increase the air temperature as
necessary to properly heat epaces exposed to the
weather.
In aeoneheating system there is a preheater and
several reheaters. The preheater is controlled
thermostatically. Each reheater may be manually or thermostatically controlled. The part of
the vessel to be heated la divided into iones, each
zone containing several spaces, all of which will
simultaneously experience approximately the
same exposure. Each zone la provided with its
own reheater.
A central heating system consiste of a preheater
14-9
14-8
NAVAL AUIILIARY MACHINERY
coil followed immediately by one or more reheater coila. The air pasees through all cae and
is then distributed by duct work to the spacea or
locations to be heated.
An individual space heating system la comprised
of a preheater for the system and one or more reheaters for each space served. The pnleaters are
usually thermostatically contraed.
Cooling. Vital apelen such as plotting rooms,
central stations, and radio rooms on the larger
yemas are fitted with mechanical etooling (by
means of refrigeration equipment), CO, removal
and dehumidification arrangements. Provision is
made for adding oxygen as required. This permita
the spaces to be sealed against riossible flooding or
fire, and provides protection against contamination from smoke and toxic or poisonous gases.
In certain veryhot spaces such as engine rooms
it is impossible to provide sufficient change of air
to maintain satisfactory temperatures throughout the spaces. Furthermore, too much air
ehange in compartments containing steam propulsion equipment merely serves to cool clown
the equipment and thus waste heat and fuel
without appreciable improvement of the habitability. For such spaces spot cooling is provided.
Near each watchstander's atation a high velocity blast of outside air is introduced.
Ventilation distributlon. The circulation
within the various spaces is provided by distribution ducts and bracket fans. For living and
working spaces, this is ~any accompliahed by
distribution ducts on the supply systems and a
centralized exhaust. The liberal use of bracket
fans, particularly in group berthing spaces, materially improves the circulation. For hot machinery spaces, the cool air is led directly to the
watch stations, and the exhaust is located in the
overhead in the hot spots.
Foul (used) air may be exhausted either
mechanically (by fans), or naturally, to the
weather or spaces open to the weather. Airplane
hangara, gasoline storage compartments, magaeines, storage battery compartments, below
decks living compartmenta, etc., require exhauet

equipment.
(8) Relation of damage control to cooling,
heating, and ventilating. Cooling, heating, and
ventilating arrangements aboard ship are intimately involved with damage control and watertight integrity. Repair parties must familiarice
themselves with the ship ventilating element to
enable tbem to clear compartments of smoke and
torio fumes resulting from fires. Exhaust systems
are used for this purpose as they will cause an indraft from adjacent spaces and prevent the fumes
from epreading, whereas, if supply systems are
used, the gases will be spread to surrounding inboard amas.
Ventilation fittings and closures which affect
damage control should have the same degree of
tightness as the deck or bulkhead affected so that
airtightnees or watertightneas will not be impaired. These fittings on later chips are designed
to be quiek-closing and are carefully labelled.
Remote operating gear is provided for Maceassible closures and for closures in locked spaces.
This usually consiste of rotating pipe shafting
with universal joints and miter para, where necessary, operated by a handwheeL Operation of
the cloeure may be direct or through a gear and
pinion, or through a screw mechanism. Shafting
through a tight bulkhead la solid and le provided
with stuffing boxea. On some new construction
flexible steel cable rhafting is provided.
14-9. EMERGENCY DIESEL DRIVEN AIDDLIARDIS,
BOAT ENGINES AND ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT.
Emergency Diesel driven generators and pumps

outeide the engineering spaces come under the
cognirance of the Engineering Officer as do aleo
the ship's boat engines. Diesel engines and gas
engines are described in texto on internal combustion engines and hence will not be discuseed in
this book. Electric and radio equipment are under the cognizance of the Engineer Officer but do
not come within the acope of this text.
14-10
CHAPTER 15
FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT

CISIUMAL.
from ita supply of oxygen, or both.

Location of variotte types of fire-fighting
Tire-fighting equipment on naval ships may be
classified as Auxiliary Machinery for the follow- equipment throughout the ship fe determined
ing ressons. The operation and maintenance of a from (1) a consideration of the types of Are Most
portion of nearly every type of equipment fur- likely to atetar in each area ; (2) the ntoet effitient
niehed fe under the cognisance of the Engineering mean of attacking such fines, i.e., what mesabas'
Department. In addition, the engineering per- of that type of fire can be most resdityyranovtal
sonal are potential ftre-fighters for all parte of in order to extinguish it; and finelly,413). "dist
the ship. A thorough knowledge of all the equip- modern equipment will best perforan thii fuete.
ment 18 essential to their intelligent combat of tion.
shipboard fires, a skill which has proved to be a 15-2. FIRE-FIGHTING AGENTS.
vital contaibution during enemy attack.
Each type of fire-fighting equipment 14 deFire-fighting technique, the design of firesigne('
to apply one or more fire-fighting spots.
fighting equipment, and the composition of fireThe
agente
provided on naval l'hipe and their
extinguishing mixtures are all bastad on a confunctioxte
in
attacking fire may be tahulated as
sideration of three requlsites for the occurrence of
follows:
fire. They are:
Parean
Pactarsear
A GENT
Presence of a combustible,
FUNOTION
Foremon
Maintained ignition temperature of the
combustible, and
Water (atraight stream)
Coollia
amotherin
Cooling
Smotherbas
Water (sprInlding)
(e) Oxygen sufficient to support combustion.
Cooling
Smotherlia
When the three requisites are provided, a fire Water-Fog
Smothering
Foam
emita
oecurs. When one or more are removed, the Are Foam (mechanical)
Smothering
goes out. Ali fire-fighting equipment is designed Carbon dioxide (CO,)
Smothering Cooling
to aid in either ooling the fire below ignition Steam
Smothering
Smothering
temperature, smothering the fire by isolating it Inert Gas
EQ UIPMENT
Pire mala system
Sprinkling systems
Water (Stredght stream)

Water (Fog)
Water (Spray)
Fog systems
Water (Fog)
Installed zarbon dioxide

systems
Carbon dbeedde (CO.)
Installed fosen systems
Chamad foam
Mechanical foam
Portable foam systems
Meehanical foam
Chemieal foam
CO,
CO, hose real installations

Porteble COe extinguishen
Portable I.C. engine driven
Puma,
Looanons
AGENTE A PPLIED
Steam smothering systems
COI
Water (Straight stream)
Water (Pog)
Foam (Ilechanical)
&ea=
Inett gas systems
Inea gas
General throughout
Magasines, shell romas, handling room, hangar asedes, and
stowages for highly inflammable material:a
Areas subject te exeeptional gasolina tuffiloslon Itswisidit
and in corleen largo amas as transvasefog MEMEME,,v^.
Inflammable liquid storerooma, edebhol and ~dila
stowage and voids surrounding structurai tan*, flor
same, discharge line purging pump rooms and Muelle
engine compartments.
Fireroom and engine room, Diesel Malas roma mal
naces subject to gasoline firea e4 ilight and lasnas
decks.
General throughout ship.
Firerooras and engine rooms, larse emergeney Diesel
generator rooms, vehicle emanes of lending velada.
General throughout ship and motor bota,
Lower weather decks and adjacent
Fire romas and engine rooms, bollar
tanta.
Vol& surrounding gasoline tanb in aireraft earriena
15-1
15-3
NAVAL AUXILI ARY M ACHINERY
15-3. TYPFS OF FIRE-FIGH171% EQUIPMENT.
mediate points. "Risers" and branches extend to

The types of fire-fighting equipment pro- el parte of the ship served by this system.
vided, the fire-fighting agente they are designed Numerous cut-out valves in the main leads and
to apply, and the location of each according to branches are provided in order to isolate damaged
the types of fire most likely to occur in various sections. Cut-out valves in the main leads can be
areas are as listed in the accompanying table.
operated locally or by remote control from higher
This discussion will be largely limited to the levels. The main leads are located below the main
design of the various types of equipment tabu- protective deck. The risers and branches terlated aboye. The operation of each and its ape- minate in fireplugs for the connection of fire
cific application to various types of fires are hoses, and in permanent connections to the
covered fully in the Bureau of Ships Fire-Fighting flooding and sprinkling systems, installed foam
Manual and in Chapter 93 of the Bureau of systems, the flushing system, and other piping
Ships Manual. These publications also cover systems for various services through out the
fire-fighter's protective equipment, various sup- ship.
plementary tools, fire hazards, and safety preFireplugs are provided in two sizes, II-inch
cautions.
and 21-inch. They are of either straight or angle
types, similar in construction to the standard
15-4. SUPPLEMENTARY FIRE-FIGHTING AIDS.
globe valve except that the valve disc carnes a
In addition to specialized fire-fighting equip- replaceable leather disc which bears against the
ment, the f ollowing aids to the prevention and valve seat in the closed position (Fig. 15-1).
control of fires must also be considered:
Sea water is supplied to the fire main by pimpis
The ventilation system. Proper use of at pressures varying up to about 150 p.s.i. These
blower controls and vent line valves and shutters pumps are located in the engine rooms and firemay aid in isolating fire from its oxygen supply. rooms. On the larger chips, additional electric
The same means may aid in cooling spaces ad- motor or diesel driven pumps are usually injacent to fire areas and in the removal of heat stalled in other parte of the ship. The pumps are
and smoke from the vicinity of fire to facilitate
the work of fire-fighters.
Fuel oil, Diesel oil, lubricating oil, and
gasoline transfer systems. These systems may,
VALVE STEM
in some cases, provide means for cutting off the
PACKING
GLANO NUT
supply of fuel to a fire, for transferring potential
GLANO
fuel to unaffected stowages, or for discharging it
BONNET
overboard.
Electrical circuit breakers and switching
equipment. These automatic and manually operated devices serve to cut off electrical supply to
VALVE
overheated or burning electrical equipment and
DISC
cables.
Control of combustibles. It is impossible
LEATHER
to over emphasize the importance of eliminating
DISC
unnecessary combustibles, and the proper disVALVE
tribution and stowage of those which must be
SEAT
retained. The best time to fight fire ig before it
occure.
15-5. THE FIRE MAIN.
The fire main consiste of two main piping leads

which run practically the entire length of the
ship, one on each side, with cross-connections at
the forward and after ende and at various inter15-2
FIG. 15-1. Angle Hose Valve (Fire Plug).

of both reciprocating and centrifugal types, and
are usually designated as:
Fire and fiushing pumps, generally of the
centrifugal type with turbine drive and constant
pressure governor control, or with constant speed
electric motor drive. Provision of both steam and
electric drive pumps serves to increase assurance
of a source of fire main pressure in case of damage to portions of the steam plant or to the electric system. This assurance is further increased
by the supply of emergency electric power to
some of the electric drive pumps from diesel
driven emergency generators. Norma, only the
required number of pumps is operated continuously to discharge to the fire main at a pressure
sufficient to supply the fiushing system and other
general services about the ship. A rotating
schedule is usad in order to equalize wear on all
the pumps. When turbine driven pumps are
paralleled, their constant pressure governors are
adjusted so that each cardes an equal portion
of the load. When an electric drive pump is used,
it is usually necessary to run a turbine-drive
pump in parallel. Since the electric drive pump
runa at constant speed, its discharge cannot be
varied, and the adjustment to necessary pressure on the fire main is made by varying the adjustment of the turbine-drive pump constant
pressure governor. In the event of fire, all pumps
are placed in operation, and the turbine-drive
pumps are epeeded up to discharge at maxinaum
pressure. Pressure reducing valves are installed
in those branches which supply systems requiring
lower pressures than are required for fire-fighting
purposes. Fire and flushing pumps are sometimos
installed so as to serve in the control of flooding
by having an alternate suction from the main
drain system or an alternate discharge to large
eductore (jet type pumps) which take suction on
the main drain system.
Fire and bilge pumps, are generally of the
reciprocating type. These pumps are equipped
with multiple suction and discharge manifolds
which permit their use for various purposes.
Suction may be taken from the sea, the main
drain system, the secondary drain system of the
space within which the pump is located, the fuel
oil tank drain and ballast system or through a
hose connection. Discharge may be to the fire
main, overboard, fuel oil tank drain and ballast
system or to a hose connection. Mechenical in-
15-6
terlocks are provided to prevent taking suction

on the fuel oil tank drain and ballast system and
discharging to the fire main. These pumps are of
much lower capacity than the fire and flushing
pumps and function as an emergency source of
fire main pressure.
Items of equipment and attachments which
are designed to apply water from the fire mata
principally, or other sources in emergency, are
described in the articles which follow.
15-6. FIRE HOSE AND FITTINGS.
Two kinds of fire hose are provided aboard

naval ships. One is the standard cotton rubberlined hose, either lj or 2-inches in diameter;
and the other is the standard linea fire hose,
either lj or 2I-inches in diameter. The hose la
made in 50-foot lengths with a coupling at each
end, one mate and one female. (A few sections
are cut 25 feet long.) The 50-foot lengths are
universally referred to as "lengths" of hose. Thus,
a hundred feet of hose may be described as two
"lengths."
The Navy cotton rubber-lined hose consiste of
a double jacket of woven cotton lined with rubber. The rubber lining is smooth, in order to keep
the friction losa as low as possible. Unlined finen
hose has no rubber lining. It is a alado hose made
of closely woven finen threads which swell sbortly
after being wet and make the hose watertight.
It has been largely replaced with cotton rubberlined hose, however, because of certain inherent
defects. Ten-foot sections of 2-inch rubber anego,' hose, wire reinforced to prevent collapse
under suction, and either ten foot or thirty foot
sections of similar 4' hose, are supplied for use
with the gasoline engine driven portable pumps.
Since fireplugs on naval ships that use 21j-inch
hose have 2j-inch outlets, when 14-inch fines are
15-3
IWO 11/2"OUTLETS
FIG. 15-2. Double "Wye" Gate
15-6
OPEN TO
PROVEE
DRAW IN
CASE OF
DEFECTIVE
FIRE-PL UG
VALVE
FIG. 15-3. Typlcal Hose Instan/aloa Below Weather Decks.
to be served it is necessary to attach reducing

couplings, called "adapters" either the single
straight type or the double wye-gate (Fig. 15-g).
As standard practica therefore, fireplugs below
the weather decks have wye-gates attached, and
to one or both of the outlets la connected a line of
14-inch hose (Fig. 164). Similarly, on the weather
deck of the larger ships, 21-inch hose linee in two
lengths each are attached to fireplugs. On smaller
ships, the practice is the same, except that 11inch hose is used throughout, the wye-gates are
needed only to connect 11-inch hose to the 21inch outlets of gasoline engine driven, centrifugal
type, portable pumps discuised in Article 15-17.
Seven fire-hose fittings are used for assembling
fire-hose linee (Fig. 154). They are the female
coupling, the mate coupling, the double female
couplings, the double mala coupling, the straight
reducing coupling, the wye-gate and the straight
increasing coupling. The reducing and increasing
couplings facilitate connections between 2k-inch
and 11-inch hosca. The double female couplings
provide the means of making up jumper assemblies with which to by-pass damaged portiene o the fire main, with hose. They are re-
quired because fireplugs have malo outlets, and

therefore, at some point in the jumper line, two
mala hose couplings must be joined. The double
mala coupling is furnished to facilitate connecting two female couplings, and aleo for making
nozzle connections on female outlets.
15-7. STRAMERS.
Foreign substances, such as encrustation partirles from the fire main and, especially in the
tropice, marine growth, accumulate in the fire
main system. U no strainer were used to remove
them, they would pass into the hose lineo and to
the pozales which would become clogged and
inoperative.
A self-cleaning strainer (Fig. 15-5) is attached
either directly or by a short section of 2I-inch
hose to a fireplug. The 2I-inch hose, or the wyegate or (on smaller strainers) lf -inch hose la
connected to the strainer outlet. The strainer
proper, which is enclosed in the housing, is a
hollow perforated cylinder. When the clean-out
valve la set to the closed, or off, position, the
stream entero the cylinder from the end, and sine
the other end is blocked, it pasees through the per-
15-4
PIRO FIGHTING EQUIPMENT
2W'
it
7 ,<,, ,
i
i
1 ' li \;<,\\
1
II,
. H
17
OMS
11/2" MAME 2%.
TIMAS
l i
_Sr
""-
"`"
..
HALE
DO
COOPUNG
DONE MIME
NUM
11/4" TO 2W
TIG. 15-4. Standard Pire Hose Fitting".
ININI IN -OFF" POSMON
HUT 2%
HANK NI -.Dl" ~N
PIM COQ MANO&

stvt -tUftN PUBIS
FIG. 15-5. Self Clown* Strainer.
15-6
1E-7
STRAIGHT STREAM
FOG
SHUT
STRAIGHT
STREAM
OIITLET
HIGO VELOCITY FOG TIP

IN PLACE OVER FOG
OUTLET CONNECTION
FIG. 15-8. All-Purpose Nozzle.
forations, and then to the hose connection. When

the clean-out valve is set to the open position, the
fiushing outlet is free to discharge the stream to
the deck. Sine the aireara does not pass through
the perforations when the clean-out valve is
open, but directly through the cylinder lengthwise, it cardes with it all deposita of marine
growth, encrustation, or other accumulations
which have collected in the cylinder.
15-8. ALL PIIRPOSE NOZZLE.
The familiar straight nozzle in 21-ineh and 14inch sizes has been largely replaced, except for
wash deck purposes and in connection with

chemical f oam systems, by the all purpose nozzle
(Fig. 16-6). This nozzle is furnished in 24-inch
and 11-inch sizes. It consista of a nozzle body
with one inlet, a finte position valve, and two
outlets, one aboye the other. With the valve
handle in the forward position (toward the outlet), the valve is shut. With the handle in the
after position (away from the outlet), the nozzle
discharges through the upper passage, which is
a standard straight stream nozzle cast in the
nozzle body (Fig. 15-7). With the valve handle
in the middle or vertical position, the discharge
is through the lower passage. This terminates in
either a high veloeity fog tip (Fig. 15-8), or an
applicator with low velocity fog head, discussed
in the next anide. For convenient, quick shifting, these two attachments are provided with the
male end of a bayonet type joint which fits into
the end of the lower nozzle passage.
15-9. FOG TIPS, FOG HEADS, AND APPLICATORS.
An understanding of modern fire-fighting procedure requires revision of the old concept that
water cannot be used on oil fires. That concept
was based on the fact that a solid stream may
spread an oil fire. This is still the case, and solid
streams must be used with caution and dile regard to the type of fire being fought. llowever,
water in the forra of finely divided fog has tremendous heat absorption and smothering capacity and is, theref ore, one of the most effective
STRAIGHT STREAM POSITION
SOLIO STREAM
FIG. 15-7. Straight Stream from en MI Purpose Nozzle.
FOG
POSITION
HIGA VELOCITY FOG
FIG. 15-8. High-Velocity Fog from no Al! Purpose Nozzle.
15-6
FIRE F10E711410 EQUIPMENT

FM PORO
STRAWNT :TEM DUDE

FOG WITEEI CONNECTION
4 FDDT APPUCATDR AME LOW

IRIDIO FU
FIG. 18-9. Low-Velocity Pog from an ALI Pospon Nozzle.
mean available in fighting oil, gasoline, and

otber types of surface fines. The straight stream
remains an effective and absolutely necessary
agent against fimo in material which must be
penetrated and soaked before the fire can be completely extinguished.
Fog in generated with the all purpose nozzle,
either by a low velocity fog head (Fig. 18-9),
or a high-velocity nozzle tip. A number of small
outlets, &Oled at convergir; anglas in the head
or the tip, break clown the water stream hito fog
partidas by impinging the streams on one another. fe sise, deaign, and location of the outJets determine the velocity with which the fog
partidas emerge from the nozzle. Control of this
velocity is desirable, because for some firefighting taaks a low-velocity fog is preferable, and
for others, a high-velocity fog is best. With either
the fog head or tip, the fog extinguirles fire by
absorbing heat and by reducing the supply of
oxygen aboye the fire. The fog hacemos steam,
which in turra absorba more heat and acta as a
smothering agent.
In the low-velocity fog head, the outlets are
smaller that those in the high-velocity nozzle
tip and are so deigned and placed, that the water
stream is broken down lato finar partidas. The

water particles do not have force enough to travel more than a few feet from the fog head. In
consequenee of this fact, and for advantage* in
reach and predio, the low-velosity head la
never usad on the nozzle directly, but always
with an applicator (Fig. 18-10). An applleator is
a pieee of pipe with a fog head screwed on the
outlet end. It la readily anapped hato the fog outlet of the all purpose nozzle with a bayonet
j hit.
For use with the 11-inch all purpose nozzle,
applicators are made of 1-inch pipethe 4-foot
lengthwith a 60 bend for below decir amas,
and the 10-foot length with a 90 bend foro topside areas. For use with the 21-inch all putpoee
nozzle for topside amas, they are of 14-pip In
12-foot lengths, with a 90 bend.
In combinationith equipment for introduoing mechanical foam liquid lato the water stream
as described in succeeding arietes; the applicator with low-velocity fog head may be usad to
produce a fog-foam. This foam is not as ellyient
as that produeed with regular foam equipStehl,
although in teste it has proved to be effective on
oil fires.
114" DIA.
2W'
jo
1W'
10111111CATOR
APPIXATIM
alialla
APPLICATOR
sr
HG. 16-10. Low-Volocity Pog Applicatora.

15-7
15-9
FIRE PLUS
4-FOOT APPLICATOR
SELF-CLEANING STRAINER
CLEANOUT
VALVE
CLOSED
OPEN TO
PROVIDE
DRAIN IN
CASE OF
DEFECTIVE
ARE-PLUS
VALVE
100 FT. OF PA" NOSE
FIG. 15-3. Typical Hose Instanaden Below Weather Beche.

Figure 15-8 illustrates a standard method of
installing strainers, wye-gates, hose linea, all purpose nozzles with fog tipa in place, and applicators with fog heads stowed, ready for instant use
15-10. SPRINKLING SYSTEMS.
Sprinkling systems supplied with water from

the fire main are generally of two types:
(1) Sprinkling systems protecting magazines,
handling rooms, turrets and other ammunition
handling, stowage and passing spaces consist of
the necessary pipe, fittings, valves and equipment for the manual or automatic release of
water within the protected spaces, and are briefly
described as follows: From the fire main, branch
pipes are provided, connecting through a manually operated stop valve (root valvelocked
open) adjacent to the fire main, a power operated
valve (control valve--normally closed), a test
fitting (normally open), and a manifold (stop
lift-check valve--normally in check position) to
the sprinkler piping within each individual magazine of a group. The sprinlding piping within
each magazine compartment is either perforated
or fitted with open sprinkler heads or spray
nozzles; the number of pipe perforations, the

number of sprinklers or the number of spray
nozzles are so selected as to give the optimum
cooling and fire extinguishing effect within the
space protected. Automatic systems are so arranged that the control valve is operated through
a separate pneumatic rate-of-rise heat detecting
system.
(2) Sprinkling systems protecting the airplane

hangar decks, and other extra hazardous locations in certain types of naval vessels, consist of
the necessary pipe, fittings and valves to supply
water to a series of commercial type open sprinkler heads arranged to adequately wet down
material stored within the protected space. In
most cases these systems are arranged for manual
control from a point remote from the space protected. Some systems are automatic, being controlled through a separate pneumatic rate-of-rise
heat detecting system.
16-11. FOG SYSTEMS.
In certain naval chips, exceptional gasoline explosion hazards warrant the use of fixed fogspray installations. These are non-automatic and
15-8
FIRE F ICH TINO EQUI PM EN T

consist of overhead fixed piping, equipped with
fog heads. The piping terminates in female hose
connections at each end, located outside the
boundary bulkhead or deck of the protected
space, so that water can be admitted from either
end through a 21-inch hose line connected to the
most convenient fire-plug or other source of
water pressure.
In large open arcas on certain types of
transverse water or fog aunaba are provided
athwartships to sectionalize the ares in order to
prevent the spread of fires. Water curtains are
equipped with shovel-type open sprinkler heads.
Fog curtains are equipped with fog heads. These
systems are non-automatic, but they may be
operated either locally or remotely, and in some
cases by remote electrical control. They may
aleo have a preesure source separate from the
fire main, consisting of pumps with electric drive
supplied by either regular or emergency generaton. Non-automatic water curtains (fog), supplied through 21' fire hose connections, are installed at boundary bulkheads in certain auxiliary veasels. Their purpose is the subdivision of
the vesael hito "fire aneas."
15-12. POAM-GENERAL.
Foam, consisting of stiff walled bubbles, is

used to form a smothering blanket over fires
burning on the surface of oil, gasoline, etc. Of
all fire-fighting agente, foam possesses the highest
degree of stability and density of structure. It
may stand for a period of hours as a comparatively firm, smothering blanket clinging tightly
to the aldea of the enclosure in which it was
applied.
Two types of foam are employed aboard naval
chipa, namely chemical foam and mechanical
foam. The chemical foam blanket la composed of
water-film bubbles filled with carbon dioxide.
The mechanical foam blanket la composed of
water-fdm bubbles filled with air. In both, the
film is strengthened with a chemical called a
"foam stabilizer."
Chemical foam is produced in two ways. In
one procesa, dry chemicals and water are mixed
in the foam generator. The foam is produced
by chemical action and turbulence in the hose
leading from the generator to the straight nozzle
through which it is discharged. In the other
procesa, two liquid chemicals are forced, by steam
16-13
or air preesure, through a twin hose from two

separate 20-gallos tanke ("twin-twenties") to a
short length of single hose which acta as a mixing
chamber ahead of the nozzle.
Mechanical foam is produced by mixing mechanical foam liquid with water in various types
of proportioning equipment. This mixture is led
through a hose line and discharged through a
mechanical foam nozzle. The nozzle la designed
to introduce air hito the mixture and create
sufficient turbulence to produce a atream of airfilled foam bubbles. The mechanical foam nozzle
is a necessary part of all mechanical foam equipment except in emergency cases where an applicator with a low-velocity fog head ie used in place
of the nozzle. The resultant fog foam is effective
but not as efficient as foam from the nozzle.
Three devices are used aboard naval ships to
produce chemical foamthe continuous-type generator (portable or installed), the accumulator, or
pressure-operated generator (installed), and the
double 20-gallon cylinder unit, or "t./crin twenties"
(installed). The twin twenty has been largely
replaced by more modern equipment and will not
be further described in this text.
There are aleo three devices used to produce
mechanical foam with each of which the mechanical foam nozzle la usedthe duplex preasure proportioner (portable or installed), the straighttype pick-up tube proportioner (portable), in which
the pick-up tube is attached to the nozzle directly, and the S-type pick-up tube proportioner,
which is attached to a 60 g.p.m. portable pump
which la driven by a gasoline engine.
fe satisfactory performance of all foam
equipment is highly dependent on close adherence to specffied pressures, to hose sizes and
lengths, and in the case of chemical foam, to
nozzle dimensions.
16-13. THE CONTINUOUSTYPE GENERATOR.
Whether installed or portable, the continuoustype generator (Fig. 15-11) is an open hopper
which feeds chemical foam powder lato the suction chamber of an ejector through which the
water supply pasees as a jet. The jet suction entrains the powder in the water stream. The inlet
end is provided with a female 24-inch hose connection and the outlet end with a male 24-inch
hose connection. A strainer, incide the inlet and,
protecta the equipment againat being clogged by
15-9
15-13

FLUSHUT PISE
tor is installed in some naval lipa. It differs
from the continuous-type generator described in

the preceding section principally in that it is
intermittent in operation. The dry chemical foam
powder is contained in cartridges which must be
HOPPER
replaced as they are exhausted. During replacement of a cartridge, the supply of foam la cut off.
A cartridge consiste of a sealed metal can conCHEMICALS
taining 50 pounds of foam powder. The sealed
FEO HERE
top is removed immediately bef ore insertion of
WATER VALVE
ENTER LOCIONG the cartridge in the generator.
PRESSIIRE
NIT1 HANDLE
To place the accumulator in operation, the top
CAUCE
is
opened and a cartridge, with its cover removed,
WATER JET
is
inserted. The top is then tightly closed, the disFLUSHOUT
charge
hose led out without kinks, and the water
PALPE
supply valve opened wide. Preesure on the fire
main must be raised to the specified range for
234" DISCRARCE satisfactory operation. When foam ceases to
234" Kif WATER
FOAM CONNECTION issue from the hose nozzle, the water must be
CONNECTION
secured. A new cartridge is inserted in the acSTRANIER
COMBINATION CHAMBER
cumulator alter opening the top, removing the
(FOAM MAK AT THIS
exhausted cartridge, and allowing the cylinder to
drain. Because of its obvious disadvantages, the
FIG. 15-11. Continuous Type Foam Generator.
accumulator is now considered obsoleto and is
being
replaced by more modern equipment.
particles from the water stream. A pressure gauge
connected ahead of the water valve provides a 115-15. THE MECHANICAL FOAM NOZZLE.
continuoue check on the pressure eupplied. The
The mechanical foam nozzle (Fig. 16-19) prowater valve, located ahead of the ejector, is vides
means for introducing air hito a mixoponed full during operation or closed to cut off ture ofthe
mechanical foam solution, and
water
the flow of foam. Some modele are equipped with for producing and
a
stream
air-filled foam globules.
a check valve between the. ejector and hopper to It consiste of a 21-inchofpiece
of flexible metal or
prevent water from rising hito the hopper in case
of increased pressure on the outlet side, due to
MANEN. FM ME 154"
blocking, of the line or other causes. Hoppers are
attached by a fianged joint with boite or a readily
dieconnected locking nut for cleaning. There is
aleo a emall flushout hose connection on the inlet
Bid to aid in cleaning alter use.
The chemical foam powder, a finely ground
FOAM PICKUP TOK
material, resembling dry unmixed cement in color
and consistency, lo packed in sealed 50-pound
FIG. 15-12. Meehanleal Foam Nozzle.
cana. The can la opened by means of a pull-ring
attached to a strip type cover. fe hopper should asbestos composition hose, 2 indice in diameter.
be kept well filled during operation. The jet The outlet end terminates in a short, straight,
suction draws the powder hito the stream in the metal tube, aleo of 2-inch diameter. The inlet
correct proportion, regardless of the water pres- end terminates in a 14-inch female hose connection. Pire hose s'ay be led to the nozzle from a
illa/t.
proportioner (described in Article 15-16) which
15-14. THE ACCUMULATOR OR PRESSURE-OFER. introduces the foam liquid finto the water stream.
ATM GENERATOR.
The hose may aleo be led directly from a fireplug.
The accumulator or preestre-operated genera- When connected directly toa fireplug, a "pick-up
15-10
Hl CHAME
PIRE PRIIITING EQUIPMENT
15-15. Yes anlwaf non nonio with

Pielt-Up Tubo la thie.
By refenting to Fig. 15-140 ffiznay be asen test

the proportioner consiste of a metal- '
an operating head mountecreti top.
divides the drum hito
upo and
chamber. Each chambeo. will bisd the
of two 5-gallon canta of na
Larga ffiling Saha with roctenr
are
in the top of the drum. One sh liada lato the
upper chamber and the other pana through the
upper chamber to the lower chaniber. Pot dula
ing the chambera, two largo openinge with lorew
cape are provided in the Se of the fincutiehlr the
bottom of each chamber. The ,eorew ea* are
slotted so they can be turned repffh, with* hose
tube" is attached to an opening in the sida of the

inlet end of the atoszle with the opposite end of
the pick-up tube inserted in a can of foam solution (Fig. 16-18). The water channel through the
inlet end of the nozzle is designed as an ejector or
jet pump which Cakes suction through the pickup tuba and entraina the foam solution in the
water stream in the corred proportion. When so
usad, no proportioner is required. The water
stream through the inlet end of the nozzle diecharges as a group of emelt jets acroas an open
air gap to the inlet end of the flexible tube. The
flexible tuba la connected to the inlet end by a
metal aspirating coge with largo openings
through which air entere to be entrained in the
jet. The turbulent flow through the flexible tube
produces a stream of stiff-walled, air-ffiled foam
bbbles. A chain of adjustable length la attached
to each end of the flexible tube so that any desired curvature may be imposed on the tube for
the purpose of working around obstructions or
setting ata desired angle of discharge.
The water stream flows tleenijateciphe acrece

the top of the drum. The hiletlend of ffie tubo is
fltted with a 14-inch female hese eomiebtion to
recelos a fine from a fireplug, and the oled end
is fitted with a 14-ineh mere hose coaneolforl for
the line leading to the mechanical foam nozzle.
A premura gauge laconnected to the water tuba
immediately %sida the inlet end to provide a
conthruhus check on the presente supplielthie
proseare mut be maintained within the
ranga for efficierit operation. Zollowing
sure galio connection is a ley
type, cut-out valve. The water
through a lever-operated,
callad the proportioning valle;
in the vertical position, the w
pasees the foam soltaron pielt-gp
straight through the *be to the oil
When the levar le moved
throw in either direction from th
tion of the water stream is divi
or the other of twffitubeer,oner-of
15- i TIi IIPLEX PRIIIISURE PROPORTIONER.
the top of the upper ehanmber al
The duplex preasure proportioner, portable or top of the lower clomber, in order to introdace
permaneutly installed, is an apparatue for hold- preasure on the s'ufane of the ecffuttion. The foam
ing a mechanical foam solution and adding it in solution la forced out t/arough the smaller slyhdn
the proper proportion to a water atream at the tubas which load from thetettom of each
time of fire. The solution-bearing atream is dis- ber finto the main water atrueno at a point toward
charged through a 11-inclo hose line to a me- the outlet from the proportioning valve.
chuico' foam nozzle (demoled in the preceding main water tube is condi-listad ata polla- between
artiole) where air la added to the mixture to pro- the proportionin
' g valve and the entitmeekthe
duce foam. In orlar ,to provictia continuous or syphon tubea leading frtmi the chambe&
nearly continuous how of foain to the fire, the createa a presente differeatiat so that when the
proportioner ernbodies two foam solution cham- ProPortionher nave la oponed to ,ono of the
bera, one of which may be refilled while the other chambera, the presente of water on top d-tite
is in service.
focino aolution haces it up thownh the ~en
18-11
ISA
1646
RETAL OF PROPORTIONING VALVE
UPPER COMPARTMENT
IN USE
'z=7
LOWER COMPARTMENT
IN USE
FIG. 15-14. Duplex Pressure Proportioner.
tube from the bottom of the ehamber and into

the discharging water stream. All parte are designed so that f or a given pressure, the correct
proportion of foam solution is introduced into
the stream.
When a chamber becomes emptied of foam
solution, it will be left full of water under pressure. Therefore, after the proportioning valve is
shifted to the other chamber, it is necessary to
remove the drain cape on the side of the exhausted chamber and allow the water to run out,
bef ore it can be refdled with solution. The propor-
15-12

VALVE
RELAMER
(21/2" TO 11/2")
WATER VALVE
PROPORTIONER VIDE
TIMER
P ESSURE GAUEN%
100 FT-I1/2" HOSE
DUPLEX PRESSURE
P TIONER
16-17
MECHANICAL
FOAM HOME
10011-1 W' HOSE
FIG. 16-15. Portable Duplex Pressure Proportioner in Use.
tioning valve provides a connection between the

chamber which is out of service and a goosenecked vent tube aboye the valve. This relieves
the pressure bef ore the drain capa are removed.
In order to provide minimum loas at the bottom
of a chane of solution as well as maximum
drainage, the bottoms of the chambera are curved
convexly upward. The drain openings and the
discharge tubas lead from the bottom of the circular trough formed by the juncture of the side
and bottom of the chamber. A small clock timer
is installed on some modelo to indicate the approximate time a chamber becomes exhausted.
The timer spring must be wound and the timer
started when the proportioning valve is opened.
A bel! sounds to indicate the time when the chamber should be nearly empty.
When the proportioner is permanently installed, piping may be connected to the proportioner inlet from a Eire main branch through a
cut-out valve and self-cleaning atrainer, the drum
being secured to the deck or bulkhead. A typical
portable arrangement rigged for use is shown in
Fig. 15-15. To place the proportioner in operation after the chambera have been filled, the following procedure la used:
Lead out the supply and discharge hose,
without kinks.
Open the proportioner water cut-out
valve.
Man the mechanical foam nozzle.
Place the proportioning valve lever in the
vertical position.
Open the fireplug supplying pressure.
When the proportioner pressure gauge
registers the necessary pressure, throw the proportioning valve foyer either to right or left
(upper or lower chamber) and start the timer.
When the timer rings, throw proportioner
valve to opposite position and reset timer.
Remove drain cap of the exhausted chamber, drain the chamber, and replace the cap.
Remove filling cap from the empty chamber and refill.

Repeat the aboye stepa as long as f oam is
desired.
15-17. PORTABLE, INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE DRIVER PUMPS.
In order to provide a source of water pressure

in case fine mains are ruptured or pressure falle
for other reasons, portable, internal combustion
engine driven pumps are provided. In larger
sizes, the pumps are of the centrifugal type.
smaller sizes, commonly called gasoline "handybillies," the pumps are of the positive displacement rotary type.
Portable pumps are designed for a normal suction lift not to exceed 16 feet. Suction la taken
through, wire4nserted, hard rubber suction hose.
The centrifugal pumps will deliver over an approximate muge of 300 to 600 galana per minute
at corresponding pressures of from 140 to 75
p.s.i. The handy-bIlly delivers 60 gallons per
minuto at 100 p.s.i.
Suction may be taken from the sea or from a
flooded compartment. The centrifugal pump may
be discharged through a portable submerged
eductor type pump. By this meare it can provide a limited discharge with a suction lift
greater than normal.
All portable gasoline driven pumps may be
used for unwatering flooded compartments, although neither type should be used to pump oil
producto. However, the centrifugal pumps, taking a water suction, can be diacharged througli a
portable eductor type pump to pump out oil or
contaminated water. In nearly all circumstances,
greater pumping capacity for unwatering la obtained from the centrifugal portable pump when
used in combination with one or more portable
eductors.
The centrifugal type pump requires priming
while the positive diaplacement handy-billy does
15-13
15-17

ye" STAINLESS STEEL PULL CABLE
CONDUIT WITH FLARED END
IN
FITTING AND CONDUIT BRACKET
LEVER ATTACHMENT
1/2" FLEXIBLE DISCHARGE
BENTY
PRESSURE ACTUATED
DISCHARGE HEAD
RING NUT FOR DISCON.
NECTING DISCHARGE
HEAD FROM CYLINDER
VALVE
CYLINDER VALVE
HOSE REEL
WITH mOUNTO
PLATE
CYLINDER SADDLE
CORNER PULLEY
OPERATION
INSTRUCTIONS
CENTER CYLINDER
CLAMP
HORN CONTROL
VALVE
Vi" STAINL'S STEEL
PULL CABLE IN
" CONDUIT FROM
CY LINDER
PULL BOX
WOOD HANDLE
HORN BRACKET
(UPPER)
ALUMINUM HANDLE
50 LB. SIZE CO TY/0

CYLINDER
DISCHARGE HORN
CYLINDER ARRANGEMENT
BULKHEAD
HORN BRACKET
(LOWER)
FRONT VIEW
HOSE REEL STATION
SIDE VIEW
FIG. 15-16. CO, Hose and Real Installation.
not. A hand operated priming pump la included

(1) The CO, hose and reel installation (Fig.
in the centrifugal pump mounting.
15- 16) consista of two cylinders with releasing
The 60 g.p.m. portable pumps may be equipped mechanism, a length of CO2 hose on a reel, and a
with the "S-type" suction $roportioner attach- horn-shaped expanding nozzle equipped with a
ment which permita use of a mechanical foam second control valve and an insulated han dle.
solution pick-up tuba at the pump in order to A cable extends from the release control on the
deliver a correetiy proportioned mixture of water cylinders to an operating handle which is set near
and mechanical foam solution to a line leading to the hose reel, or the cyfinders may be placed near
a mechanical foam nozzle.
the hose reta with a local control releasing
mechanism. The COI fine leads from the cylinINSTALLED CO, SYSTEMS.
dere to gas tight trunnions on the reel and thence
Carbon dioxide (CO') extinguishing-systems hato the hose. The hose thus remains permanently
are, in general, steel cylinders designed to hold connected to the system even though coiled on
carbon dioxide under high preasure and which the reel, and only as much hose as is required
release COs through fixed piping or a hose line in need be led out to the scene of the fire.
case o fire. Carbon dioxide systems are installed
The releasing mechanism on one of the cylinin naval ships in order to provide a depndable der heads contaba a thin sealing disc and a levar
and ready means of flooding, or partly flooding, operated cutter for puncturing the disc. Once
with this smothering gas, certain spaces that released, the only control b furnished by the
preaent greater than ordinary fire hazards. The valva at the horn-shaped nozzle. Since the valva
cylinders of the installations contain 50 lb. of ie not leak proof, the system cannot again be
carbon dioxide each, and are installed in batteries made tight until the disc la replaced. The releasof two or more. Installed COI extinguishing sys- ing mechanism of the second cylinder has a simitems consist of (a) the hose and reel installation, lar sealing disc, but the cutter ie actuated by a
or (b) the flooding system.
piston acting under pressure released from the
15-14
PIRE PIGHTING EQUIPMENT
first cylinder. fe digo serme aleo as a safety

valve in case the cylinder becomes overheated
and dangerous preesure develops. Both cylinders
o a hose reel system may aleo be individually
released. Strict compliance with charging instructions provides an ample margin of safety
againet exceesive preesure.
fe hose and roel installation is particularly
adapted to machinery spaces. Since CO3 la 11
times heavier than air, it flows down and over a
Sre, and, if it is not disturbed by air currents, it
will remain long enough to put the fire out when
the concentration is sufficient. Applied promptly,
CO, is effective on burning liquide such as oil.
It 18 alzo effective on electrical fires. It will not
damage electrical equipment, and there is no
danger of electric shock to the fire-fighter through
its use.
In using CO,, the fire-fighter must be aware of
the danger of suffocation when working in an
atmosphere in which CO, has displaced oxygen.
Also, the fire-fighter must avoid contact with the
"snow" as it is discharged from the nozzle.
Ita very low temperature will blister the skin and
cause severa burns through prolonged contact.
(2) The CO, flooding system (Fig. 16-17) ~sista of one or more cylinders connected by piping
from their valve outlets to a manifold. Installed
pipas from the manifold extend to valona parte
of the space to be flooded. A cable extends from
the valve control mechaniem to apull box located
outside the space containing the cylinder. The
release mechanism is essentially the same as that
for the hose and reel installation.
The CO, flooding system la adaptad to spades
not normally occupied by personnel. In case of
fire in such spaces, the ventilation is seeured
(usually automatically) and a smothering caneentration of CO, safely released.
111-11 PORTABLE FIRE EETINOBISHERIL
Small portable fire extinguishers are furnished

to naval shipe for use mi small looalized Bree.
They are placed in racks throughout the chip and
are furnished to all power boats. Three types of
portable extinguiahere have been used of which
only one la now supplied. Three typee are:
Carbon tetrachloride.
Feam type; of varioue designe *hiel depend on the mixing of two ehemical eolutions to
generate foam at the time of fire.
(3) CO, type; smali cylinders of CO, with
11AD TO FLOODING O
special
heads and short hose leade temdnetinefin
MANIFOLD
a
hora-shaped
outlet for directing the "OMS
P ACTATE
at
the
moet
effective
point of fire.
RESM
CUM
4
V ES
1147
1"10
The first two ty,es are no lamer ftwathed,
OEM
having been replaced by the CO, tne. Mon
CONTROL
common le the 15-pound capacity sita (1,4.
VARE-PULL 16-18). A few locations, including smell rent
boato, are furnished with a =eller sise.
fe portable CO, extinguleher le furnished
with two types of releasing valvas; the diga tne,
and the squeeze-grip type. fe dise type le mien=
tially the same as the release valve of the Installed CO3 systms. A thin dise acta as a "OS
valve in case of excessive presente. To place in
operation, the dise is punctured by ~lag a
small hand wheel on top of the valve to the lett
after removing a locking pin. A cutter on the
bottom of the valve stern puncitures the dho.
The valve cannot be quickly or effectively Mond
to prevent full diacharge of the CCk in thecyl
inder. Therefore, the cylinder must be reeharged
after each use, and a new dise must be inserta.
The aqueeze-grip type valve is operated by a
lever which is muesca downwanl againet the
handle used for carrying the extinguisher. A lodtPIO. 15-17. Inetelled CO2 Plooding System with
ing pm prevente accidental diacharge and must
60 lb. Cantil Cylladere.
13-15
15-19

in fuel oil tanka, under floor platee, and in fire
room bilgee of oil burning vessele. In modern
ships, they are installed between the inner and

outer casings of air encased bollera and in the
fireroom and engine room overheads.
The air casing systems provide a means for extinguishing small fires which may develop from
oil leakage from improperly handied burners. The
overhead smothering systems are in the nature
of a last resort, to be operated by controls outsida the protected spaces when all personnel are
forced to evacuate, and other fire-fighting means
are not available or effective.
15-21. INERT GAS SYSTEMS.
FIG. 15-18. 15 lb. Portable CO2 Fire Extinguisher.
be removed to place in operation. This type of

valve provides a gas tight seat and permita intermittent operation and partial discharge of the
cylinder by merely releasing the squeeze grip
when CO2 is no longer desired. For continuous
operation, a D-yoke ring on the carrying handle
is swung upward to engage the squeeze grip and
hold it in the depressed (open) position.
The weights of all CO2 extinguishers, portable
and installed, are checked and recorded periodically to detect lose by leakage and necessity for
recharging.
15-20. STEAM SMOTHERING SYSTEM.
Steam smothering systems have been installed
These systems are provided for maintaining an

inert atmosphere in voids surrounding the builtin gasoline tanks in aircraft carriers, thus greatly
reducing the potential explosion hazard. Briefly,
the system consiste of an internal combustion
engine, the exhaust gases of which are collected,
scrubbed, washed and further processed to remove carbon monoxide, and are stowed under
pressure in metal receiving tanks. From the receiving tanks, the inert gas pasees through a series
of piping, control valves and reducing valves to
the voids surrounding the gasoline tanks where
it is retained at low pressure.
15-22. PERSONNEL.
This discussion has touched only upon the

principal items of fire-fighting equipment which
are provided on naval ships. Successful shipboard
fire-fighting requires, in addition to equipment, a
crew which is thoroughly indoctrinated as to
when, where and how to make the most effective
use of their fire-fighting tools. Aboye all, it requires complete understanding by all hands of
the principies of fire prevention. Fire-fighting and
fire prevention methods are fully described in
publications available aboard all naval ships.
15-16

APPENDIX
C HAPTER Al. Additional Pumps
Additional Forced Draft Blowers
Additional Feed Water Systems and Attendant Units
CHAPTER Al
ADDITIONAL PUMPS
A1-1. INTRODUCTIOIL
The pumps desaibed in tia chapter are thoae

which are either obsoleto, becoming obsoleto, or
are very infrequently encountered in modem naval vessels. They are included here to cover the
occasional vessel which may be equipped with
one of these types.
A1-2. CONDENSER SIR PUM;
Figure Al-! illustrates the liquid end of a single-acting, "wet-ancl-dry" air pump. An air pump
la a special type of reciprocating pump. It is usad
to remove sir, uncondensed vapore, and water
from the main condensa The greatest component of this mixture by volume is air, hence the
narre "air pump." With the advent of centrifugal
ami jet type pumps its use has been almost entirely discontinued except for the condensers for
reciprocating atara engines.
NENE
VAIVE
(OPIO)
DEUR
LENE
8OCKET
VALDE
(CLOSED)
BOCKET
BARREE
FOOE
VALVE
(OPENED)
FIG. A1-1. Dieg~tio BtmAah el a Single Aren

Pemap Unid er Wter liad.
Inasmuch as the air pump is required to draw

a largo volume ata preesure approaching absoluto
cero and to discharge at Stmtspheric prestare, it
must be of largo sise, must compresa the mixture
to atmospheric preasure, and must piovide a sea!
between ita high-pressure and low-pressure aldea.
In Fig. A1-1, the pump pisten (callad the
"bucket" in single-acting pumps of thia design)
la on ita up-etroke, the head valva are opon and
the discharge la as indicated. At the same time
it should be noted that, the bucket valva are
otead to prevea leakage to the bottom of the
barrel and the foot valva are open to pennit the
bucket to draw in a new charge. On the de*n
valva are cloaed except the katket-strokeal
valva, which are then open and allow the gases
and water in the bottom of the cylinder to pass to
the upper sido of the bucket, filling the barrel
abone the bucket in preparation for the succeeding up-stroke.
Two designe of sir pump valva are illustrated
in Fig. Ala MI valva in any pump are usually
of the same sise and design. They asid of eine
flexible metal Sea of different diametere whiph
are held closed over the valve wat by a litht
coiled spring except when the prasma under the
diese is greater than that aboye diem plue the
spring compression (which may be considered as
negligible). Larga valva are fitted with a valve
guard which la provided to prevent the disco from
being broken or bent upward sud'ut-of-ehape.
The valve sesta are usually threaded and removable so that worn seats may be econornically replaced.
Air pumps, because of their single-acting feature are often built in duplex arrangement in ordar to maintain a more oonstant vacuum on the
condenser. They are sometimos built with only
one steam cylinder located ab ove one of the
pump barreis and connented by a walking-beam
linkage to the pump rod of the other barre!. In
some cases the pump la entirely indirect in operation, being operated by a walking-beam linkage,
connected to and operated by one of the pisan
rtbd ereasheads o the main reciprocating engine.
Al
UPPER DISC
MIELE DISC
LOWER DISC
(a)
FIG. A1-2. Air Pump Valven
HOLLOW ARIA
SLIDE PIN
DISCHARGE
DISCHARGE PORT
ROTATING PLUNCER
FIG. A1-3. Rotating Plunger Pump Side View.

A1-2
ADDITIONAL PUMAS
A1-13. ROTATING PLIINGER PIIMP.
The rotating plunger pump is a type of positive
displaeement rotary pump sometimos used to
pump fuel, diesel, or lubricating oil. Figure 4.14
shows the main operating parts of the pump
(sometimes classified as a "cam-and-plunger"
pump). The plunger is shown in four positions,
(a) to (d), illustrating the pumping procese. The
main body of the pump is a cylinder with the suction port entering through the sido in the upper
left hand quadrant, as shown. The drive shaft is
concentric with the pump cylinder and cardes an
eccentric strap which is of slightly smaller diameter than the pump eylinder. This eccentric strap
operates as a piston or "plunger." The eccentric
arm plus the radius of the plunger is equivalent to
the radius of the cylinder leas the necessary operating clearances. Theref ore, with each revolution
of the eccentric, the point of nearest contact of
the plunger on the cylinder wall rotates completely around the cylinder. Motion of the plunger
about its own center is constrained by a hollow
arm or slide which extends from the plunger
through a slot in the top of the cylinder, and
aboye that point, through a slotted pin carried in
a bearing which sedo the cylinder space from the
discharge space.
The width of the hollow arm corresponde with
the axial length of the cylinder and plunger so
that it serves as a seal between the spaces on the
left and right sides of the plunger. The hollow
arco opens at the bottom into the space on the
right of the plunger and at the top, hito the discharge space.
Refening to (a) in the illustration, it may be
seen that liquid trapped in the right side of the
cylinder will be forced through the hollow arm to
the discharge line as the eccentric rotates counter
clockwise. View (b) shows the next phase with the
space on the left side opening, thereby creating a
vacuum which causes liquid to flow in from the
suction line. At (c) le shown the next stage with
the discharge port at the bottom of the hollow
' g to close. View (d) shows the
arm beginnin
maximum opening of the space on the suction
side of the plunger with a full charge of liquid.
When the eccentric turne slightly further, the
point of contact of the plunger on the cylinder
will pass over the suction port and trap the new
chargeon the discharge side as in (a).
In order to reduce the tendency to pulsate,
A1-4
pumps of this type usually employ two plungers

whose driving eccentrics are 180 apart on the
shaft. The plungers are separated by a diaphragm through which the shaft extends. The
housing, suction and discharge spaces, and cylinder are otherwise common to both sections of the
pump.
A1-4. MOVING VARE PIIMP.
The moving vane pump is another type of positive displacement rotary pump used for pumping
lubricating oil or diesel oil. This pump, Fig. A1-4,
consiste of a cylindrically bored housing with a
suction inlet on one sido and a discharge outlet on
the other. A cylindrically shaped rotor of lees diameter than the cylinder is driven about an axis
placed aboye the center line of the cylinder so
that clearance between rotor and cylinder at the
top is small and is a maximum at the bottom. The
rotor cardes vanes which move in and out as it rotates to maintain sealed spaces between the rotor
and the cylinder wall. The vanes trap liquid on
the suction sido and carry it to the discharge side
where contraction of the space expele it through
the discharge line. The vanes may swing on pivote as shown in the illustration, or they may slide
in siete in the rotor. This type pump is used for
lubricating oil service and transfer and in general
for handling lighter viscous liquido.
SWINGING TUPE
MOVING VARES
SUCTION
COMER
DISCHARCE
ROTOR
FIG. 11-4. Moving Vano Type Pnmp.
A2-2
CHAPTER A%
ADDITIONAL FORCED DRAFT BLOWERS

thence through the oil baffle (shown enlarged in
Modem combatant naval vessels no longer use the circle). This pressure is in turn communiclosed firerooms or centrifugal type blowers. The cated about the vertical tubes, as indicated by
types of blowers described in this chapter may be the arrows, to the space under the inner shaft
encountered in older naval auxiliarles and for gland. Thus, exactly the same pressure exista
aboye and below the inner shaft gland so that
that reason are presented here.
there is absolutely no tendency for the oil to be
A2-2. PROPELLER BLOWER FOR CLOSED FIRE- sucked out hato the air stream. The combined
ROOM USE.
ares of the vertical tubes supplying the sealing
Figure AS-1 shows a vertical propeller blower
air between the inner and outer shaft glande is so
designed for use in a closed flreroom. It consiste large, compared with the clearance between the
of an outer casing which is secured to the inner shaft and outer shaft gland, that there is no
casing by mean of the guide vanas, with the measurable drop of pressure. Since the pressures
inner casing in turn welded to the upper hall of in the lower oil reservoir and the blower disthe turbine casing. The lower hall of the turbine charge are equalized through the oil return pipe,
casing has welded to it the lower oil reservoir the entire lubricating system is under a constant
which tontaina the lower steady bearing as well pressure.
as the Kingsbury type thrust bearing, described
The propeller fan is made of forged steel. In
in detail in Naval Turbines, Chapter 4.
manufacturing the blades, a forged disc is maThe blower assembly la entirely self-support- chined to a tapered section from root to tip.
ing, ita entire weight being carried by the upper It is then cut into segments, which are warped
flange of the outer casing, which is bolted to the to the proper chape and welded to the hub. The
ship's structure.
entire fan is tinned for protection againat corOne very important feature of this design is rosion. It la then dynamically balanced.
the mean provided for preventing the escape of
The lubricating system, shown diagrammatioil hito the air stream. Since the pressure around cally in Fig. AS-fi, consista of a centrifugal pump
the upper end of the shaft, where it emerges from and a viscosity pump. The centrifuga) pump,
the casing, may be considerably below atmo- whose impeler is integrally forged with the shaft
spheric, there is a large difference of pressure just below the lower bearing journal, furniahes
tending to pull the oil out of the inner casing. To oil to the speed-limiting governor at all speeds
prevent the escape of oil, a system of "air and provides all lubrication at high speeds. Oil
balancing" is employed, by mean of which the entere the lower bearing at the bottom, as shown
air pressure incide the inner casing, the lower oil by arrows, between the lower edge of the bearing
reservoir, and the space between the inner and shell and the top of the impeler. The viscosity
outer shaft gland is maintained at the same value. pump suppliea oil to the upper bearing at very
low speeds, and restricts the centrifugal pump
This is accomplished as follows:
The space below b14e inner casing, which b from delivering excessive pressure to the bearings
subjected to the blower discharge pressure, is at high speeds. The viscosity pump consiste of a
connected with the space between the inner and helical groove machined in the lower half of the
outer shaft glande by the vertical pipe shown. lower journal. The upper end of the helical groove
Aleo, the space inside the inner casing (which is connected to the inside of the shaft as shown
amounts to an upper oil reservoir) is under blower by radial holes and the oil is directed to the upper
discharge premure, for air at this pressun3 la al- bearing through the hollow shaft. Oil, after circulowed to leak along the shaft through a aleen and lating through the upper bearing, runa down inA2-1. INTRODUCTION.
A2-1
A2
OOLTED TO SHIP'S
STRUCTURE HERE
()OTEO SHAFT CLAND

INNER SHAFT CLAND
e
PAPELEE'
OIL TO UPPER BEARING

OIL SLOT
OUTER CASING
GUIDE VANES
INNER CASING
REVERSIN
OIL RETURN
NOZZLES
NOZZLE CONTROL VALVES

LOMEA OIL RESERVOIR
THERMOMETER
GOVERNOR
--11111.
INI1W
' Mgav
.111fia%
N
KINGSBURY
THRUST BEARING
COOLING VANE
VISCOSITY PUMP
(See Fig. 4-4)
1111n11M1!1:1<1
CENTRIFUGAL
PUMP
FIG. A2-1. Propeller Type Foreed Draft Blower for Mond Ffreroom Use.
A2-2
ADDIPIONA FORCE DRAFT SWWERS

UNIR MAILING
MIN.
PSIb
TIONFa
IKA
190 RPEES)
SIGNT FLow
FITTING
OIL COOLER
OIL TOUR
MING THRu
MOLE IN SHAFT
LOwER SEARING SHELL

GOvERNOR
CYLINDER
mente by a partition. The oillrom the upper end

of the bearing conecte above ais partida and is
caused to flow in a thin
Os* the vide of the
inner casing by mesa of a luxe Muaber pf narrow elote formed atoad thapi4Jaery of this partition. This is indicated lYy the Proa. The cooling surface la quite declive, singa; on the ame
sida it has high veloeity air and`pnthe other, the
oil flows rapidly in a thin ea' In blowers reMI constructed there is giralda in addition,
an external water moled oil' Coelet as Idioma in
Fig. A1-1.
Vertical proponer. type blowers single; to this
one may be found in 1901310 later ~tea vesseis.
A2-3. ~MAL TEPE BLOWEB.
As previously atated, centrifugal type blowere

were almoat exclusively installed naval ves*
3/16. OR
constructed prior to 1938.
The following description will deal with a typiTHERMOMETER

OIL RESERVOIR
VISCOSITY -FUME a

SHAFT eal old destroyer eentrifugal blower. Figure 414
TAUS OIL TO
IN ID.
CENTRIFUGO&
illustrates three common types of centrifugal
PUMF ImPELLER
PHLEPIeRF TI HOU V'
blower assemblies. Figure 41-4 shows a turbina
driven blower with a vertical shaft. The chape
FIG. A2-2. Lubrication Diagram of Proponer
Type Blower of flg. A2-1.
and construetion of the fan may be vituallad
from theee figures. Figure 41-4 shows the blower
sida of the inner casing, thence through an ex- aatertably manad in the fireroom and at the
ternal pipa to the oil reservoir. Oil atter cita- foot of the sir intake tramite, and Mantee the
lating through the lower bearing, runa from the flow of sir throfigh it. Tito unes and shrouding,
top of the bearing directly luto the reservoir.
which make up Iflite fan, are mounted on a havy
The principie upon which the viscosity pump hub, the *beis rotating in guide casing in a
works la that, as the ahaft rotatee, the viscosity clockwise diroodon when viewed from beba
(fluid friction) of the oil tenda to make it tina Air ie drama ha by the vana and is foreed out
to the bearing shell and aleo to the ahaft. Cima- hito the Bremas.
quently, as the shaft rotatea, the oil in the shallow
The fan is chiven by the henal (or tagential)
grooves, being retarded by fziction against the flow turbia which is aecured to the shaft balo*
bearing shell, le bread aloa the groove at ap- the fan. In many inetallations, the turbina is
proximately half the surface epeed of the shaft. pared to the fan ahaft through a single bella!,
As the eapacity of the viscosity pump is limited single reduction, par and pinion. The whole
by the cross-eeetional ares of the shallow groom, rotating element iza supported and guided by the
it is apparent that, when the centrifugal pump two main besings anda bafltype thrust bemba;
triee to force a largar quantity of oil through the just below the lower main bearizag. The timad
pump, the viseosity lump, batead of inereasing bearing carries praetiettly. the catire weight
the presente, acta to restrict the flow of oil from the rotating elemento exeept when the ship
further incitase.
rolling.
Cooling of the oil is provided partially by cirSpeed control la obtabed by a hand throttle
culation of sir about the flnned oil reservoir and supplemented by a amber of adjuitable nade
partially by mezas of the surta% of the inner valves. The turbina la prevented from "over
casing. It will be noted that the inner casing as- speeding by a centrifuga' type speed-limiting
sembly (Fig. 41-1) is
finto two compart- gOvernor.
A2-3
OIL
STRAINER
(a) SHALIOW VARE CENTRIFUGAL VORTEX
(b) INTERMEOIATE CENTRIFUGA!. VORTEX

CASING. FREE DISCHARGE
CASING. FREE INSPIARRE
(c) CENTRIFUGAL MUTE CASING
FIG. A2-3. Centrifuga) Blower Assemblies.
Lubrication for the main and thrust bearings

is provided by a gear pump driven from the
main shaft. This pump, situated in the bottom
of the oil sump, senda oil under 7 to 10 p.s.i. to
all bearings. The oil returns from the bearings
through a system of drain pipes to the sump.
The lubricating system is provided with a pressure ',auge and a relief valve. The relief valve
operates to prevent any excessive pressure
which would cause oil to be thrown from the
hearings.
A2
ADDITION AL FORCED DRAFT BLOWERB
MR FLOW
RUS "ler
GUIDE CASING
TRUNK
GUIDE CASING
UPPER BEARING
SHROUDING
-UPPER PEDESTAL
BEARING ADJUSTING MIT
DIAUST
OIL ORAIN
CASING
BRACKET
REUEF VALVE
NOZZLE VALVE
LOWER PEDESTAL
BEARING MUUSTING
MIT
LOWER BEARING
GOVERNOR VALVE
OIL PRESSURE CACE

GOVERNOR
OIL RELIEF VALVE
TRUST BEARING
HOUSING FOR GFARS

AND GOVERNOR
OIL STRAINER
OIL SUMP
OIL SUPPLT PWE
FIG. A2-4. Ceutrifugal Type, /t orced Draft Blower for Cloaca Pfteroom Use.
CHAPTER AS
ADDITIONAL FEED WATER SYSTEMS AND

ATTENDANT UNITS
filter tank and discharges through the leed heater
to the boiler. Under conditions of operation when
hot drains constante a largo part of the total condensate entering the feed and filter tank, the temperature of the contained feed water may approach the boiling point and cause excesivo loes
of feed water in the form of vapor discharged
through the venta. A more serious consequence la
the possibility of the feed pump becoming vapor
bound by the flaahing of some of the hot water
into steam as the pump pulla a suction, thus lowA8-2. OPEN YEED STSTSIL
ering the suction line pressure to ,a point where
The arrangement of this system la indicated the corresponding boiling point is lower than the
diagrammatically in Fig. AS-1. Condensate from temperature of the hot water being pumped. For
the main and auxiliary condensers is extracted this reason, provision la made for diacharging hot
by their respective air pumps and discharged drains to the condensen, when neceeeary, to
direct to the feed and filter tank. This tank avoid exceasive feed tank tempenituree. Heating
i g usually divided into two compartments by system drama are led to the feedwater heater
a horizontal division plata. The upper part is shell, as an economic mensure, 1.111108B the heat
known as the filter tank and contains filter- contained in hese draina can be effectively usad
ing material for use in removing dirt and oil to raigo the temperatura of the water in the feed
from the condensate. The use of the filter tank tank. The diacharge of hot draine to the condenehan been eliminated with the shift from re- ere is uneconomical and should be avoided uniese
ciprocating main engines and auxiliary machin- necessary to secure proper drainage (presente difery to turbina drive installations. The neceasity ferential) or to control the maximum feed teatk
for lubricating piston roda and pump roda (and in temperature. In the opon feed rjatem, the consome cases the pistons and cylinders themselves) densate and leed water fa subjected to consideraallowed the entry of oil into the steam and water ble aeration. In the first place, the reciprocating
tildes of the pumps, which oil, of course, had to be air pump is responsible for this, as the sir and
removed by the tank filter and grease extractors water are mixed together in the pump cylindere
before feeding the water to the boilers. The lower and in the diacharge fine to the filter compartportion of the feed and filter tank ames as a res- ment of the leed and filter tank. This mbdng of
ervoir for condenaste and raiscellaneous draina the sir and water la eliminated in later opensfeed
from the various steam machinery and heat ex- systems by the advent of the air ejector and the
changer units throughout the chip. The tank la centrifuga' type condenaste pump which pumpa
provided with an overfiow pipe of sufficient ca- only the condenaste, leaving the removal of air
pacity to handle the maximum input. This' pipe from the condensar shell up to the air ejector.
discharges either to the bilge or to the reserve However, in the feed and filter tank, the water
feed tanks. Brean air vente to the atmosphere are comes in contact with the atmosphere where
algo installed to accommodate changos in feed considerable absorption of air tatua place. This
tank leve' and to vent air pumped with the con- can be reduced aomewhat by maintaining as high
denaste from the condenare by the air pumps.
a feed tank temperature as is poesible, keeping
The feed pump takes suction from the feed and in mirad, however, the sale maximum temperaA3-1
A3-1. INTRODUCTION.
The opon leed system, the semi-closed leed

system, and the vacuum-closed leed system were
important stepping stoners in the development of
the modern pressure-closed system as outlined in
Chapter 8. Although no longer used in the latest
combatant vessels, variations of these earlier feed
systems will be encountered in naval auxiliary
vessels. Detailed descriptionsof these systems are
presentad in the following articles.
43
FUEL OIL HEATINO DRAINS

PRESSURE STEAM MOS
HEATUC SYSTEM DRIdNS

MAIN
I
CONDENSER
TURBINE
AUXILIARY
CONDENSER
BRAINS
MAIN MR
PUMP
AUXILIARY
AIR PUMP
VENT
FEED AND
FILTER TANK
VENT
MAIN IR
PUMP
BOILER SAFETY
VALVE OROS
RESERVE FEED
FEED WATER
TANK
RATEE
DOLER
FIG. A3-1. Open Feed System.
A.3-2
ADDITIONAL FEED WATER SYSTEMS AND ATTENDANT UNITS L3-3

ture as heretof ore diseussed. (The nearer the
temperature is to the boiling point, the lees air
will remain dissolved in the water.)
Because the condensa la an effective deaerator
(due to the lowering of the boiling point corresponding to the high condenser vacuum) makeup feed water is always added to the system vis
the condenser whenever poesible. With the proper
use of Navy Boiler Compound, combined with
proper operation of condensate and feed systems,
the open-feed system will not produce corrosion
difficulties with boiler pressures of 300 p.s.i. and
below. Aboye 300 p.s.i. the increased temperatures, due to the inereased boiling points, so accelerate the chemical processes which result in
corrosion, that further deaeration of the feed water le necessary.
AS-3. THE SEMICLOSED FEED SYSTEM.
The necessity for feed water with lees dissolved

oxygen content was met by arranging the condensate pump to discharge to the feed pump suction line without causing the condensate to pase
through the feed tank on its way to the feed
pump. This system (Fig. A3-2) is named the semiclosed system because most of the condensate
does not come in contact with the atmosphere.
Because there are periods in the plant's operation when the condensate pump la pumping more
water than the feed pump is taking, or vice versa,
and because of the need for a reservoir of feed
water within the system, the feed tank is located
well aboye the feed pump suction line and is connected thereto by a larga riser pipe which entere
the tank bottom. Thus, the discharge head of
the condenaste pump and the suction head of
the feed pump are substantially equal to the pressure head due to the height of the feed tank water
leve! aboye the pumps. The feed tank le called the
"surge tank" because it accommodates surges in
condensate pump and main feed pump outputs
when the vessel is maneuvering.(Actually,all feed
tanks serve this purpose.) This system, having
been developed at a time when turbines were in
general use, does not contain a filter compartment.
Since the water in the surge tank entera the
boiler feed system only when needed to accommodate surges in operation, it is not feasible to
lead hot draine thereto. A chamber callad the
"drain distributor" le loeated in the feed pump

euction fine. fe hot drains are led to this chamber where they mix with the condensate just before it entere the feed pump.
In this system, the condenser is the only piece
of deaerating equipment, however, due to the use
of the condensate pump and air ejector, and because only a small part of the condenaste comes
in contact with the atmosphere in the surge tank,
the water entering the boiler feed system is relatively free of dissolved oxygen as compared with
the open feed system.
It is important to note that the ah. ejector does
not deaerate the condensate. fe condensate is
routed through the tubes of the inter- and aftercondensen where it acts only as a cooling agent
for condensing the steam from the air ejector jets.
If salt water were used ; the latent heat of vaporization removed from the jet steam would be lost
overboard. By using the condensate, this heat is
retained within the cycle.
Because the sir ejectors must operate continuously in order to maintain the condenser vacuum
even though the enginea be operating slowly or
stopped, some means must be provided for cooling the inter- and after-condensers when sufficient water for that purpose la not available at
the condensate pump suction. This fa done by
opening the recirculating valve in the condensate
recirculating line which then allows water to fiow
from the condensate line (and the surge tank)
back to the main condenser where it la re-cooled,
drops to the condenser hot well and is picked-up
again by the condensate pump. Thus it returns
through the air ejector condensen and prevente
them from being overheated and becoming vapor-bound by the air ejector jet steam. The recirculating valve is usually automatically controlled by a thermostat control element located in
the discharge head of the air ejector after-condenser. The thermostatically controlled valve ia
adjusted to opon when the after-condenser diecharge gets up to a predetermined temperature
(usually about 140F.). When such control is installed, the recirculating valve ie either arranged
so that it can aleo be manually operated, or a
manual by-pase valve is inetalled in parallel with
the thermally controlled valve. Recirculation
control la necessary in all feed systems where the
air ejector condensen are condensate-cooled.
A3-3
ea
OPEN TO ATMOSPHERE
FEED PUMP SUCTION VENT
AIR LECTOR
MAR 8 AFTli
CONDENSER
MAIN CONDENSER
RECIRCUUTDE UNE
RESERVE FIFA TAN(

SOLER
RICH PRESSURE FEO NEMER
CONDENSATE
PUM?
VENT
FEED HEATER SEU IRAK
BOOSTER PUMP
CONDENSATE PUM?
MADI FEED PUMP
~mismsima"
BRAM DISTRIBUTOR
tiAMOUS
DIMOS
!LAKE UP FEED
FIG. AS-2. Semi-Closed Peed System.
ADDITIONAL FEKVIVATIM SYSTEMS AND ATTENDANT UNITS

A14. TUE VACITOM-CLOSED FEED SYSTEM.
11
(b) Feed heater drain booster pumps are not.

used except in emergencias, or posaibly at full
power;
(o) Condenser condensate temperatura la kept
as high as practicable by regulation of eirculating water flow through the condensare;
Constant vigilance la exercised to ~nate
sir leales loto the vacuum system;
'The water in surge tanks is boUed continuously, both in port and underway;
(f) Care is taken to provide for proper sealing
of all pump glande.
The next step in the development of feed systems for naval vessels finally eliminated entirely
the free accesasof atmospheric sir to the leed water by providing a closed leed tank (surge tank)
vented to the main and autfiary condittsers, and
thus maintained under a vacuum subetantially
equal to the condensar viteuum. This type of feed
BY8tel laIban in Fig. Al. Condenses condenaste pumpsins
' larga directly to the surge tank,
where provision is made for conatant boiling of
the contained feed water, maldng use of the
auxiliary exhaust and of the heat contained in
the high pressure draina. Beeause the water is A3-5. ATTEEDANT UNITS.
heated and deaerated within the surge tank, all
(1) Film type leed water heater. Film type
the condenaste la directed luto the tank, near the
top, and that removed as needed from the bot- heat exchangers are seldom found in naval intom by the leed booster pump which takes suc- stallations. The heater illustrated by Fig. 4134
tion from the surge tank and dlscharges through is an obsoleto type usad in old naval installr
the sir ejector inter- and after-condensers and the dona. It is here briefly described to show the
feed beata providing a substantial positiva head general features of conatruction of film type heat
at the main leed pump suction. The main leed exchangers. The circulation of water and stearo is
pump discharges through the economizara to as shown. The water entera fina bato the lower
the bollera.
half of the mala header A, pasees loto the o uter
High premura drains and heating system copper tube ,and around the lunar copper tube
drains are discharged to the leed heater shas. A and then entere header B. From the &Ming
feed heater drain booster pump la provided to header B, it flows back through the outer tubes
discharge leed heater drains directly to the main and around the inner tabes in the upper hall of
feed pump suction via the feed booster pump &e- the heater to the upper hall of header A, and
charse Une beyond the heaters. Provision is made, Siena to the leed line. The diaphragro D, sepaalso, for discharging these drains to the main and rating the header finto two compartments,
auxiliary cendensers, without use of the leed ribbed to give stiffness. The tubes, two seta of
heater drain booster pump. Low premura draina which are shown and the others of which are indiare collected in a fresh water drain collecting cated by their center fines, are corrugated spirally
tank and discharged to the main and auxiliar), for increased turbulence to the water as it pasees
condensers, or to the surge tank, through a float- through the heater, thus serving as retarders. A
operated water level control valve. Make-up leed number of sliding feet project from the periphery
is taken intc either the condensar or the surge of the floating header and keep it centered in the
tank.
shell. It will be seen that this holder la free to
Comparative tests conducted aboard ship in- move bao* sud forth when the tubes expand and
dicate that, with careful opesetion, the vacuum contraet.
surge tank feed system la capable of maintaining
Steam from the auxiliary exhaust line entera
the oxygen content of the leed water supplied to the shell at the top and pasees not only downthe bollera at a value of about one-half that se- ward over the tubes but siso, loto the inner tabes
cured with the semi-closed system. In order tq at each end. As it condenses in the inner tuba, it
secure reasonably effective deaeration, however, forms a slight vacuum which pulla in more
nema. The condensate drains out of the inner
severa! operating precautions are neceesary.
(a) Make-up leed and freah water drains are tabes at either end and falle to the, bottom of the
taken hato the condensar in lieu of the surge shell. A water seal is maintained in the bottom of
the shell in order to prevent auxiliary exhaust
tanks;
AB-5
FEED PUMP
VENT --ar
SUCTII VENT
ECONOMIZER
MAIN FEED
PUMP
SURGE
t TANK
MAIN
CONDE/MEA
tONDENSATE
PUMP VENT
BOOSTER PUMP
VENT
LOW PRESSURE
FEED NEMER
r
RECIRCULATING
LINE
REGULATOR
FEED UNES
E,
1:11
FEED HEATER DRAIN

BOOSTER PUMP
"s.
\ RESERVE
fEED TANK
4n5
INTER-AND AFTERCONDENSER OF
AM EJECTOR
MEI
VENT
CONDENSATE
PUMP
CLAN METER BEBER
FEED BOOSTER PUMP
DRAIN TANK
MUdN
REGULABA
FIG. AS-S. Vacuum-Closed Feed System.
ADDITIONAL FEED WATER SYSTEMS AND ATTENDANT UNITS
A3

WATER
OUTLET
STEAM
INLET
SWING
FOOT
5
: Y 4 -".;.t,\N:
DRAIN
'A' t
SECTION 'A-A'
SWING
FOOT
WATER
n FEO WATER
STEAM
INCONDENSATE
A13-4. Film Type Feed Water Heater Anangement.

ri
ENIAUST INLET
UPPER
MANIFOLD
L4' 7
SAFETY
VALVE
CONN.
FEED
OUTLET
CON
SHELL
LINE, MANIFOLD UTA
FEED INLET
II II
I
%.
LINEA
MANIFOLD
- -
FIG. A3-6. JIulti-Coil Type Feed Heater
A3-7
A
BRAM C ONNECTION
NAVAL AHICILIARY MACHINERY

steam from blowing through, lato the feed heater
drain line.
(2) Multicoil type feed heater. This type of
heater is illustrated in Fig. A34. Water entera
the lower manifold, from which it pasme through
a number of copper coila, (52 in this case) to the
upper manifold and thence to the feed heater die,

lower manifold is ahown sepacharge line.
rately in detall. Expansion and contraction is
taken up in spring-like flexing of the coila. Multicoil heat exchangers are seldom found in naval
use.
fe
INDEX
Aircont.
ready" 11-3
removal circuit, distilling plant, 7-4(4)
required for combustion, 4-1
solubility of, in pura water, Fig. 84
A
Accumulator, foam generator, fire fighting,15-13
15-14
Action of jet pump, 340(1)

Actual capseity of compreesor, 11-4(31)
Alter coolers, and Inter-coolers, air compnwor, 11-5
condensen Fig. 6-14
84
systems, compreesor elasellication, 11-1

valves, lir compressor, Fig. 11-1
$41
Agente, Bre lighting, 164

Air balaneing system, blowers, A0-0
Fig. 441-1
chamber, condensar, 6-5

pump, 34(1)
reference, 3-3(1)
eirculation, effect regarding insulation, 3-3
compresor, componente, 11-4(1)
cycle of operation, Fig. 11-1
cooler, 8-13
11-4(4)
Fig. 6-11
cylinder arrangement, Fig. 11-3

Fig. 11-4
11-5
compressors, general, 11-4
rotary, 11-4(8a)
ejector assembly, Fig. 6-14
Fig. 6-15
6-9
74(4)
Fig. 74
Fig. 7-4
Fig. 7-5
Fig. 7-6
condensen, 6-6
6-8
6-9
distilling plant, 7-7(6)

&atinen purposee, 74((3)(4))
reference, 6-1
fijadora, 8-3
6-8
extractor, definition, 8-6

filien, air eompressors, 11-6
free, deflnition, 12-4(570
beat exchangers for, Fig.. 5-10
5-13
11-6
Alar" superbeater temperatura, Fig. 13-7

13-3
Alcohol, use of, thermometers, 134(1)

13-9(30
AH purpose nozzle, &e hose, Fig. 154

15-8
Alternada( current, synehronous transmiasion type

steering par, 144(06)
Alead, 134(1)
Aluminum foil, for insulation, 3-5
Analyzer, flue gas, fig. 13-01
13-19(*)
Anchor windlass, requirements, 144(1)

Angla, compressors, air, 11-4(8c)
Plug, 1-7(1)
Anilia., use of, thermometere, 134(31)
Apparatua, gauge testing, Fig. 13-14.
11-6
Application, of insulation, 13-6

Applicators, fin) hose, Fig. 15-10
154
Argillaceoas limestone for inaulation, 1-5

Ann, catitilever, superheater temperature alarm, 13-$
Minorad type tbermometer, Fig. 134
134(0
Asbestos, blankets, insulation, 11-7(6)

for insulation,
pada, Insulation, 1-7(6)
tapes, 9-7(8)
Aspirater, flue gas maleen 13-11(010
Atomizar, valva, fuel oil, 9-9(6)
Augmenter, vaouum, 84
Automatic expansion valva, refrigeration system, 10 11(11
lift check type valva, air eompressor, 11-5
preaeure control valva, 1-9
stop valva, Fig. 148
1-13(1)
intake trunk, blower, Fig. 4-4
unloading valva, Fig. 143
4-8
plana creas, 1441

pre-cooler, distilling plant, 7-7(5)
pump, A14
Fig. A1-1
Fig. &S
S-7(4)
1-18(4)
Ausillary bollar feed pump, Pip. 3-1

34(1)
condensen, 6-6
Axial, flow pumps, 3-7
pump, condensar, 3-3(1)

.414
Fig. 34
Fig. A1-1
pump, reference, 6-1
8-1(le)
Back premura, deilnition, $4

regulator refrigeration system, Fig. 10-8
10-9(3)
Buldog ring, weldert pipo jolat, 14(3)
I-1

Badger vapor compresaion distilling plant, Fig. 7-18
74(2)
Badea, impact, Fig. 7-9

impignment, 6 -5
splash, Fig. 74
Batfling, distilling planta, 1-7(8)
Balance chamber, pneumercator, 13- 10
Balanced column settling tank, lubricating oil
definition, 7-9(2)
circuit, distilling plant, 7-4(7)
density, distilling plant, 7-4(7)
pump, evaporator, purpose, 7-2(3)(5)
tank, refrigeration plant, 10 -5
Bucket, pump, Fig. A1-1
Brine,
A1-2
Bucket trap, 1-15(2)
Fig. 12-1
12-2
Fig. 1-84
piston type throttle valve, 1-8(2)

Ballasting and deballasting system, fuel oil, 9-5(4)
Barometric condensers, 6 -3(1)
Barrel, pump, 211 -2
Basket chamber, strainer, 1 - 16
Bayonet joint, fire hose, 15 - 9
Bearings, pump, 3- 6
thrust, Kngsbury type, pumpa, 8- 6
Buff ale oil meter, Fig. 13- 15
13-9
Bulkbead expansion joint, 1-4
Fig. 1-8
Bureau of Ships Manual, XIV

Butt-weld joint, 1-3(3)
3- 7
Bellows, type expansion pipe, 1 -4
Cable-lift plunger actuated elevator, 14-7(0

Cam and plunger pump, 3- 14
Fig. 1-7
Bends, expansion pipas, 1-4

Benzene, use of, thermometers, 13- 2(2)
A1-3
Fig. A1-8
134(30
Cantilever arm, superheater temperature alarra , 13-8

stop valva, 1 - 6(2)
Capacity, ice making, 10- 4
Capstan, definition, 14-5
Carbon dioxide in air (leed water system), 8 -3
packing, 2- 8
Carry over, distilling plant, 7-4(2)
Cell, definition, salinity indicator, 18 - 11
Cementa, insulating, 2-7(6)
Central heating system, 14-8(2)
Centrifugal blowers, characteristics, 4-3
compression refrigeration system, 10- 11
force, definition, 12- 3
oil purifier, Fig. 12- 8
Bilge suction strainer, Fig. 1-38
1-16
Blower, centrifuga] force draft, 44
A2-8
Fig. 42-4
lubrieating system, 4 -4
A2 - 2
propeller, forced draft, 4 -4
42-2
advantages, 4-3
4 -2(1)(2)(3)
turbine, 4 -4
two stage propeller type, 4 -4
Biowers, forced draft general, 4 - 1
propeller, 4-4
Fig. 12-4
12-3
424
propeller and centrifuga]. cbaracteristics of, 4-2
pumpa compared to propeller pumpe, 3 -8

pumpa general, Fig. 3 -8
4-3
ventilador), 4-7
Fig. 3 - 9
Beller, feed pump, auxiliary, Fig. 3-1

centrifuga], 3- 8
8-4
8-3(1)
pumpa, uses, 8 - 1(2)

type blower, 42-3
Fig. 3-17
Fig. 3-18
Fig. 3-19
feed system, 8- 1(2)
Booster pump, feed, 8-5(3)
Bonnet, valve, Fig. 1-9
Fig. 1-10
1-8
Fig. 119-4
Fig. 4-2
44
type blower compared to propeller type, Fig. 4 - 1
Fig. 4-2
4-2
Chamber, air, reference, 3-3(1)
air, condenser, 64
Bourdon tuba type preasure gauged, Fig. 13-13
balance, pneumercator, 13-10

basket atrainer, 1-16
flash, distilling plant, 7-4(3)
Channel vaina, air compreasor, 11-5
Check valva, lift, 1-7(2)
134(3)
type pressure, gangas, materials used in manufacture,

15-5(3)
3-4
34(3)
Brazing, silver, pipa joInts, 1-3(4)
Fig. 1-4
Box valve, Fig.
stop, 1-7(3)
swing, 1-7(1)
1-2
INDEX
Check vahee, 1-7
Chill ring (bacIdng ring), Fig. 1-3

14(3)
Chiil shocking, connection distilling planta, 7-7(10)
definition, distan' planta, 7-7(10)
Chromel, 134(1)
Cfrcdq sir removal, distilling plant, 7-4(4)
brine, distilling plant, 7-4(7)
freah water, distilling plant, 7-4(3)
distiller condena circulation, water, 7-4(5)
evaporator feed water, 7-4(6)
steam generating, distilling plant, 7-4(1)
vapor, distilling pla nt, 7-4(2)
Circuladas mann, diacharge line, 6-4
main condensar, Fig. 3-21
3-7
Closed toreen, type installation, 4-1(a)
Closer impeller, centrifuga" pump, Fig. 3-9
3-4(2b)
Chata mechsnial, windlass, Fig. 14-6
Codtrane deaerating feed tank, operation, 8-6(1a)
Fig. 8-6
Cocha, plug, 1-6(4)
CO, flooding system, fire fighting, Fig. 15-17
15-18(2)
indicator and recordar, Fig. 13-110
13-12(2a)
Coila, heating, tank, fuel oil, 9-5(2)
Cold storage capaeity of naval vende, 10-4
Combustion control equipment, 13-12
instrumente, 16-10(2)
theory of, 1941E1)
Componnd, auges, pressure, 13-5(3)
Comprened air system, densification, 11-1
Compresslon ratio of air, 11-4(3i)
stroke, sir compresor, 11-4(4b)
vapor, refrigeration system, 10-2
Compressor, actual capacity of, 11-4(34)
sir, typical low pressure type, Fig. 11-6
11-6
claasifination, 11-4(2)
cylinder arrangement, sir, Fig. 11-3
Fig. 11-4
11-6
detalle, sir, 11-6
displacement of, 11-4(3j)
double acting, sir, 11,4(3f)
multi-stage, sir, 11-4(3h)
single acting, sir, 11-4(3e)
single stage, sir, 11-4(8g)
Compronon, sir, general, 1 /-4
sir, rotary, 11-4(11a)
angle, sir, 11-4(3c)
dupla, sir, 11-4(3d)
horizontal, sir, 11-4(3b)
refrigeration, 101-6
vertical, air, 11-4(3a)
Condense, introdudion
sir pump, Fig. 3-3
441-2
3-3(1)
Fig. 44.1-1
Condensarcord.
auziliary (dynamo), 6-6
circulating pump, Fig. 3-21
3-7
distiller, 74(2)
gland, ezhaust, 3-23
8-6(2a)
main, typical lig. 6-2

Fig. 6-3
Fig. 6-4
6-6
primary function, 6-1
Condensen, sir ejector, 6-6
6-8
6-9
amdl.ian, 6-6
barometric, 6-3(1)
direct contact, 6-3(1)
jet type, 6-3(1)
refrigeration, sir cooled, 10-7
refrigeration, water solad, 10-7
surface, 6-3(2)
secondary function, 6-11
types of, 6-3
Condenaste, Iniroduation, 8-1
line, auxiliary, 8-5(1)
Pump, Fig. 3-14
3-5
receiving trsy, Fig. 6-9
6-6
suction connection, Fig. 6-9
6-6
eystem, feed water, 8-1
Condensado; definition, 7-2(2)
vapor compression, refrigeration system, 1042(5)
Condensing system, Fig. 6-1
6-1
6-4
Connection, chill shocking, distMing planta, 7-7(10)
Constant pressure pump governor, Fig. 1-26
140(1)
Constantin, 134(1)
Contaminated oil tanks, fuel oil, 9-2(e)
Continuaste type foam generator, 15-13
Fig. 15-11
Control, elevator apead, 14-7(1)
equipment, combustion, 18-11
instrumenta, general, 13-1
switch, low pressure, refrigeration system,
Fig. 10-10
10-15)
systems, sir compresor, 11-5
Controlling prometer, 13-2(1e)
Cooler, condenaste, purpose, 7-2(3)
plata type, Fig. 6-7
5-12
oil, water 'moler, blower, A11-11
9.2-2
apiral coil type, sir compreasor, 11-5

strut type, Fig. 6-8
5-12
1-3

Detalla of compreasor, air, 11-5
Coolers, lubricating oil, 5-12

Fig. 5-9
Cooling chamber, stop valve, 14(2)
Cooling, mechanical, 14-8(3)
systems, air compressor, 11-5
ventilation, 14-8(3)
CO, reference, 13-12(1)
systems, fire fighting, 15-18
15-19
Cork, 2-7(10)
Devices, fuel oil measuring, 9-7

protective, superheater low flow, Fig. 134
Fig. 13-9
13-4
Diaphragm, 1-11
1-12
1-13(4)
Fig. 1-24
Fig. 1-25
Fig. 1-26
Fig. 1-27
Fig. 1-30
gauges, 134(2)
Fig. 13-11
Corrugated type erpansion joint, pipa, 1-4

Fig. 1-6
Counter flow, heat exchangers, Fig. 5-2

5-2(2)
Cowl, steam siren, Fig. 1-42

Cranes, 144
Creep, definition, 1-2
Cross flow, heat exchangers, Fig. 5-3
piste, Grove reducing valve, Fig. 1-24

steam whistle, 1-17
Fig. 1-41
5-2(3)
Diatomaceous earth, for insulation, 2-5
Crosshead, Leslie pump governor, 1-12
2-7(2)
Fig. 1-26
Fig. 1-27
Curve, increase of heat loases due to air circulation,

Fig. 2-3
Diesel oil, Introduction

Differential pistons, air compreasor, 11-5
Difusor, Fig. 3-8
3-4
ring, Fig. 3-16
showing effect of insulation upen heat loes, Fig. 2-2
84
2-1
Direct acting pump, reciprocating, Fig. 3-1
solubility of oxygen in water, Fig. 8-2
34(1)
3-3(1)
84
Cut out, low pressure, refrigeration system, Fig. 10-10
contact condensers, 64(1)

contact type, deaerating feed tanks, 84
10-9(5)
switch, high pressure, refrigeration system, 10-9(6)

low water, refrigeration system, 10-9(8)
Cutfing of valves due to errosion, 1-6(1)
Cycle of operation, air compressor, Fig. 11-1
8-5(2)
Fig. 8-5
Fig. 8-6
current, pilot motor type, steering, 14-2(2a)
plunger lift elevator, 14-7(1)
Disc type oil purifiers, Fig. 12-9
124
valve, globe, 1-6(2)
Discharge rings, oil purifler, 12-6
Displacement of compressor, 11-4(3j)
Disposal, drain, 8-2
Dissolved oxygen, 8-3
Distant control systems, steering, 14-2(2)
Distiller condenser, 7-7(5)
condenser circulating water circuit, 7-4(5)
Distillation, definition, 7-2
principies of, 7-2
Distilling plant, details of construction, 7-7
exhaust gas type, Fig. 7-13
7-8(1)
general, Fig. 7-1
7-2(3)
low pressure double effect system, Fig. 7-4
7-5
11-4(4)
Cycloid pump, 3-13

Fig. 3-26
Cylinder arrangement, air compressor, Fig. 11-3

Fig. 11-4
11-5
D
D valve, Fig. 3-4
34(3)
Dalton's law, statement of, 13-12(2b)

Dan, ring, oil purifier, 12-6
Damage control, relation to cooling, heating and
ventilation, 144(5)
Deaerating feed tank, Fig. 8-4
Fig. 84
84
84(2)
Fig. 8-3
Deaeration, definition, 84
Deaerator, flash type, 84(20
De Laval centrifuga! purifler, Fig. 12-9
12-5
7-6
multiple effect, low presence, 7-4
Fig. 7-2
1-4
INDEX
Distilling plante, types of, 7-8
Ejectors, air, 8-3
7-3
low pressure double effect, single shell, 7-8
Fig. 7-5
Fig. 7-6
Fig. 7-7
vapor compression type, Fig. 7-13
7-8
Distribution, drain (feed water), 8-5(4)
Dome, Grove redueing valve, Fig. 1-24
Double acting compressor, air, 11-4(1)
pistons, air compressor, 11-5
reciprocating pump, Pig. 3-1
8-2(8)
3-3(1)
Double pipe type heat exchanger, 5-5(1e)
5-11
Fig. 5-8
poppet tbrottle valve, 1-8(1)
ram type, steering, Fig. 14-2
14-3(1)
Drag, vacuum, 8-1
Drain disposal, Fig. 8-3
8-2
8-5(4)
distribution, 84(4)
regulator, distilling plant, 7-4(1)
7-7(8)
seal, location, 8-2(4)
trap, location, 8-2(4)
Fig. 1-32
Drainer, steam trape, 1-15(2)
Drains, definition, 8-1(3)
first effeet, distilling plant, 7-4(1)
fuel oil heater, 8-2(3)
galley, 8-14)
heating systems, where discharged, 8-5
higher pressure, 84(1)
high preesure, where discharged, 8-5
low pressure, 8-2(2)
open-funnel, 84(2)
sight flow, funnel, 8-2(2)
sPecial, 8-5(4)
which may have become contamined with oil, 8-2(3)
Dumping valve, 1-13(4)
Duplex compressors, air, 11-4(3d)
gauge, 13-5(3)
pressure proportioner, Fig. 15-14
15-12
15-18
pump, reciprocating, 3-2(4)
strainer, Fig. 1-39
1-18
8-8
8-9
74(4)
Fig. 7-2
Fig. 7-4
Fig. 7-5
Pig. 7-6
Fig. 8-14
Fig. 8-15
reference, 8-1
Electro-hydraulic driven windlass, Fig. 14-4
14-4(2)
steering systems, 14-2(lc)

14-3
Elementary fuel oil service system, typical, Fig. 9-1
9-9
Elevator, cable-lift plunger actuated, 14-7(1)
speed control, 14-7(1)
Elevators, hydraulic, 14-7(1)
mechanical, 14-7(2)
Elliot deaerating feed tank, operation, 8-8
Fig. 8-5
Emergency feed pump, reciprocating, 8-7(3)
quick closing valva, fuel oil system, 9-9(3)
steering pump, 14-3(2)
Equipment, combustion control, 13-12
fire fighting, 15-4
Erosion guarda, plastics, Fig. 8-8
6-5
Essential elemento of feed water system, 8-1
Ether, use in thermometers, 13-2(8b)
Evaporation, definition, 7-2(2)
vapor compression, refrigeration system, 10-2(3)
Evaporator, infroduction
feed water circuit, 7-4(8)
general, 7-1
multiple effect, low pressure, 7-4
triple effect, Fig. 7-2
7-9(3)
Evaporators, refrigeration, direct systems, 10-5
refrigeration, indirect systems, 10-5
Exceso pressure pump governor, Fig. 1-27
1-12(2)
Exhauster, gland, 6-9
Expanden, bends, pipes, 1-4
valva automatic, refrigeration system, 10-9(0)
vapor compression, refrigeration system, 10-2(S)
valve, thermostatic refrigeration system, Fig. 10-7
10-9(2)
Expansion joint, Fig. 1-5
1-4
bulkhead, 1-4
condensare, Fig. 8-7
6-5
corrugated and bellows types, Fig. 1-8

Fig. 1-7
1-7
1-4
eorrugated bulkhead, Fig. 1-8
1-4
E
Educators, 3-21
Effect of air circulation, insulation, 934
pressure changas on boiling temperaturas, 7-2(3)
1-5

Expansion joints, pipes, 1-4
provision for in piping,
Extended surface units, heat exchangers, 54(1f)
6-11
5-12
5-13
Fig. 5-6
Fig. 5-12
Extinguisher, portable, fire, 15-19
Eye, centrifugal pump, definition, 3-4
of draft blower, 4-2
4-3
F
Fan, blower, 4-3
Feather vaina, air compressor, 114(a)

leed booster pump, 8-7(3)
heater vapor purpose, 7-2(3)(2)
make up, where taken, 84
pump, boiler, Fig. 3-17
34
system, boiler, 8-1(2)
system, open, 8-3
tank, deaerating, Fig. 84
Fig. 8-3
84
84(2)
Feed water, circuit, evaporator, 7-4(6
heatere, 5-6
system, eseential elements, 8-1
system, semi-closed, 8-3
8-4
434
Fig. 43-2
systems, naval, development, 8-3
systems, opon, 8- 4
43-2
Fig. 43-1
systems, pressure closed, 8-3
84
Fig. 8-3
Fig. 8-4
systems, vacuum closed, 8-4
Fig. 43-3
43-4
Fillet welded pipe, 14(3)
Filling and transfer piping systems, fuel oil, 9 8(1)
Film type feed water heater, Fig. 43-4
434
5-8
type, heat exchanger, 54(1d)
Filters, sir, air compressor, 114(d)
Fire and bilge pampa, 154(2)
Fire extinguishers, portable, 15-19
fighting agente, 15-2
general, 15-1
hose and fittings, 15-6
main, 154
plus valva, 15-5
Fig. 15-1
pumps, 154(1)
Fireroom, installation, closed fireroom type, 4-1(a)

installations, 4-1(a)
installations, open fireroom type, 4-1(b)
First effect drains, distilling plant, 7-4(1)
Fittings, fire hose, 154
pipe, 1-8
Flap, forced draft blower, 44
Flash chamber, distilling plant, 7-4(8)
Flash deaerator, 8-7(2b)
Flash type trapa, Fig. 146
1-15(4)
Flat ring gasket, Fig. 2-11
2-9(1)
Float, definition in reference to feed tank, 8-3
Float type trap, Fig. 142
Fig. 143
1-15(8)
Floatlng piston valva, 1-7(4)
Flow, counter, heat exchangers, Fig. 5-2
5-2(2)
cross, heat exchangers, Fig. 5-3
5-2(3)
parallel, heat exchangers, Fig. 5-1
5-2(1)
Flue gas, analyzer, Fig. 13-21
18-12(2b)
reference, 13-12(1)
Fluid meten, 13-9
Fluid tachometers, 13-7
Flushing, pumps, 154(1)
Foam, fire fighting, definition, 15-12
chemical, 15-12
mechanical, 15-12
stabiliser, definition, 15-12
Foam generator, accumulator, 15-12
continuous type, 15-12
15-13
Foam stabilizer, definition, fire fighting, 15-12
Fog heads, fire hose, Fig. 15-9
15-9
tip, fire hose, 15-9
systems, fire fighting, 15-11
Follow up gear, steering, Fig. 14-5
14-3(1)
14-3(2)
Force, centrifugal, definition, 124
Poned draft blower installations, general, 44
Free air, definition, 11-4(3k)
Freon 12, 10-2(1)
Fuma system, operation 10-9
Fresh water circuit, distilling plant, 7-4(3)
drain system, 8-1(3)
Fuel oil heater, Fig. 54
94
5-10
5-11
heater drains, 8-2(3)
meten, 9-7(a)
piping systems, 9-3
INDRI
Fuel oil--cont.
premura regulating valva, 1-13(3)
service bastare, 9-5(1)
Governor, pump, constant proseare, t& 146

1-13(1)
pump, exceso pressure, Fig. 1-37
94(4)
1-13(2)
6-10
6-11
service pumps, 9-4(1)
Griseom-Russell, sir elector condensar, Pig. MI

condenaste cooler, Fig. 7-13
distilling condenser, Fig. 7-10
distilling plant, Pig. 7-6
strainers, 9-6
systems, 9-1
Fig. 7-8
fuel oil heater, Fig. 3-6

vapor feed heater, Pig. 7-9
Grove reductos valva, Fig. 144
Fig. 1-36
Galley &alas, 84(4)

Galvanometer, 134(1)
Gas filled, Bourdon tuba thermometer, 13-2(3e)
Gasket, asbestos-mantillo, spiral-wound, Fig. 11-13
Guard, for valva, A1-9

Fig. 414
Guarde, erosion plastio, Fig. 6-8

6-5
3-9(3)
dat ring or plain faced, Fig. 2-11

9-9(1)
11
serrated faca, Fig. 2-10

0-9(1)
Gaekets, 1-3(9)
Gata valva, 1-6(1)
non-rising stem, Inside screw type, 1-6(1)
Fig. 1-9(b)
Ming cm, outside screw type, 1-6(1)

Fig. 1-9(a)
remota controlled, quiek closing fuel oil, 9-9(7)
Garage (gage), duplex, 13-5(3)
gima distilling plante, 7-7(8)
testing apparatus, Fig. 13-14
Hand pump, fuel oil service, 9-4(1)

Minium alr cooler, Fig. 5-10
Haya, draft gauge, Fig. 13-12
fine gas analyser, Fig. 13-21
gauge, diaphragm, Fig. 13-11
manometer, Fig. 13-10
Head, hydrostatio reference, 3-6
3-8
chut off, eentrifugal pump, 3-4

3-8
Haat, interchangere and precoolers, refrigeration, 104

loases, computation of, hmulation, tr-4
transfer, depende upen, 7-2(1)
Heat exhanger, film type, 54(1d)
double tuba type, 5-5(1e)
extended surface units, 5-5(1f)
for air, Fig. 5-12
13-6
Gauges (gauss), diaphragm, Fig. 13-11

Pig. 13-13
13-5(3)
premura, 13-6
prestare, Bourdon tuba type, Fig. 13-13
13-5(3)
5-13
preasure, compound, 13-6(3)

pressure, fuel oil, 9-9(8)
Gear, follow up, steering, 144(1)
pump, simple, Fig. 343
jet type, 5-5(0)

multicoil type, 5-6(1a)
6-9
43-5
plata type, 5-5(1g)
3-10
steering, requirement, 14-3

steering, right-and-left screw, Fig. 14-1
relative direetion of flow of liquide, 5-2

shell and tuba type, 5-6(1)
smooth surface units, 5-5(1f)
straight tuba type, 5-5(1a)
II-tubo type, 54(10
Heater, feed water, niroduction
film type, 6-8
14-3(1e)
tering, single ram type, Fig. 14-3

14-3(2)
Generating steam circuit, distilling plant, 7-4(1)

Generator, foam continuous type, 15-13
Gib, definition, rotary pump, 3-13
213-6
Fig. 43-4
fuel oil, general, 6-10
fuel oil service, 9-5
6-10
5-11
general, 5-6
unit, 14-8(9)
Fig. 3-26
Olead, exhaust, condenser, 6-8
exhaust, eondenser, definition, 8-7(3a)
exbauster, 6-9
Olas, la fibrous forma, E-7(7)
Globo valva, Pie. 1-10
Fig. 1-13
1-6(E)
vapor fegd, purposes, 7-3(3)(2)

1-7

Heaters, ventilation, 14-8(2)
Heating, 14-8(9)
tank fuel oil, 94(2)
reversed cycle, 10-10
systems drains where discharged, 8-6
Hele-Shaw, pump, Fig. 8-38
Fig. 8-35
3-19
transrnission, Fig. 3-84
Helical gear, pump, Fig. 3-25
8-12
Herringbone gear, pump, Fig. 8-24
3-11
High pressnre cut out switch, refrigeration system,
10-9(6)
distilling plant, 7-3
drains, 8-2(1)
drains, where discharged, 8-2
feed water heaters, 5-6
systems, air, 11-1
Horizontal, centrifugal pump, 3-4(1a)
compressors, ah, 11-4(36)
Hose, fire and fittings, 15-6
Hotwell, reference, 6-5
Fig. 6-11
Howler, warning, temperature aterir), 18-3
18-4
Hunting, definition, regulating valve, 1-12(1)
Hydraulic, elevators, 14-7(1)
telemotor steering control, 14-2(2d)
Hydrostatic head, reference, 8-6
3-8
DIO pump, Fig. 3-28

Fig. 8-27
3-16
Ice making capacity, 10-4
Inicies, welded pipe joint, 1-3(3)
Idier, rotos, screw pump, 3-15(2)
Fig. 3-28
Impact, baffle, Fig. 7-9
Impeller, closed, centrifugal pump, Fig. 3-9
3-4(2b)
construction of, Fig. 8-15(a)
3-6
open, centrifugal pump, Fig. 3-9
3-4(2e)
single suction, centrifugal pump, Fig. 3-9(a)
3-4(2a)
Impellers centrifugal pump, 3-4(2)
Impulse trape, 1-16(4)
Fig. 1-37
Indieating pyrometer, 13-2(1a)
Indicator, CO2, and recorder, Fig. 18-20
10-17
31-12(2a)
salinity, 13-11
salinity distilling plant, 7-7(a)
Indicatorcont.
tank level, 13-10
Fig. 13-18
Individual space heating system, 14-8(8)
Inert gas systems, fire fighting, 15-21
Injection non-return valve, 6-4
scoop, main, 6-4
Installations, fireroom, 4-1(a)
closed fireroom type, 4-1(a)
torced draft, blower, general, 4-1
modern Torced draft blower, Fig. 4-4
4-4
4-6
open fireroom type, 4-1(b)

trap, steam, 1-15(5)
Instrumente for eombustion control, 13-12(2)
control, 13-1
Insulation application of, 2-6
efficiency, 2-4
materials, 24
materials, forms of, 2-7
materials requirements, 14(a, b, e, d, e, f)
sectional and segmental molded, 2-7(2)
theory of, 2-2
Intercoolers and after-coolers air compressor, 11-5(f)
J
Jacket steam, steam whistle, Fig. 1-41
1-17
Jet pumps, Fig. 3-37
3-20
pumps, uses, 8-1(5)
type condensen, 6-3(1)
type heat exchangers, 54(2)
Joint, bolted fiange, pipe, 1-3(2)
bayonet, fire hose, 15-9
expansion, condensen, Fig. 6-7
64
expansion, pipe, 1-4
take-down, pipe, 1-3
threaded, pipe, Fig. 1-1
1-3(1)
union type, pipe, Fig. 1-2
1-3
Van Stone type, pipe, 1-3(2)
welded, pipe, 1-3(3)
Joints, piping, 1-3
take-down, 1-3
K
Kingsbury, type thrust bearing, pumps, 3-6
3-7
L
Labyrinth oil deflector ring, blower, 4-4
Lantern rings, centrifugal pump, 3-5
Fig. 3-11
Latent heat of evaporation, 7-2(2)
Leakage, definition, refrigeration, 10-2(3)
1-8
INDEX
Lengtb of fire hose, definition, 15-16
Lift-check valve, Fig. 1-17
1-7(2)
Line, discharge, circulating pump, 6-4
recirculating fuel oil system, 9-9(1)
Liquid filled Bourdon tube type thermometer, Fig. 13-5
13-2(3a)
manometer, 13-5(1)
in glass thermometer, 13-2(2)
Lobe type pump, Fig. 3-26
3-13
Loases, insulation, heat, 2-4
Low flow, protective devices, superheater, Fig. 13-8
13-4
Fig. 13-9
Low pressure, air compressor, Fig. 11-7
11-8
cut- out, refrigeration system, Fig. 10-10
10-9(5)
distilling plant, 7-8
double effect (distilling) system, 7-5
double effect (distilling) system, single shell, 7-6
drains, 8-2(0)
feed water heaters, general, 5-6
multiple effect distilling system, general construction
detalle, 7-7
system, air, 11-1
Low water, cut-out switch, refrigeration system, 10-9(8)
Lubricating oil, coolers, Fig. 5-9
Fig. 5-11
5-12
Lubricating system, blower, 4-4
A2-2
Fig. 4 -6
systems, pressure,
Lubrication, systems, sir compressor, 11-5(g)
M
Magnesia and asbestos, 86%, 2-7(1)
Magnetic type unloader, air compressor, Fig. 11-5
11-5
Main condenser circulating pump, Fig. 3-21
3-7
Main fuel oll service pump, 9-4(1)
Main fire, 15-5
pneumatic 11-2
steam stop valva, Fig. 1-11
1-6(2)
Make-up feed, where taken, 8-6
Manifold valves, fuel oil, 9-9(5)
steam strainer, Fig. 1-40
1-18
vent, condensers, 6-5
Manifolds, valve, Fig. 1-31
1-14
Manometer, single tube type, Fig. 13-10(a)
13-5(1)
II type, Fig. 13-10(c)
13-5(1)
Manometers, Fig. 13-10
13-5(1)
Master valve, fuel oil system, 9-9(2)

Material, insulation, 2-5
piping, 1-2
usad in Bourdon tubo type thermometer, 13-134
Measuring devices, fuel oil, 9-7
Mechanical, cooling, 14-8(3)
elevatora, 14-7(2)
foam nozzle, fire fighting, 15-15
oteara trapa, 1-1500
Medium pressure systems, air, 11-1
Megaphone, afeara siren 1-18
Mercury, use in thermometer, 134(2)
Meter, millivolt, 13-2(1)
oil, disc type, Fig. 13-15
13-9
Meten, fluid, 13-9
fuel oil, 9-7(a)
Mica, for insulation, 2-5
Micro-lift valves, air compressor, 11-5
switch, superheater temperature alarm, 13-3
Micrometer, valve, fuel oil, Fig. 1-29
1-13(3)
Nfillivolt meter, 13-2(1)
Modera forced draft blower, installation, Fig. 4-3
4-6
Modified, poppet valves, sir compressor, 11-4-(4)-(a)
Monel metal, use of for pump shafting, 3-6
Moving vane pumps, 3-16
Multicoil type heat exchanger, 5-5(1e)
type feed heater, 5-9
Multi-pass, heat exchangers, 6-3
Multiple effect low pressure distilling p lant, 7-4
Multistage centrifuga] pumps, 3-4(1b)
3-6
compressor, sir, //-4(2)-(10
N
Nest, tuba distilling plant, 7-7(2)
Non-return valve, Fig. 1-19
injection, 1-7(4)
Non-rising stem gate valve, Inside screw type,
Fig. 1-9(b)
1-6(1)
Nozzle, ail purpose, fire hose, Fig. 15-6
16-8
foam, mechanical fire fighting, 15-15
Fig. 15-12
Number, of times either fluid passed the other fluid,
heat exchangers, 5-3
Nutation, definition, Fig. 13-17
13-9
o
Oil bunker fuel, Introduction
cooler, water cooled, blowers, Fig. A2-2
A2-2
coolers, lubricating, Fig. 5-9
Fig. 5-11
5-12
Pneureatie pressurecont.
controlled reducing valve for low temperaturas,
Oiltont
deflector ring labyrinth, blower, 4-4
Diesel, introduction
baster, fuel, Fig. 54
Fig. 144
1-11(2)a
Pneumericators, Fig. 13-18
5-10
6-11
9-7(6)
13-10
meter, dise type, Fig. 13-16
Poppet valve, double throttle, 14(1)

Popping feature, relief valve, 1-10
Port use fuel oil service pump, 9-4(1)
Portable fire extinguishers, 16-19
pumps, interna' combustion angina driven, 15-17
Positiva diaplacement pumps, uses, 3-19
reciprocating pump, uses 3-1(1)
rotary pump, 3-9
rotary pumps, uses, 3-1(4)
Power rotor, screw pumps, Fig. 3-28
13-9
purifier, centrifugal, Fig. 12-4

Fig. 12-6
124
dist, type, Fig. 12-9

124
purifiera, operational characteristics 10-7

tubular bowl type, Fig. 12-7
124
Open, feed system, Fig. 8-1(A)

fireroom, type installation, 4-1(b)
funnel chaina, 8-2(2)
impeller centrifugal pump, Fig. 8-10
3-15(2)
Pre-coolers and heat interchangers, refrigeration, 10-8

Preserve closed feed water systems, 8-3
3-4
8-5
Oxygen, dissolved, in feed water, 8-3
control valves, automatic, 1-9

gauges, 134
gauges, Bourdon tube type, Fig. 13-13
134(3)
Packing, carbon, 2-8

for fixed joints, 2-9
general, where used 24
symbols, 24
Pada, asbestos insulation, 2-7(6)
Parallel flow heat exchangers, Fig. 6-1
piston pump, 3-17
Path of heat, heat exchangers, 5-4
Pensil, cinc, Fig. 7-10
Pick-up tube, fire fighting, 15-15
Pipe, definition, 1-1(1)
injection, 6-4
Piping, definition, 1-1(3)
general, 1-1
joints, Fig. 1-1
14
material/4 1-2
systems, design of, 1-2
systems, fuel oil, 9-3
Pisten, valve, Fig. 1-14
gauges, fuel oil, 9-9(8)

operated foam generator fire fighting, 15-14
Printing, definition, distilling plant, 7-4(2)
of centrifugal purapa, 3-4
oil purifiers, 12-7
Principie, of distillation, 7-2
Propeller, fan, blower, method of manufacture, 4-4
pumps compared to centrifugal pumps, 34
pumps, use 3-1(3)
revolution indicator systems, 13-8
type blower compared to centrifugal type, P4,. 4-1
4-2
type pumps, 3-7
Propeller blowers, Pig. 4-1
Fig. 4-8
4-4
characteristics, 4-3
Proportloning valve fire fighting, 15-16
Protective devices, superheater low flow, Fig. 13-8
Fig. 13-9
13-4
14(3)
valva, fioating, 1-7(4)

Plutons, differential, sir compressor, 11-5
double acting, air compressor, 11-4(2)4f)
trunk type, sir compressor, 114
Plant, distilling general, 7-1
rating, refrigerating system, 10-4
Planta, distilling, types of, 7$
Plato, type Veat exchangers, 5-5(1g)
valves, sir compressor 11-4-(4)-(a)
Ping, angla, 1-7(1)
rocks, 14(4)
Pneumatic main, 11-2
%sumado presaure controlled regulating valve for
bigb temperatures, Fig. 145
Protectora, zinc, 64
Fig. 6-5
sino distilling plante 7-7(7)

Pump, sir, reference, 6-1
auxiliary boiler feed, Fig. 3-1
1-11(2b)
1-10
34(1)
axial pisten, Fig. 3-29

3-17
ballasting and deballasting, fuel oil, 9-4(4)

barrel, Al-!
hearings, 34
boiler feed, Fig. 3-17
34
booster fuel oil, Introduction, 9-4
INDRI
Pumpcora.
brine, evaporator purpose, 7-2(3)(6)
buoket, Fig. 3-3
Pig. 411-1
Fig. 4114
cam and plunger, 3-14
A1-3
Pio. 211-3
condenaste, Fig. 3-14
3-6
condenaste, diatiller, purpose, 7-2(2)
condenser, air, Fig. 3-3
Fig. 211-1
3-3(2)
2114
direct acting, reciprocating, Fig. 3-1
34(1)
d'edil& condenaste and air, 7-2
duplex reciprocating, 34(4)
emergency steming, I4-3(3)
feed booster, 9-6(3)
Ere and bgge, 154(0
fuel oil booster and transfer, 9-4(8)
fuel oil service, 9-4(1)
govemor, constant pressure, 1-111)
govemor, oxeen preasure, Fig. 147
1-12(8)
haat& gear, Pi. 3-26
3-12
berringbone gear, Fig. 544
3-11
hlgb pressure reciprocating 34(7)
indirect acting, reciprocating 34(2)
loba type, Pip. 3-26
3-13
low presente, reciprocating, 34(8)
main sir, 3-3(2)
Fig. 3-3
A14
Fig. 441-1
main condenar circu/ating, Pip. 3-21
3-7
moving vana, 3-16
A1-4
Fig. A1-4
multi-stage centrfuga', 3-4(6)
3-8
positivo displacement axial
eference, 14-3(1)
positiva displacement rotary, radial piston, reference,
U-3M
positivo displacement, uses, 3-19
preaeure govemor valves, 1-12
rsciprooadng, emergency feed, 8-6(3)
rotating plunger, 3-14
service, fuel oil, 9-4(1)
simple gear, Fig. 3-23
3-10
simples reciprocating, 3-2(3)
single acting reciprocating, 8-9(8)
Pumpcout.
single-stage centrifuga!, 3-4(6)
34
Fig. 3-11
tank etriPPlot, fuel oil, 9-4(3)
variable stroke, axial piston, Fig. 3-29
3-17
variable abulte, radial pisten, P4p.'3-83
344
3-18
visoosity, blower, Fig. A2-2
A2-3
wet sir, 8-(1)-(2a)
windlass, 144(0
Pampa, axial flow, 3-7
centrifuga', uses, 3-1(2)
comparison of centrifuga" and propeller ~kit 1'
diatilling plante, 7-7(1)
double acting reciprocating, Fig. 8-1
fire and fluohing, 15-6(1)
fuel oil, 9-4
jet, Fig. 3-37
340
jet, uses, 3-1(5)
moving vane, 3-16
portable, interna' combustion angina chiven,
positivo displacement, reciprocating treee,
positivo displacement, rotary, 3-9
positivo displacement, rotary, uses, 3-1(4)
propeller, type, 3-7
propeller, uses, 3-1(3)
reciprocating, elassitication, 3-t
reciprocating, construction features, 3-3
reciprocating, designation, 34(8)
screw, Fig. 3-87
Fig. 348
3-16
Pulidor, oil, centrifuga', Fig. 124
Fig. 12-9
124
oil, diste type, Fig. 18-9
12-6
oil, tubular bowl type, Pig. 12-6
12-4
Prometer, controlling, I3-9(1c)
electric, 134(1)
indicating, 13-1/(1a)
reeording, 134(110
thermo-electric, Fig. 13-1
134(1)
Q
Qulck cloeing gata valva, remoto controued
9-9(7)
emergency fuel oil system, 9-943)
R
Radial, piston pump, variable ateste, ritl. $-38
344
343
Radiator reservoire, superheater low flow proteetive devio; Fig. 13-8
Ring--cont.
lantern, centrifugal pump, 8-5
Rings, discharge, oil purifiers, 12-6
13-4
wearing, centrifugal pumps, Fig. 3-15(b)
RacUators, heating, 14-8(2)

Ratio of compression, air, 11-4(30
Receiver, air, 11-3
refrigeration, 10-7
Reciprocating, emergency feed pump, 84(3)
pumps, cleasification, 3-2
pumps, construction features, 3-3
pumps, designation, 3-2(8)
Recirculating Une, fuel oil, 9-9(1)
Recirculating valve, feed water system, 8-5
Recirculation, feed water systems, 8-5(5)
Recording pyrometer, 13-2(15)
Reducing valves, 1-11
3-5
3-6
Rising stem gata valva, definition, 1-6(1)

gata valve, outside screw type, Fig. 1-9(a)
1-6(1)
Rock wool, for insulation, 2-5

Rotary air compressors, 11-4(2)-(61)
pump, positive, displacement, 3-9
Rotating plunger pump, 3-14
Rotor, power screw, pump, Fig. 3-28
3-15(2)
Rotors, idler, screw pump, Fig. 3-28

3-15(2)
Fig. 1-23
Refrigerante, properties, 103
Rubber, valve disco, reference, 3-3(1)

Rudder stock, Fig. 14-1
Run-away of blower, 4-2(1)
Refrigeration, centrifugal compression system, 10-11

general, 10-1
steam jet, Fig. 10-11
10-11
system, vapor compression, 10-2

vacuum, Fig. 10-11
S.S.U. seconds Saybolt-Universal, 9-9(1)

S-type pickup tuba proportioner, 15-14
Salinity indicator, 13-11
system, distilling plante, 7-7(9)
Scoop, main injection, 6-4
Screw pumps, Fig. 3-27
10-11
Regulating, pressure, valve, fuel oil, 9-9(4)

pump governor valves, Fig. 1-26
Fig. 1-27
1-12
valve, fuel oil pressure, 1-13(3)
3-15
valve, section pressure, refrigeration system,

Fig. 10-8
10-9(3)
Regulator back pressure refrigeration system, Fig. 10-8
Scrubbing, definition, feed waters, 8-3

Seconds, Saybolt-Universal, 9-9(1)
Section, condensate cooler, distilling plant, 7-4(3)
Sectional and segmental molded insulation, 2-7(2)
Semi closed feed system, ivrog. 8-1(b)
10-9(3)
8-4
clrain, distilling plant, 7-4(1)

Regulators, drain, distilling planto, 7-7(8)
Relation of damage control to cooling, heating and
ventilation, 14-10(5)
Relativa direction of flow of liquida, heat excbangers, 5-2
Relief valve, Fig. 1-22
1-10
air compressor, 11-3

spring loaded, refrigeration system, 10-9(7)
Remote controlled quick closing gata valve, fuel oil,
9-9(7)
Reservoirs, radiators superheater, low flow protective
device, Fig. 13-8
13-4
Retarders, heat exchangers, 6-3

Reversed cycle heating, 10-10
Revolution indicator, propeller, 13-8
Rlght-and-left screw steering gear, Fig. 14-1
feed water system, 8-3

Sentinal valves, 1-10
Separator, vapor, purpose, 7-2(3)-(1)
Separators, vapor, distilling planta, 7-7(3)
Service pumps, fuel oil, 9-4(1)

Service systems, fuel oil piping, 9 -3(2)
Service tanks, fuel oil, 9 -2(2)
Settling tank, lubricating oil, Fig. 12-1
Fig. 12-3
12-2
Settling tanks, fuel, 9-2(3)
Shell and tuba type heat exchangers, 5-5(1)
Shut-off head centrifugal pump, 8-4
Slight-flow furnia] drains, 8-2(2)
Slice, diatomaceous for insulation, 2-5
Silver brasing, pipa joints, 1-3(4)
Simple gear pump, Fig. 3- 23
3- 10
Simple jet pump, Fig. 3-37
14-2(1e)
Ring, backing, pipa joint, 14(3)

chill (backing ring) 1-3(8)
dam, oil purifier, 12-6
diffusion, 3-6
Fig. 3-16
3-20(2)
Simple: pump, reciprocating, 3-2(3)

Single acting, compressor air, 11-4(2)-(e)
Single pass heat excbangers, 5-3
ram type steering gear, Fig. 14-3
labyrinth oil deflector, blowers, 4-4
144(2)
1-12
INDEX
Single passcont
etage centrifuga! pump, Fig. 3-12
Steering system, alternating current synchronoue

transmiesion type, 144(26)
electro-hydraulic, 144(1)
direct current, pilot motor type, 14-2(2a)
distant control, 14-2(9)
wire ropa control, 14-1(2c)
Stellite, use of for ataos stop valves, 1-6(9)
Stock, rudder, 14-4(1)
3-4(6)
3-6
atage compressor, air, 11-4(9)-(6)
suction impeller, centrifuga! pump, Fig. 3-9

3-4(2a)
Sirena, steam, Fig. 1-4

1-18
Fig. 14-1
Sizway, cut out valve, 14-3(2)

Slap, definition, 11-6
slip joints, 1-4
Slippage, definition pumps, 3-9
Slot" steam whistle, 1-18
Smooth surface units, heat exchangers, 54(1f)
SO, use of, thermometers, 134(36)
Solenoid, 11-6
Solenoid valve, refrigeration system, 10-9(1)
Stop-check valva, 1-7(3)

Stop-start control system, air compressor, 11-5(6)
Stop valva, automatic, 1-13(1)
Fig. 1-28
gate, 1-6(1)
main steam, 1-6(9)
straight feed water heater sir-pase, Fig. 5-4
5-7
Fig. 10-6
Sounding devices, fuel oil, 9-7(b)

tubas, 9-2
Special valves, 1-13
Speed characteristice of propeller and centrifuga! blowera, 4-3
Spiral coil type cooler, air compressor, 11-5(6)
Splash baffle, Fig. 7-8
Spot coofing, 14-10(3)
Spring loaded reducing valve, 1-11(1)
loaded relief valve, refrigeration system, 10-9(7)
Sprinkling system, protecting airplane hangar decks, fire
fighting, 15-10(9)
proteoting magasines, 15-10(1)
Squeeze-grip type valve, fire extinguishers 16-i
Stage, blower, 4-4
Steam, auxiliary fine, Introduction
definition, in distilling plant, 7-2
driven steering gear, 14-4
guage, 13-5(8)
Fig. 13-13
jet refrigeration, Fig. 10-11
10-11
main line, Introduction
giren, Fig. 1-41
1-18
smothering systems, fire fighting, 1540

stop valva, main, 1440
stop valva seat, provision for severeservice, 1-8(2)
trap installation, 1-15(5)
trape general, 1-15(1)
tube type heat exchanger, 5-5(1a)

Straight-type pick-up tube proportioner, 15-11
Stralner, bilge suction, 1-16
Strainers, fire main, 16-7
Fig. 15-5
fuel oil, 9-8

Stroke, compression, air compressor, 11-4(46)
suction, air compressor, 11-4(4a)
Strong-back, 1-18
Fig. 1-38
Sub assembIles, 1-3

Sub cooling, vapor compression, refrigeration system,
&teflon hose fire, 15-6
stroke, air compressor, 11-4(4a)
Superheater
low flow protective devices, Fig. 13-8
Fig. 13-9
13-4

temperature alarm, Fig. 13-7
13-3
temperature alarm, alarm-signal-only, type, 13-3

Surface condensen, 6-3(2)
Surge tank, 8-3
Fig. A3-2
A-3-3
Swing check valva, 1-7(1)
Switch, cut out, high preasure, refrigeration system,

10-9(8)
cut out, low water, refrigeration system, 10-9(8)

micro, superheater temperatura alarm, 13-3
suction preseure control, refrigeration system,
Fig. 10-10
10-9(5)
whistle, Fig. 1-41
1-17
Steel wool, use of in CO, indicator, 13-12(2a)

Steering, double rara type, Fig. 144
14-3(1)
hydraulic telemotor type, 14-2(9d)

Steering gear, electric, 14-6
requirements, 144
transfer steering, 14-3(2)

System
boiler feed, 8-1(9)
centrifuga) compression, refrigeration, 10-11
condensing, Fig. 6-1
8-1
6-4
right-and-left ecrew, Fig. 14-1
144(c)
-cooling air, compressor, 11-5
single ram type, Fig. 14-3
distilling, low preesure, double effect, single ahell, 7-6

drain, fresh water, 8-1(3)
144(1)
1-13

Tankcont.
level indicator, Fig. 13-18
13-10
settling, lubricating oil, Fig. 124
12-2
stripping system piping, fuel oil, 94(3)
surge, 84
84
8-6
8-7
8$
wing, fuel oil, 9-2
45-4
Taita, eontaminated oil, 9-9(c)
fog, fina fighting, 15-11
fuel oil, 94
Frisen, operation, 10-9
service, fuel oil, 9-9(b)
high pressure air, 11 - 1
settling, fuel oil, 9-2(c)
low pressure, double effect evaporator, 7-6
storage, fuel oil, 94(a)
lubrication, air compressor, 114
Tapes, asbestos, 2-7(9)
lubrication, blowers, 4-4
Telemotor, hydraulic steering control, 14-2(2d)
Fig. 4-6
Temperatures, boiling, effect of pressure changas, 7-2(3)
presaure-closed feed, 84
Testing apparatus, gauge, Fig. 13- 14
Fig. 8- 1(d)
13- 8
salinity indicator, 13-11
Theory of combustion, 15- 12(1)
typieal elementary fuel oil service, F4. 9-1
Thermometer, armored type, Fig. 13-2
9 -9
13- 2(2)
9
Systeme, ballasting and deballasting, fuel oil, 5(4)
Bourdon tube type, Fig. 13-3
compressed air, claseification, 11 - 1
13-2(3)
control sir, compressor, 11 -5
Bourdon tube type, materials of, 13- 2(3e)
CO2, fue fighting, 16-18
liquid-in-glaes, 13- 2(2)
CO, flooding, fine fighting, Fig. 16- 17
unarmored type, Fig. 13- 9
15- 18(2)
15- 2(2)
evaporators, direct refrigeration, 104
vapor pressure, advantages and disadvantages,
evaporators, indlrect refrigeration, 10- 5
134(30
fuel oil, 9- 1
Thermometers, fuel oil system, 9- 9(8)
gland leak-off, 5-7
Thermostatic, expansion valve, refrigeration system,
heating, 14- 10(2)
Fig. 10- 7
inert gas, Ore fighting, 1541
10-9(2)
low pressure, air, 11 - 1
Thermostatic trapa, Fig. 144
medium prefigure, air, 11 -1
1 -15(3a)
naval feed water, 8-3
Thimble tubos, distilling plante, 7.8(1)
piping, fuel oil, filling and transfer, 94(1)
Thin pate valvas, air compressor, 11 -5(a)
piping, fuel oil, service, 94(2)
Three screw, high pitch screw pump, Fig. 3-28
piping, fuel oil, tank stripping, 94(3)
3- 16(2)
pressure, lubricating, 12- 1
Throttle valve, 1 -8
proponer revolution indicator, 13-8
double-poppet, 14(1)
salan, 14- 2
Fig. 1- 20
Fig. 14-3
Thrnst bearing, Kingsbury type, pump, 3-6
steam smothering, fue fighting, 16-20
3- 7
steering, electro-hydraulic, 14-9(1)
bearing,
windlass,
Fig.
14
4
144
Tire fighting, 15- 16
sprinkling, magasine protection, fue fighting, 15 - 10(1) Timer,
Toggle operated stop valve, 14(2)
tenle level indicating, fuel oil, 9- 7(6)
Toluene, use of, thermometers, 13-2(9)
unloading air, compressor, 11 -5
13-2(8b)
ventilation, 4-7
Ton of refrigeration, defmition, 10-4
Transfer, heat, depende upan, 7- 2(1)
switch, eteering, 144(2)
T
Trap bucket, 1 - 15(2)
Fig. 144
Tachometers, 13- 7
float type, 14. 1 -32
Take-down joints, 1 -3
145(2)
Tall places, pipe joints, 14(1)
impulse, 145(0
Tank, deaerating feed, Fig. 8-6
thermostatic, Fig. 1 -36
heating coila, fuel oil, 94(2)
145(3)(a)
Systemcont.
feed, opon, 84
feed water, consistid elements, 8- 1
feed water, pressure Glosad, Fig. 8-1(d)
8- 3
Peed water, semi-closed, Fig. 8-1(b)
84
45-8
feed water, vacuum cloaca, Fig. 8- 1(e)
INDRI
Trigocona.
steam, general, 1-16(1)

otean; installation, 1 -16(3)
steam, malead/cal, 1 -16(0)
Trape, flash type, Fig. 1 -37
1 -18(4)
therraoetatic, volatile liquid type, Fig. 1-36
1 - 15(3)(6)
Trlck wbeel, steering, 144(3)
Triple effect distilling plant, Fig. 7-2
Fig. 7-3
7
-31
4 (73)
Trak, sir intake, blower, Fig. 4 -4
44
type pistos, sir compresora, 11-6

Tubo, Bourdon, thermometer, 134(3)
nest, distfiling plante, 7-7(2)
nada, material, distilling plante, 7-7(0)
pick up, fire fighting, 13-16
sheet, condeneera, Fig. 6-8
64
Tubos, definition, 1-1(8)
sounding, 9-0
thimble, 7-8(1)
Tubing, definition, 1-1(0)
Tubular, bowl oil purifier, Fig. 12-6
12-4
Turbia. blower, 4-4
centrifuga' type blower, reference, Fig. 4-6
4-6
single re-entry, 'Ampo, 3-7
Two screw, low piteh serew pump, Fig. 347
3-16(1)
Two ataje sir ejector with after oondenser, Fig. 6-13
6-8
Twin twenties, fue fighting, 16-10
Types of distilling planta, 7-3
7-8
Typital elementaly fuel oil service system, Fig. 9-1
9-9
Vent= augmenter, Pig. 84a

8-3
breaker, deeersting feed tank, 84(11)
by wat sir pump, 8-3
closed feed system, Pig. 8-3
84
drag, 6-1
reference, 6-1
6-7
refrigeration, Fig. 10-11
10-11
Valva, sir, Sir compreesor, Fig. 114
11-3(a)
atomiser, fuel oil, 9-9(6)
automatio expanaion, refrigeration system,
automatio lift-check, air compreesor, 114
automatic presence control, general, 1 -9
back preesure regulating, refrigeration system,
Fig. 10-8
10-9(3)
boa, pump, Fig. 3-4
3-3(3)
channel, sir compresor. 114
check, 1 - 7
cutout, six-way, 14-3(1)
"D," Fig. 3-4
84(3)
double poppet throttle, 1-8(1)
Fig. 140
*
dumping, 1-13(4)
emergency quick closing, fuel oil system, 94(
feather, sir compreseor, 11 -6
fireplug, 164
Pig. 15-1
fuel oil premura reg ulating. 9-9(4)
gata, rising stem, outaide acrew and yoke ty
1-6(1)
Fig. 1-9(a)
globe, Fig. 1 -10
Fig. 1-13
14(11)
governor, pump preseure, 1 -12

trove reducing, Fig. 144
Fig. 146
guard for, A14
Fig. A141
injection, non-return, 6-4
Leslie presente reducing, Fig. 143
lift-check, 1-7(6)
manifold, 94(6)
manifolds, Fig. 1 -81
1-14
master, fuel oil system, 9-9(S)
micro-lift sir compresa, 114
mierometer, fuel oil, Fig. 1 -09
1 -13(3)
modlfied poppet sir oompreesor, 114
non return, 1 - 7(4)
pilot, pumps, Fig. 3-8
3-3(3)
II bond, expansion piping, 1-4

II tubo, type haat exclamar, 34(10
II type manometer, Fig. 1340(e)
13-5(1)
ljnarmored type thermometer, Pig. 134
13-0(11)
Union type joint, pipa, Fig. 14
1-3
Uta heaters, 14-8(3)
linloading systems, sir oompressor, 11-6
Unloading vales, entornado, Fig. 1-30
1-13(4)
V type vaticina Fig. 2-8(e and d)

2-8
I-16

Valvecont.
Vapor leed heatercont.
piston, Fig. 1-14

14(3)
plata, sir compressor, 11-5
pressure redueing, Fig. 1-23
proportioning, fire fighting, 15-16
quick-closing, 1-13(2)
recirculating, feed water system, 84(5)
reducing, pneumatic controlled regulating valve for
hIgh temperature, 1-11(26)
Fig. 1-25
reducing, pneumatic controlled regulating valve for
low temperature, Fig. 1-24
1-11(2a)
reducing, spring loaded, 1-11(1)
regulating and pump governor, Fig. 1-26
Fig. 1-27
1-9
regulating, fuel oil pressure, 1-18(8)
relief, Fig. 1-22
relief, spring loaded, refrigeration system, 10-9(7)
seat ring, Fig. 1-9(p)
sentinal, 1-10
solenoid, refrigeration system, Fig. 10-6
10-9(1)
squeeze grip type, fire extinguisher, 15-19
steam stop seat provision for severe service, 14(2)
stems, reason for right or left hand threads, 1-6(1)
stop, automatic, Fig. 1-28
1-13(1)
stop-check, 1-7(3)
swing check, 1-7(1)
thermostatic expansion, refrigeration system,
Fig. 10-7
10-9(2)
thin piste, air compressor, 114
throttle, 1-8
throttle balanced piston type, 1-8(2)
unloading, Introduction
unloading, automatic, Fig. 1-30
1-13(4)
wafer, air compressor, 114(a)
water regulating, refrigeration system, Fig. 10-9
10-9(4)
Wilson, 34
Fig. 3-5
Valves, direction of turning to operate, 14(1)
general, 1-6
special, 1-13
Vence, blower, fan, 4-2
4-3
Van Stone, type flanged joint, pipa, 1-3(2)
Vapor, definition, distilling plant, 74
Vapor circnit, distilling plant, 7-4(2)
Vapor compression, distilling plant, Fig. 7-13
7-8
refrigeration system, 10-2
Vapor feed heater, distilling planta, 7-7(4)
purpose, 7-2(3)-(2)
7-4(2)
Vapor pressure, Bourdon tuba type thermometer
Fig. 13-6
134(30
thermometer, advantages and disadvantages, 13-2(36)
Vapor separator, purpose, 7-2(3(1))
Vapor separators, distilling plante, 7-7(3)
Variable stroke pump, axial piston, Fig. 3-29
3-17
stroke pump radial piston, Fig. 343
Fig. 344
3-18
Vent manifold, condensen, 64
Ventilation blowers, 4-7
heaters, 14-10(2)
heating and cooling, 14-10(4)
Ventilation systems, 4-7
Vertical centrifuga] pump, 3-4(1a)
compressors sir, 11-4
Vibrating reed type tachometer, 13-7
Volatile liquid type thermostatic trap, 1-15(36)
Volute, definition, 3-4
Water valves, air compressor, 114(a)

Warning howler, temperature sierra, 13-3
Water drain, steam viren, 1-18
haramer, 1-15(1)
heaters, feed, 54
regulating valve, refrigeration system, Fig. 10-9
10-9(4)
Waterbury hydraulic pump, 3-17
Fig. 3-29
hydraulic speed gear, Fig. 3-29
Fig. 3-31
pump, Fig. 3-29
Wearing, rings, centrifugal pumps, Fig. 3-15(b)
84
3-6
Welded joint, pipa, 14(3)
Welded joints, 14
Westinghouse sir ejector and condenser, Fig. 6-15
Torced draft blower, Fig. 44
Wet air pump, 8-1(1a)
Wet and dry air pump, 3-3(2)
A1-2
Wheel trick, steering, 14-3(2)
WhIstle, steam, Fig. 1-41
1-17
Wilson valve, Fig. 3-3
Fig. Al-!
Wilcat, Fip. 14-4
Fig. 144
14-4(2)
1-16
INDEX
Winch, definition, 14-6

Windlass, anchor, requirements, 14-4(1)
anchor, speed reduction ratio, 14-4(3)
definition, 14-6
electro-hydraulic driven, Fig. 14-4
14-4(2)
pump, 14-4(2)
Wing tanks, fuel oil, 9-8
Wire drawing, 1-6(1)
1-6(3)
Wire rope control, steering, 14-2(2c)
Wools, minerah, felted, 2-7(4)
Fig. 2-6
Wye-gate coupling, fire plus, Fig. 15-2
15-6
Yarway trap, Pig. 1-37

1-15(4)
Yoke, Fig. 1-11
Fig. 1-22
Zinc pensil, Fig. 7-10

Zinc plato protectora, air compreseor, 11-5
Zinc protectors, dustilling plante, 7-7(7)
Zince, condensers, Fig. 6-5
6-5
Zone heating system, 14-10(2)
1-17
%.

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1

NAVAL AUXILIARY MACHINERY

NAVAL AUXILIARY MACHIN

1950, AND 1952

UNITED STATES NAVAL INSTITUTE

Bowl Type Centrifugal Purifier. 12-6 Disc

struetion. 7-8 Vapor Compression Type

14-1 General. 14-2 Steering GearsGeneral. 14-3 Electro-Hydraulic Steering Gear.

Boat Engines and Electrical Equipment.

Compressed Air Systems.

Centrifugal Oil Purifiers.

15-1 General. 15-2 Fire-Fighting Agents.

INTRODUCTION TO NAVAL AUXILIARY MACHINEgY

NAVAL AUXILIARY MACHINERY

water is nearly always used f or this. The

system includes pumps, piping, valves

NAVAL AUXILIARY MACHINERY

1. Piping, Fittings and Valves

CHAPTER Al. Additional Pumps

THE BUREAU OF SHIPS MANUAL

PIPING, FITTINGS AND VALVES

Piping is used aboard ship to convey salt

lesser inside diameters due to their greater si

NAVAL AUXILIARY MACHINERY

FIG. 1-1. Standard Pipe Fitting Nomenclature, Threaded Joint Series

PIPING, FITTINGS AND V ALVES

under constant loads which are considerably

Piping systems are made up of straight sectiona

UPPER HALF OF JOlNT

HIGO PRESSURE UPE VAN STONE IR UPPED

LOW PRESSURE UPE WITH RING GASKET

WELOMG HECK FUNGE

FIG. 1-2. Plange Type "Take-Down" joints.

NAVAL AUXILIARY MACRINERY

Besides the aboye types of gasket seals for

PIPING, FITTINGS AND VALVES

WELDING SLEEVE JOINT

USE BEING INSERTED

FIG. 1-3. Welded John&

NAVAL AUXILIARY MACHINERY

FIG. 1-4. Silver-Brazed Joints.

contraction of metal when subjected to a wide

is packed with packing, set up by means of the

MALE SEU:11HG TUBE

FIG. 1-5. Slip Type Expansion Joint.

PIPING, FITTINGS AND VALVES

Corrugated Type Bspansion Joint, for

EXTERNAL DIRT GUARO

FIG. 1-7. Bellows Type Expandan Joint,

NAVAL AUXILIARY MACHINERY

FIG. 1-8. Bulkhead Expansion Joint for Main Steam Piping.

It is often necessary to stop or control the flow

In this type of valve the closing member (disc

disc (or gate) is wide open there is little resistan ce

PIPING, FITTINGS AND VALVES

ANCLE GLOBE VALVE

STRAICHT CLOIE BOE

FIG. 1-10. Globe Stop Valves.

NAVAL AUXILIARY MACHINERY

are alwaye so cut (right-hand or left-hand) that

Figure 1-11 shows diagrammatically two types

of main steam stop valves. The arrangement of

(a) THREADED-STEM TYPE