Bacons IB Exam Review by Topic

Bacons IB Exam Review - 2009 Exams
World War I
Causes of WWI
How did the Long Term Causes of WWI Cause War?
Awful Governments
Few countries were democracies many were autocracies
Italy was corrupt
Germany Wilhelm was mad
Russia tsar was weak
Turkey was falling apart

Nationalism
Intense national pride
Many peoples wanted self-determination
Panslavism
Imperialism
British Empire covered a fifth of the world
Belief in superiority
Fight for resources mainly in Asia and Africa, but also Latin America and Middle East
Wilhelm wanted a place in the sun

Militarism
Germanys Navy Law 1900
Germanys Schlieffen Plan was no secret that Germany had plans to attack France through
Belgium (Russia mobilized faster than Germany anticipated, drawing German resources away
from Western Front and creating a stalemate in France)
Standing, professionally trained armies
Military was not just an arms race, it was a valid means of foreign policy
New Weapons - Submarines, dreadnoughts, zeppelins, airplanes, tanks, machine guns, etc
Alliances
European countries thought alliance system would be a deterrent to war
Triple Alliance
Triple Entente
Confrontation at Algeciras
Assassination and blank cheque lead to ultimatum

Events
Boer War (1899-1900)

German Navy Law (1900)
First Moroccan Crisis (1905-06)
Bosnian Crisis (1908-09)
Agadir Crisis (1911)
Balkan Wars (1912-13)
Assassination at Sarajevo (1914)
Bacons IB Exam Review

World War I
Trench Life During WWI
What was Trench Life like during WWI?
Conditions
Conditions in the trenches were unimaginably bad
Constant fear of attack, stench of dead bodies and site of rats feeding on corpses
Bitterly cold in winter, horribly hot in summer
Trenches were mainly in low-lying land, so soldiers were often up to knees in water or sewage,
leading to trench foot
Mental Torture
For much of the time life was boring, on guard duty or repairing or digging trenches
When fighting took place casualties were great
Shelling, gas attacks and conditions led to nervous breakdowns. Initially soldiers were shot for
refusal to obey orders, but later shell-shock was officially recognized
Frontlines
It was clear defense was far easier than offense
In some places the frontlines were very close (20 yards). Even the slightest movement could
result in instant death via sniper
Other areas the gap could be much wider (1/2 mile or more). Unofficial truces were sometimes
agreed upon
No Mans Land
The ground separating the opposing trenches
Both sides put up barbed wire defenses and laid mines in front of their trenches to prevent
attacks
Before attacks, whistles were blown and troops were ordered to advance across No Mans Land
called going over the top
Artillery Barrages
Both sides tried to destroy the opposing trenches in immense artillery barrages
This was often inaccurate and caused huge craters in No Mans Land
Heavy shelling always took place before each major attack, but usually failed to destroy trenches
or barbed wire defenses
The Somme
The front line at the beginning of a major battle suffered terribly
At the Battle of the Somme (July 1916) 70% of the troops who went over the top in the first
wave were killed or wounded
Many of the casualties were part of Pals Battalions (English)

World War I
US Involvement in WWI
How and Why did the US get Involved in WWI?
Anti-War
Until 1916, the US under Woodrow Wilson held a strong anti-war position
US made it clear that it did not wish to get involved in European affairs
US Benefits
While Europe was involved in war, US was able to make technological and trade gains on
European competitors
US filled trade markets left empty by alliance system and also developed new techniques and
technology
Large War Loans
Yet by 1917, US had lent large sums of money to Britain and France
There was increasing sympathy for Britain and France from within the US, seen as fellow
democratic countries
Submarine Warfare
In 1915, a German U-boat sunk the liner Lusitania, resulting in many US deaths. This had a
profound impact on public opinion about the war
In March 1917, Germany began unrestricted U-boat warfare, four US ships were sunk
The US prepared for war

Zimmerman Telegram
Early 1917 Americas reason for declaring war. Britain intercepted a telegram and showed it to
the US
The telegram was from the German foreign minister to his counterpart in Mexico
It suggested that Mexico should attack America if war broke out

Effect of US Involvement
In April 1917, US declared war on Germany
Germany made repeated attempts to finish the war before US troops arrived
A huge moral boost for the Allies (the yanks are comin), the US soldiers showed immense
bravery but werent fully prepared for modern warfare and suffered high casualty rates
American soldiers in France, 1917

World War I
Technology and Tactics
Why was WWI so Different than Previous Wars?
Defensive War
Development of new weapons technology meant WWI became a defensive war
The development of machine guns made traditional methods of attack impossible
Attempts to break the stalemate with heavy artillery failed, so both sides turned to new
technology
Gas
Poison chlorine gas was first used by the Germans at Ypres in 1915
Both sides used phosgene and mustard gas
The main weakness was that the wind could blow it back towards your own side
Tanks
Tanks were developed by the British and used in 1916 at the Battle of the Somme
Were initially very unreliable breaking down and horrible to drive
However they were a huge propaganda and morale boost, and proved to be very effective by the
end of the war
Sea
New and more powerful battleships dreadnaughts were developed but only involved at
Jutland
German submarines were a great threat, causing serious disruption
Following Lloyd Georges insistence, the convoy system was introduced
Air
Planes were initially used for reconnaissance and dropping bombs by hand, but technological
developments such as fixed machine guns made dogfights and attacks on enemy trenches
possible
German airships called Zeppelins began to bomb London and other cities
New Kind of Warfare
WWI saw death and destruction on a scale never experienced before
Technological developments were seen as vital to both sides, but each new weapon brought
further destruction
No one invention was decisive though as both sides quickly copied each other
British Mark I tank, Battle of the Somme, 1916

World War I
Germany at the End of WWI
How did WWI Affect People in Germany?
The German Empire
Germany before 1918 was an empire in the center of Europe
It was created in 1871, but it was already one of the most powerful states in the world
It was ruled by Kaiser Wilhelm II
The government did have some democratic features

Food Shortages
By the end of the war the German people were nearly starving
They lived on handouts of potatoes, turnips and sawdusty bread
Even basic foods were strictly rationed
The longer the war lasted, the more serious the shortages became
The Allied Naval Blockade
The British navy blockaded the sea approaches to Germanys ports
This created food shortages and stopped basic supplies from overseas
British secret agents would report back to Britain about these shortages and the blockades
effects on Germany
Winter 1918
As winter approached in 1918 conditions grew much worse
Adults lived on 1000 calories a day starvation level
Fuel shortages led to power cuts, factory closures and transportation problems
The flu virus swept across Germany killing thousands

Democracy?
With defeat close on the battlefields, and conditions poor at home, the German army asked for
peace
The allies agreed, but only if the Kaiser shared his power
This proved unpopular, and public opinion turned against the Kaiser
Revolution was being talked about

Revolution
The Naval Mutiny at Kiel was the catalyst for mass unrest
The Kaiser was losing control of the country as soldiers and workers rose against him
Wilhelm had to abdicate
Freidrich Ebert, leader of the Social Democratic Party, became head of the government
Freidrich Ebert, Chancellor of Germany, 1918-19, President of Weimar Republic 1919-25

World War I
International Crises, 1900-1913
How did international relations deteriorate, 1900-1913?
German Navy Law, 1900
Germany started building Dreadnought battleships
= Britain felt threatened
= alliances (Britain made an alliance with Japan, 1902, Entente with France, 1904)
= naval arms race (in 1909 the British public forced the government to build 8 dreadnoughts)
First Moroccan Crisis, 1906
Kaiser Wilhelm guaranteed the independence of Morocco which France had hoped to conquer
= France and Britain were threatened
At Algeciras (1906) Britain, France and Russia forced Germany to back down (= international
humiliation for Germany)
Kaiser Wilhelm and Britain
In 1900 Kaiser Wilhelm openly supported the Boers in the Boer War
= Britain felt threatened
In 1906 Kaiser Wilhelm gave an interview to the Daily Telegraph saying the British were mad
and that many Germans disliked them
= British people were insulted

Bosnian Crisis, 1908
In 1908, Austria-Hungary took advantage of a rebellion to annex Bosnia
= Serbia was furious (many Bosnians were Serbs)
Serbia asked Russia to help, but France and Britain would not support Nicholas II, who had to
back down (= Russia was humiliated and resentful)
Agadir, 1911
In 1911, when France took advantage of a rebellion to take over Morocco, Kaiser Wilhelm sent
the gunship Panther into Agadir harbor in Morocco
= Britain and France were alarmed
they forced Germany to back down (= Kaiser Wilhelm was humiliated and resentful)
Balkan Wars
In 1912, the Balkan League (Serbia, Greece and Bulgaria) drove Turkey out of Europe
= Austria felt threatened
In 1913, Serbia and Bulgaria went to war, but Germany and Britain stopped it
= Russia had failed Serbia again
= Germany thought Britain was a friend

Russian Revolution
Russia and World War One
How did WWI contribute to the Tsars downfall?
Outbreak of War
As in all other European countries the declaration of war was greeted enthusiastically in Russia
Most people were united by patriotism and the tsars popularity rose
The only group to oppose the war were the tiny Bolshevik Party
Military Failures
The huge Russian army fought bravely but suffered many defeats at the hands of the Germans
Russian soldiers were poorly trained, badly equipped (often lacked guns and ammo) and poorly
led by their aristocratic officers
The Tsars Role
Nicholas decided to take control of the armed forces and made himself Commander-in-Chief in
1915
Consequently, he was held personally responsible for further defeats

The Tsarina and Rasputin
The tsars absence led to his wife gaining a greater degree of power at home
She relied on the monk Rasputin, who could control her only sons hemophilia
Rumors spread about their relationship and a string of poor decisions discredited the monarchy
Poor Living Conditions
The war led to severe shortage of food and fuel in the cities, leading to increased prices
Many factories were shut down due to a lack of raw materials, causing unemployment
Refugees from areas close to fighting made the already overcrowded cities worse
Failure to Reform
Members of the Russian parliament (the Duma) joined together to form the Progressive Bloc
They demanded to be allowed to form a government in order to improve the war effort
Nicholas refused
Nicholas II and family in 1913

Russian Revolution
Review of Russia 1914-1917
Russia 1914-1917: People, Events, and Consequences
The Ruler
Tsar Nicholas II (Romanov)
Married to Tsarina Alexandra
Romanovs ruled for over 300 years
Out of touch with many of his people

The Ruled
Russian society was hierarchical
Monarchy and nobility at the top
Workers and peasants at the bottom
About 80% of the people were peasants (mainly poor farmers who did not own their own land)
Most land was owned by the richest 5%
Urban living conditions were often terrible

World War I
Initial wave of patriotism for the tsar and for Russia
Defeats at Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes soon brought disillusionment
Army was ill-equipped and badly led when compared to the German troops (and most of Europe)
Nicholas went to the front to take charge

Results of this
Alexandra is left in charge at home
Influenced by Gregory Rasputin
Mistrusted by society elite
Government was ineffective
Alexandra was ignorant of the social and economic problems in Petrograd
Nicholas was blamed for continued failures in the war

And so
Russia begins to self-destruct
Nicholas can have little effect on the domestic situation
He will not reform as its against his principles of autocracy

By February 1917
Food strikes
Protests and marches
General unrest
Petrograd garrisons (military) cannot be relied upon
Call for the tsars abdication
Nicholas abdicates
Grand Duke Michael refuses to take the throne
Duma forms a Provisional Government (Kerensky is leader)

Russian Revolution
Impact of World War I on Russia
How did World War I bring about the fall of Nicholas II?
The Army
Huge but poorly led and badly equipped
Early defeats at Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes
Heavy casualties meant loss of morale and spirit
Many new recruits were unfit peasants
Needed modernization compared to German opposition

Social Conditions Urban
Lack of food in the cities
Unemployment due to refugees from countryside and lack of raw materials for factories
Cities overcrowded
Food protests and strikes e.g. Pulitov steelworks
Transportation prioritized army for supplies

Social Conditions Rural
Lack of food being produced as peasants fled to cities or were recruited into army
Made already poor living and working conditions worse

The Tsarina
Poor ruler in absence of Nicholas II
Relied on Gregory Rasputin
Nave about real problems
Changed ministers and didnt listen to their advice

Nicholas Romanov
Out of touch
Went to the front to take charge
Lost touch with realities in Petrograd
Poor military leader
Relied (unwisely) on Tsarina to rule in his absence
Highlighted his weaknesses as a ruler

Results
The War was very important BUT it was not the war as such that caused the first revolution BUT
the fact that it highlighted the problems within Russia and made many of them worse e.g.
Transportation, Indecisive leadership, Urban problems, Backwardness of Russian Army

Russian Revolution
After the Tsar Abdicated
Who ruled Russia after the Tsar abdicated in 1917?
Provisional Government
Middle class politicians
Temporary until elections could be held for a constituent assembly
Four Provisional Governments between February and October 1917
Faced many of the problems Tsar had failed to deal with
Decided to make no important decisions until after elections had been held
Important Reforms made
Tsarist Governors removed
Police and Okhrana (state police) abolished
Death penalty abolished
Freedom of speech
Political prisoners freed and amnesty to all opponents of the Tsar
Poland promised independence and Finland promised constitutional rights would be restored
Effects of Reforms
Lack of trust in bureaucrats associated with Tsar = replacements with no experience of

administration
No police or Okhrana = no force to rely on to maintain domestic order
Although popular, freedom of speech led to open criticism of Government
Amnesty allowed for the return of Lenin

The Soviet (local government)
Assembly of workers and soldiers deputies
There were many of them, but Petrograd Soviet was the most influential
Great deal of influence over everyday life (more influence than the Provisional Govt. had)
Soviet Order Number One
Committees elected in each unit to replace officers
Committees controlled arms, ammunition, and equipment
Officers were not to be saluted
All soldiers and sailors were to obey the Soviet

Result of Order Number One
Order was obeyed by all sections of armed forces
The Provisional Government had no real power to back up its decisions
It had to rely on the Soviet
Soviet also controlled railway, postal and telegraph services
The Government had to listen to the Soviet

Russian Revolution
Russia 1917 The October Revolution
Why did the October 1917 revolution succeed?
Individuals
Alexander Kerensky
Lenin
Trotsky
Provisional Government
Led by Kerensky
Ineffective and weak
Continued WWI
Did not follow a policy of land reform
Was not able to restore economic stability
Unemployment remained high and there were still food shortages
Too liberal?? should the Prov. Govt. have been harsher?

Bolsheviks
Growing importance
Determined
Led by Lenin from April 1917 after 10 years in exile
Trotskys role as organizer
Red Guard had been armed by Kerensky in July
Supported by Soviets
Circumstances
Lenin was backed by the Germans as they wanted Russia out of the war
Social and economic conditions favored Lenins ideas Peace, Land, Bread
Russia was in a virtual state of anarchy

Events
Small scale affair

Well-planned by Trotsky
Captured key locations
Kerensky had little support from the army
Mensheviks and SRs rejected revolution which left Bolsheviks with control
Analysis
Not a popular uprising
Views altered by Soviet propaganda
Some see it as a coup dtat rather than a revolution
Succeeded because it was organizedthe Provisional Government made too many mistakes and
the simple appeal of Lenins slogans meant the Bolsheviks would be successful

Russian Revolution
The Russian Civil War
Did the Reds win or the Whites lose?
Leadership
Trotsky was an inspirational leader (Red Army)
The leaders of the Whites (Kolcak, Yudenich, and Deniken) kept squabbling
The White leaders were often drunk and did not lead by example
Trotsky expected the best and more from his army

Geography
The Reds support was in the towns and cities such as Petrograd and Moscow
The Reds support was in the center of Russia
The Reds were therefore surrounded by the Whites
The Whites had difficulty coordinating attacks because they were split up
Foreign Support
The Whites were supported by Britain, France and the US who sent troops and money to help
them
The Reds had no foreign support
The Reds used propaganda to tell the Russian people that they were more patriotic because they
didnt cooperate with foreigners
The Aims of the Armies
The Reds had one aim, to complete the Bolshevik (communist) takeover of Russia
The Whites were made up of different groups with different aims including Tsarists and Social
Revolutionaries
The Reds were able to spread their message because it was simple
The Attitude of the Peasants
The peasants were mistreated by both sides
War Communism saw the requisitioning of grain and the starvation of millions
The White armies also requisitioned grain and mistreated the peasants
The peasants were more sympathetic to the aims of the Reds

Organization
Trotsky was a brilliant organizer
The White leaders were not organized
The Reds largely controlled the railway system so they could get supplies to their troops
The Whites lacked effective communication and transportation links
White Army soldiers pose over Bolshevik dead

Stalin
Stalins Economic Policy
Stalins Economic Policy Success or Failure?
Five Year Plans
Private trade was banned
Coal, Oil, Gas, and Engineering
GOSPLAN (committee responsible for economic planning)
Individual targets set for factories
New cities created Magnitogorsk
KOMSOMOL youth wing of the communist party (taught values of the party)
Gulag the government agency that administered the penal camps
Stakhanovites hero miner, symbolized hard work ethic

Success?
Huge public work schemes
Education program
Industrial output expanded
Russia survived WWII

Failure?
Human cost 10 40 million deaths
Overcrowding in cities
Production focused on heavy industry and military
Figures were unreliable
Quantity, not quality
No criticism allowed
Collectivization
Small farms were joined together (Sovkhozes state farms, and Kolkhozes collective farms)
To improve efficiency
Destroy Kulaks class of independent peasant farmers who resisted collectivization
Increase Stalins control of countryside
Increase grain production to sell abroad for foreign currencies

Success?
By 1940 99% of land was collectivized
Production did increase (wheat up 33%)
New modern equipment and chemicals
Education programs in collectives
Red Army was fed during WWII
Kulaks were destroyed

Failure?
1932-33 famine (5 million dead)
Human cost 10 million peasants deported
Sovkhozes were a failure
Unpopular

Germany 1919-1929
Post-War Germany 1919
What problems did the new democratic Weimar Government face?
Association with Defeat
The Republic was associated with the defeat of Germany as the Kaiser had fled before the end
Many leaders connected with the end of the war went on to form the Weimar Govt. in 1919
many Germans believed they had been stabbed in the back

Rebuilding Germany
After 4 years of war Germany was devastated. The country needed to be re-built
Returning soldiers needed jobs but there was poverty and unemployment
The Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty didnt take into consideration Germanys weak position and sought to punish her
The terms were relatively harsh, particularly the reparations
The Guilt Clause humiliated the country
The Weimar government was associated with all of this

Political Uprisings
The discontent gave rise to political extreme groups
There were attempts to overthrow the government by these groups called Putches e.g. Kapp and
Munich Putsch
There was a lot of violence and there were several murders of key political figures
Economic Problems
After the war Germany was bankrupt
In 1921 they were faced with the reparations bill. They paid until 1923
Invasion of the Ruhr worsened the crisis. Germany suffered from inflation
The government responded by printing more money, but this led to hyperinflation
The Occupation of the Ruhr
When Germany could no longer keep up with repayments French and Belgian troops marched
into the most important industrial region
People (Germans) in this area refused to cooperate. Passive resistance led to further decline of
the areas industry, more unemployment, and poverty
50 million mark bill from 1923

Germany 1919-1929
Weimar in Crisis 1919-1923
Why was 1919-1923 a period of crisis for the Weimar government?
A Bad Start
Germany had no tradition of democracy and had always had strong leaders. Germans werent
ready for democracy
Germans had suffered very badly because of the war. Many were starving and many were
furious at the loss of the war they blamed the new government (rightly or wrongly)
Lack of Consensus
There were huge political divisions in German society
Opinion was polarized with extremists on the left (Spartacists and socialists), and on the right,
(nationalists and conservatives) both getting a lot of support
There were many other small political parties

Weimar Constitution
Proportional representation meant that the lack of political consensus was reflected closely in
elected parties
There were many political parties and frequent changes of government
It was very difficult to establish stability or even get laws passed

Versailles Treaty
The Treaty had been very hard on Germany and the Weimar Government had been forced to
accept it
Many Germans hated and resented the loss of territory, the reparations and the war guilt clause
It wasnt their fault but the Weimar Government tended to get the blame
Extremist Attacks
The Spartacists Rebellion 1919
The Munich Communist Soviet 1919
The right wing Kapp Putsch 1920
The assassination of foreign minister Rathenau 1922
Hitlers failed Munich Putsch 1923

Crisis by 1923
1922 reparations crisis
France invaded the rich industrial Ruhr area in retaliation
Weimar ordered passive resistance on the part of Germans in the Ruhr
Weimar printed more money to try to solve the problem (hyperinflation)
Hitlers Munich Putsch

Germany 1919-1929
The Nazi Party
How and why did Hitler change the Nazi Party 1919-1925?
Birth of the Nazi Party
1919 Hitler joined the German Workers Party
In 1920 the name changes to NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers Party) and adopted
the 25 point program (nationalistic, self-determinationistic, welfareistic and anti-Semitic)
Hitler became leader in 1921 and adopted the swastika emblem
Hitler then set up the SA (brownshirts) as a private army

Munich Putsch 1923
When the French invaded the Ruhr Hitler decided to try and seize power
He planned to first take the Bavarian government and then march on Berlin (modeled after
Mussolini)
Hitler took over a Bavarian government meeting but couldnt get enough support
His march was stopped by armed police

Aftermath of Munich Putsch
Hitler ran away but was later arrested and charged with treason
He used his trial to make long public speeches which were widely and sympathetically reported
He got a very lenient sentence of 5 years in Landsberg Prison where he wrote Mein Kampf
Mein Kampf
Aryan race is the master race (social Darwinism)
Aryans should have lebensraum (living space) in a new German Empire
Third Reich (1 Holy Roman Empire 2 Bismarcks German Empire with AH)
All other races inferior (especially Jews)
Treaty of Versailles should be reversed, and Germany and Austria should join (Anschluss)
The Nazi Lean Years
Germany did well under Stresemann support for extremists declined
Hitler served 9 months in prison during which time the Nazi Party had split and support declined
dramatically
He decided to reform the party on his release in Dec 1924

Hitlers Reform of the Party
1925 Hitler reorganized and relaunched the NSDAP
Power was concentrated in the leader. Special sections set up for students, teachers, Youth and
farmers
Party branches in all major towns soon 100,000 members
Hitler decided to use elections, not revolution

Germany 1919-1929
The Stresemann Years
Why was 1924-1929 a period of recovery for Germany?
Worldwide Economy
Worldwide economic recovery meant that there were new markets for German goods abroad
The economy prospered and unemployment was low

Political Stability
As prosperity increased support for the extremists like Communists and Nazis declined.
Moderate pro-Weimar parties tended to win elections
The very able Gustav Stresemann remained as Foreign Minister throughout the whole period
Rentenmark
The new German currency established by Stresemann and regulated by the central bank solved
the problem of hyperinflation
Confidence returned to the German economy

International Cooperation
Stresemann knew Germany had to work with other countries
Dawes Plan 1924 which made the reparations payments easier (French troops left the Ruhr as a
result)
Locarno Pact 1925 settled border disputes
1926 Germany joins the League of Nations and gains respectability
1929 Young Plan replaces the Dawes Plan reparations reduced by one quarter, Germany given
58 years to pay
American banks continued to loan German industry money to help it rebuild

Where did it all go wrong?
Stresemann died in October 1929 (most notable politician of his generation)
Closely followed by the Wall Street Crash
American banks recalled their loans to Germany
German economy plunged back into crisis
Gustav Stresemann, 1920

Hitler
Rise to Power
How and Why did Hitler become Chancellor?
The Beer Hall Putsch
1923 saw Hitlers first attempt at seizing power with the Nazi party
Hitler was imprisoned for treason and reconsidered his political strategy
Hitler dictated Mein Kampf while in prison and decided that the Nazis had to gain power legally
through elections
Violence
Hitlers SA or brownshirts were used to intimidate opponents and drum up support
Running street battles were fought with rivals from the Communist party
Violence and rivalry were central to Nazi philosophy of survival of the fittest
Ernst Rohm led the SA for the Nazi party

Hitler, the Political Genius
Hitler had an undoubted ability for public speaking and an understanding of ordinary peoples
desires
Hitler had his finger on the pulse of Germany Walden
The vision was highlighted in Mein Kampf
Single-mindedness
Enter the Reichstag holding our noses

The Wall Street Crash and Looming Depression
Disastrous for Germany 6 million unemployed
Second major economic catastrophe for the Weimar Republic
Soon became a political crisis as 3 chancellors in 2 years could not solve the problems of
Germany (Bruning, Schleicher, Von Rapen)
Hitler was seen as the last hope

Attractive Policies
Hitler appealed to many sections of society
Rip up the Treaty of Versailles
Work, freedom and bread
Sort out the Communists
Guaranteed farm prices
Regain national pride
All of these things were attractive to ordinary Germans

Divided Opponents
Hitler should have been kept from power, he never did gain an overall majority
But the Communists and Socialists were divided
Parties squabbled over how to deal with the depression
January 1933 Hitler is invited as Chancellor in an attempt to control him and the Nazis
Hitler ran for President Feb April 1932 against Hindenburg and lost, but earned 35% of the vote,
making him a viable political choice for the future of Germany. Appointed Chancellor in January 1933.

Hitler
From Chancellor to Dictator
How did Hitler take control of Germany 1933-1934?
Hitler Becomes Chancellor
January 30 1933
Hitler was in a weak position because he could be dismissed by Hindenburg (other Chancellors
hadnt lasted long!)
Hitler cooperates closely with Hindenburg

Concentration Camps
February 1933 concentration camps are opened
Political opponents were put in these camps, beaten and forced to do hard labor unless they
agreed to cooperate with the Nazis
Mainly Communists arrested

The Reichstag Fire
February 27 1933 Reichstag burns down a week before a general election is supposed to take
place
Dutch Communist arrested Marius van der Lubbe
Conspiracy Theories abound today - Some say Hitler had the fire started
Hitler says it is a Communist plot and arrests 4000 Communists, declares state of emergency
Communists banned from the election

Death of Hindenburg
August 2 1934
Hindenburg dies (of natural causes) Hitler immediately takes over his role as President
Hitler declares himself to be Fuhrer (leader) of Germany (he was both President and Chancellor)
German armed forces swear oath of allegiance to Hitler (in return for stopping the SA from
taking over the army)
Night of the Long Knives
June 30 1934
Hitler saw the SA and its leader Rohm as an internal threat they numbered over 2 million and
Rohm also wanted to take over the army
SS arrests leaders of the SA and other political figures e.g. von Schleicher (previous Chancellor)
SA was more like an independent military whereas SS were like Hitlers personal police and
bodyguards
Rohm was brutally executed along with at least 85 others

The Enabling Act
March 24 1933, previous March elections had seen Nazis win 52% of the vote
Gave Hitler emergency powers to pass laws without the Reichstag
SS and SA surround the building to intimidate politicians
Hitler could pass any law he wanted
July 14 1933 Hitler rules that the Nazis were the only legal party in Germany
Trade unions are banned

Hitler
Nazi Rule in Germany
What were the Secrets of the Success of the Nazis?
Propaganda
Permeated every aspect of Nazi Germany
Ministry of Propaganda under Goebbels (The Poison Dwarf)
Radio was the most effective medium cheap Peoples Radio
German culture, music, etc used to give the feeling of continuity
Film, architecture also used

The Fuhrer
Portrayed in propaganda as the savior of the nation
Encouraged competition between his underlings (intentionalist view)
Competition / inefficiency came from the structure of the Hitler state (structuralist view)
Conclusions tricky due to nature of dictatorship

The Workers
Least likely group to support Nazis
Trade unions abolished in first months of Nazi rule
Workers parties (SPD and KPD) banned / imprisoned
Bribed with May Day holiday, Strength through Joy holidays, etc
Reduction in unemployment was a key factor in support

The Economy
Huge reduction in unemployment 1933-1939
Massive boost for industry through rearmament
Economic policies were inflationary but kept under control because workers had no right to
strike or bargain for higher pay
Policies stored up trouble for the future

Foreign Policy
Most successful policy until 1939 restoration of national pride
Expansionist policy because of Hitlers ideology and the need for economic resources (see
economy)
Very aggressive
A Police State?
All opposition liquidated or bought off
Local government replaced by Nazi organizations
Opposition within the Nazi Party eliminated by force
SS became dominant force, controlled every aspect of police state
Complicity willing executioners?

Hitler
Women in Nazi Germany
What was it like for women in Nazi Germany?
Education
Girls from the age of 10 joined the Jungmadel (Hitler Youth)
From 14 they entered the bund Deutscher Madel (German Girls League). They were taught
their role was as a good wife and mother and their place was in the home 3 Ks: kinder, kuche,
kirche
Marriage
1933 Law for the Encouragement of Marriage gives newlyweds a government loan of 1000
marks. This encouraged them to have children
1934 10 Commandments for Choice of Spouse encouraged people fitting the German ideal to
marry and keep race pure
Physical Constraints
Not allowed to wear make-up, have hair dyed or have perms
Only to wear flat shoes and only dresses, no pants
No dieting as it was thought to be unhealthy and would upset child-bearing
No smoking seen as un-German
Long hair or put in bun or plaits

Employment
Women taken out of the labor market
1934 women dismissed from the professions
1936 women could not be judges or sit on jury
Womens Bureau persuaded women to work for good of Nazi government
1937 Duty Year as skills shortage

Breeding Program
Women had a biological purpose
Medals for women who had more then 4 children
Encouraged unmarried women to have children (Lebensborn) where women were impregnated
by racially pure SS officers
Banned contraception and abortion
Sterilized racially impure

Opposition from Women
Large numbers of women joined Left wing political groups (illegal)
1933 Nazis opened first concentration camp for women at Moringen and followed with others
such as Ravensbruck
Some women committed suicide in opposition to Nazis

Hitler
Jews in Nazi Germany
From Boycott to Destruction
Jews were viewed as an inferior race of people
Hitlers life had been difficult and he saw Jews as being responsible for this
Jews were the single cause of his suffering, tension and humiliations in life
Jews were a convenient scapegoat for all the troubles of German society
Boycott
April 1933 Hitler ordered the SA and SS to organize a boycott of Jewish shops and businesses
Laws
1934 Jews were banned by public law from public places such as swimming pools and parks
Laws were also passed making it possible to fire teachers, civil servants and lawyers who
happened to be Jewish
Nuremberg Laws 1935
Very important because Hitler defined who was Jewish and thus defined his enemy
German citizenship removed from all Jews
Inter-racial marriage banned
1936 further laws banning Jews from holding property and from working
Kristallnacht
November 1938 first very public violent attack on Jewish homes, businesses and synagogues
Violence went on for over a week around 100 Jews killed and 20,000 put in concentration
camps
Jews were then fined for the damage caused (1 billion marks)
Ghettos and the War
The outbreak of war intensified the attacks on the Jews
After the outbreak of war all Jews in occupied territories were forced to live in ghettos
In summer 1941 Himmler ordered SS Special action groups to kill all Soviet Jews
Final Solution / Destruction
Wannsee Conference in January 1942 planned the destruction of all Jews in Europe
12 men (leading Nazis) headed by Adolph Eichmann planned the operation in intricate detail
Extermination camps set up in Eastern Europe
6 million Jews murdered
November 1938. Jews arrested during Kristallnacht line up for roll call at the
Buchenwald concentration camp

Hitler
Economic Policy
What was Hitlers Economic Policy and was it a Success?
Hitlers Aims
Drag Germany our of the world recession
Solve unemployment (which he had promised to do)
Make Germany an autarchy self sufficient
Get rid of Jewish industrialists and give their businesses to Aryans
Transform the economy to focus on rearmament / war

Unemployment: Success or Failure?
biggest inherited problem
Unemployment fell as economy improved
Work creation schemes offered temporary work on public facilities (like highways)
Nazis drove jobless figures down by banning Jews and women from working
Arms industries were labor intensive

Dr. Hjalmar Schacht
Directed German economy from 1933-1936
Believed in steady growth and a stable currency (like almost everyone else!)
Promoted trade agreements with developing countries
His New Plan of 1934 aimed to reduce imports into Germany and to strengthen the currency
Fell out with Hitler and was replaced by Goering

Hitler and Goering
German economy can be converted into a war machine
Germany must rearm quickly, conquer countries, takeover their economies, and move on
Conquered countries would give the master race Lebensraum (elbow room or living space)
By exploiting conquered countries living standards at home were maintained

Goerings 4 Year Plan 1936
Speed up rearmament and make Germany ready for war
Make Germany self sufficient in raw materials autarchy by developing home grown
substitutions
In 1933 total money spent on the military was 1.9 million marks, by 1939 it was 32.3 million
Industrial targets set

Was it a Success or Failure?
Unemployment dropped quickly, wages rose slightly
Working hours went from 49 hours per week in 1939, 52 in 1943, to over 60 by 1945
There were fewer consumer goods
No trade union rights replaced by Strength Through Joy program better leisure
opportunities like paid holidays

Hitler
Propaganda in Nazi Germany
How was Propaganda used in Nazi Germany from 1933-1939?
Party Display
Nuremberg Rallies (Goebbels and Speer)
Mass suggestion
Very emotional and atmospheric
The rallies expressed power, order, solemnity (P. Adam)
Festivals
Burning of Books (May 1933)

Importance
Coercion and consensus
Used to achieve power in 1933
Targets Jews, Socialists, Communists, etc
Used to mold the minds and lives of the people
Reinforced existing attitudes
Used to make the people aware of Nazi achievements

Party Agencies
Strength Through Joy
German Labour Front
Youth Movements
Reich Church
Professional Associations
Reich Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda
Reich Chamber of Culture
Central Propaganda Office of the Nazi Party

Broadcasting
Coordinated in 1933
Encouraged radio ownership through the mass production of cheap radios
by 1942 70% of households had a Volksempfanger peoples receiver
Communal listening to speeches

Culture
Supported Nazi ideology
Activities were coordinated through chambers Reich Culture Chamber, Reich Press Chamber
Standards set for art, music, literature

Press
End of independent press

Volkischer Beoachter national observer
Coordination from 1933 to remove Jews and control editorial content
Nazi press empire under Max Amann
Pressures to buy / read
Decline in newspapers in circulation as Eher Verlag took over Nazi central publishing co.

Cold War
The USA versus USSR
What were the Ideological Differences Between America and Russia in 1945?
Capitalism v Communism
Businesses / farms owned by private people
Profit is good a reward for risk-bearing
VERSUS
Businesses and farms owned by the state and
run by the government for the benefit of all people
Profit is a form of oppression

Democracy v Dictatorship
Multi-party system
Free elections
Parliament (UK) / Congress (USA) make the laws separate executive and legislative branches
VERSUS
Elections to the Soviets
One party only the Communist party which
rules the country
Stalin de facto (in fact) an absolute dictator

Freedom v Human Rights
His Majestys Opposition minority party in UK
Protests and demonstrations
Human rights respected in law
VERSUS
Dissidents imprisoned
KGB arrest grumblers
The gulag
Free Market v Command Economy
Laws of supply and demand control production
Competition keeps prices low and quality up the weak go out of business
Strikes and unemployment
Freedom of choice
VERSUS
Workers ordered to a job / area
Wages and hours fixed by law
No unemployment everyone has a job

Equal Opportunity v Equality
Everyone has a chance to succeed
Consumer economy
Great differences in wealth and class millionaires v poverty
Private medicine, houses, etc (health care is very good, but very expensive)
VERSUS
Poor standard of living producer goods (goods made are good for the producer, not necessarily good for the consumer) /
empty shops
Fewer very poor people
Free health care / state-provided housing (health care is poor, but available to everyone)
Free Press v Censorship
Freedom of speech
Newspapers, books, radio / tv / films not censored
Media openly criticize government (Washington Post , New York Times)
VERSUS
No freedom of speech
The media are owned and run by the government
Censorship and propaganda (Pravda, Izvestia)

Cold War
Yalta and Potsdam 1
The origins of the Cold War Yalta and Potsdam
Yalta
February 1945
Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill the BIG THREE
Yalta southern Soviet Union on the Baltic Sea
Agreement?
Germany to be divided into 4 zones, as would Berlin GB, Fr, USA, USSR
Poland to gain land from Germany, but lose some to USSR
USSR to declare war on Japan 3 months after the end of European war
USSR guarantees free elections for Eastern Europe

Changes
On April 12, 1945 Roosevelt died
Roosevelt was replaced by Truman an openly anti-communist
Truman said he would get tough with the Russians
During the Potsdam Conference, Churchill lost the election and was replaced by Attlee
Potsdam
July August 1945, outside Berlin. Germany had been defeated
Change in the Big Three meant that the personalities had changed
Disagreements at this conference saw the beginnings of the Cold War

Agreement?
Plans for division of Germany agreed, Germany to pay reparations (USSR), war criminals to be
tried, and United Nations set up
Truman demanded USSR hold free elections for Eastern Europe
Stalin angry that Truman didnt mention the atomic bomb which Stalin secretly knew about
Iron Curtain
One year later Stalin set up the Iron Curtain
Term coined by Winston Churchill in speech at Fulton, Missouri in 1946
Border between East and West Europe Stalin took control of Eastern Europe to act as a buffer
zone to any future invasion from the West
Yalta 1945, Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin
Potsdam 1945, Attlee, Truman and Stalin

Cold War
Yalta and Potsdam 2
How were the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences Different?
Context
Yalta
Held in the Crimea (Russia)
Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin
February 1945 Germany not yet defeated

Potsdam
Held in Germany
Attlee, Truman, Stalin
July 1945 Germany had surrendered but Japan was not yet defeated
Germany
Yalta
Agreed in principle to divide Germany into four zones to be occupied by Britain, France, USA and USSR
Potsdam
Set up the four zones of occupation but there was open disagreement about the boundaries
Reparations
Yalta
Set up a commission to look into reparations

Potsdam
Russia was allowed to take reparations from the Soviet Zone, plus 10% of industrial capacity unnecessary
for the German peacetime economy of the western zones
America and Britain thought this was too much

Eastern Europe
Yalta
Declaration of Liberated Europe (to set up democracies in East Europe)
Set up Polish Government of National Unity (Stalin arrested the non-communists)

Potsdam
Britain and USA were worried about Soviet power but still
Recognized the Polish government

Relations
Yalta
Agreements on principles
Some tension Churchill wrote to Roosevelt that Russia was a danger to the free world
Potsdam
Open disagreement about details
Truman was tired of babying the Soviets and determined to get tough with the Russians
International Relations
Yalta
Russia was invited to join the United Nations

Potsdam
America was horrified that Russia might join the war against Japan
Truman did not tell Stalin that he had the atomic bomb

Cold War
Salami Tactics
How did Communism take over Eastern Europe after 1945? like slicing up salami
Bulgaria
1945 a left-wing coalition (The Fatherland Front) was elected
1946 the Communists executed 15,000 opponents
Tsar Simeon was driven into exile
1947 the Communists won the election and adopted a Soviet-style government led by Dimitrov
(trained in the USSR)
Poland
1945 a coalition Government of National Unity took power

1945 Stalin arrested the non-Communist leaders
1945-47 thousands of non-Communists were imprisoned
1947 the Communist leader, Bierut (trained in the USSR) won an election and became head of
state
Hungary
1945 a coalition government took power few Communists were elected
Rakosi (the Communists leader) got opposition parties banned
Rakosi got control of the police and set up the AVO
Thousands of non-Communists were arrested
By 1947 Rakosi had power (he is credited with the term salami tactics)
Romania
1945 King Michael came back from exile and a left-wing coalition (the Plowmans Front)
was elected
1946 there was a campaign of violence against the non-Communist parties
The Communists won the 1946 elections and forced King Michael to abdicate
Czechoslovakia
1945 a coalition government
the Communists (led by Gottwald) took over the radio, police and army
1947 secret police arrested non-Communists
1948 Gottwald organized demonstrations demanding Communism
Masaryk fell from a window and Gottwald took over

East Germany
East Germany became the Russian zone completely under Russian control
The Social Democrats merged with the Communist Party to form the Social Unity Party, which
won the 1946 elections
1949 the Russians named their zone the German Democratic Republic

Cold War
Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan
What were the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan?
Greece
After WWI Greece appeared to be under threat from Communism

Britain was unable to support Greece (as it had done in the past)
In 1947 Greece was under attack from Communist rebels and asked the USA for help
Communism
Truman was concerned about the spread of Communism and was determined to take action
He offered arms, supplies and money to Greece
Communism in Greece was defeated by 1949 following a civil war

Doctrine
Truman was determined that the USA would not live in isolation
The Truman Doctrine aimed to contain Communism, but not push it back Containment
Offered assistance to all free peoples resisting attempted subjugation

Marshall Plan
Truman saw war ravaged Europe as a breeding ground for Communism
He felt it was vital to encourage countries to become prosperous again to recover from the war
US Secretary of State, George Marshall, proposed Marshall Aid
Total aid from 1948 1951 was close to $13 billion US

Just Being Helpful?
Helping European countries to recover also meant creating a market for US exports
Also (although not publicly admitted) it was a clear aim to prevent the spread of Communism
Stalin saw this as America trying to buy support
Countries receiving aid included UK, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium,
Luxembourg, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Greece, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ireland, Iceland
Success?
1948 1952 saw period of growth in European history
Agricultural production surpassed pre-war levels
Forged North Atlantic alliances
Political stability was achieved in the countries receiving aid
Rationing was ended, poverty and starvation disappeared

Tension
Aid was vital for European economic recovery
However, Stalin refused Marshall Aid and banned Eastern European countries under the USSRs
control from accepting it
This created tension on both sides

Many historians differ on just how much credit should be given to Marshall Plan for Europes recovery.

Cold War
Berlin Blockade 1948
Why did the Blockade happen and what were the Consequences?
Yalta Background
Had been agreed to split Germany into four zones between USSR, France, Britain and USA.
Berlin was similarly divided
In 1948 USA, Britain and France merged their zones into West Germany and West Berlin
USA poured large sums of money into West Berlin

Stalins Concerns
Stalin was convinced this was a capitalist plot to lure East Germans and East Berliners
He was angry that he wasnt consulted about decisions such as the new Deutschmark
Stalin may have thought the US and its allies were planning to reunite Germany
Stalins Reaction
June 24, 1948 Stalin ordered all road, rail and canal routes between West Germany and West
Berlin to be closed
He hoped to force the US and her allies into submission
US reacted strongly, claiming this was Stalins first step in a take-over of Western Europe
Allied Reaction
The Allies didnt want to force their way into Berlin for fear of sparking a war, so they began to
fly supplies in
Flights began on June 26, reaching a peak of one every 3 minutes by September 1948
Consequences for USSR
Stalin couldnt just shoot the planes down
He had to eventually back down on May 12, 1949 he ended the blockade it was a major
embarrassment
Stalin realized the USSR needed the atom bomb to stand up to the US. Atomic testing was
increased
Consequences for USA
Seen as proof that the USSR had plans to take over Europe
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) formed in April 1949 as a result
Stalin saw this as a deliberate threat
In 1955 when West Germany joined NATO, the USSR-led Warsaw Pact was formed
Berliners watching a C-54 land at Templehof Airport, 1948

Cold War
Khrushchevs Soviet Union 1953-1964
What happened to the Soviet Union under Khrushchev?
De-Stalinization
Feb 1956 Secret Speech (report to govt criticizing Stalins purges and cult of personality)
Attacked image and reputation of Stalin
More freedom for writers and artists
Size and power of secret police reduced
Political prisoners released

Agricultural Policies
Aim was to produce more food
Virgin Land Scheme take fallow land and cultivate it using govt resources
Introduce maize
Small collective farms became independent
Bigger, more efficient Collective Farms were created

Agricultural Problems
Khrushchev thought he was an expert, but was not
Virgin Land Scheme failed
Maize was unsuitable (climate, soil, etc)
New collective farms did not work well

Industrial Policies
Sovnarkhozy Regional Economic Councils
Controls on workers relaxed
Decisions to be taken at a more regional level
Ordered more luxury goods
Developed Space program
What sort of Communism is it that cannot produce a sausage?

Industrial Problems
Sovnarkhozy didnt work
Managers and workers were not used to the freedom
Led to more bureaucracy
Consumer goods sacrificed for space program
1961 slogan Turn Khrushchev into sausage meat
Whilst Gagarin orbited the earth, we counted on abacuses housewife, 1990
Why did he Resign?
Prices rose by 30%
Agricultural policies had failed
Industrial policies had failed
Failed foreign policies Cuba
Embarrassment UN shoe stamping incident during a speech
Criticism of Stalin had gone too far for many
Forced to resign in 1964

Cold War
Khrushchev 1953 - 1964
What effect did Khrushchev have on the Cold War?
More Peaceful?
Khrushchev said that he wanted peaceful co-existence

BUT
By peaceful co-existence he really meant peaceful competition

Friendlier?
Khrushchev had a sense of humor and was always laughing and smiling
BUT
He was NOT gentle and easy-going Stalin had used him to run the terror purges after WWII
Gentler?
In 1956, Khrushchev said that Stalin was a murderer, and he began to destalinize Russia.
Political prisoners were set free and Beria (responsible for Stalins Great Purge) was executed
BUT
Destalinization did not mean a change back to capitalism, or freedom from Russia
Summits?
Khrushchev often met western leaders at summit meetings

BUT
Khrushchev loved to argue. This often caused tension between leaders

Iron Curtain?
In 1955 Khrushchev told Tito of Yugoslavia there are different roads to communism. Western
leaders thought this meant an end to the Iron curtain
BUT
When communist countries went to far in their reforms, Khrushchev sent in the army (eg
Hungary 1956)
Thaw?
At first, the western powers hoped that this would be the start of a thaw in the Cold War
BUT
Khrushchev gave countries like Burma and Afghanistan economic aid if they supported Russia
Castro and Khrushchev at the United Nations in 1960

Cold War
The Hungarian Uprising
What happened in Hungary in 1956?
Background
In 1945, USSR installed puppet government in Hungary
Designed to remove opposition and enforce loyalty
Soviet propaganda everywhere and protest groups emerged wanting democracy

Khrushchev
In February 1956, Khrushchev criticized parts of Stalins rule, suggesting that Soviet policy
might be changing
Those who heard about the speech thought this might mean countries like Hungary would be
allowed to have self-determination
Overthrow
In October 1956 the Communist dictatorship was overthrown
Opposition groups unite and support ex-Prime Minister Imre Nagy

Red Army
November 4, 1956 Khrushchev orders Red Army to take control
Tanks and soldiers enter Budapest
Bitter street fighting, but Communist leader Rakosi was restored

Pleas for Help
Opposition group leaders were all captured and executed
Desperate pleas over the radio for US assistance but there was on US intervention
Imre Nagy was imprisoned and then executed

Consequences
Around 30,000 Hungarians died including 20 opposition group leaders and Imre Nagy
Showed Soviet policy countries in her sphere of influence would stay in her sphere of influence
USA showed no desire to get involved (this must have made USSR happy)
A ruined statue of Stalin in Budapest
Russian tanks in Budapest

Cold War
The Berlin Wall 1961
How Significant was the Berlin Wall and Why was it Built?
Background
At Yalta, Berlin had been divided into four zones (just as Germany had been)
In 1948-49, the Berlin Blockade saw Stalin attempt to starve West Berlin into submission
Stalin was forced to back down following the Berlin Airlift

Differences
Apart from the Berlin Blockade, those living in Berlin could travel freely live in the East and
work in the West and vice versa
Khrushchev proclaimed that Berlin was being used by the West as a base for spying and sabotage
Problems
In reality, he wanted to prevent all the highly skilled and educated from working in West Berlin
East Berlin was still suffering badly, whereas West Berlin was recovering well
Between 1945-60 it is thought 3 million people crossed from East to West Berlin
August 13, 1961
Overnight a well guarded fence was constructed dividing the city in two
People were trapped in either East or West Berlin
The fence was guarded by Red Army machine gun posts

Concrete Wall
By August 17th, the barbed wire fence was replaced with a concrete wall, split only by well
guarded checkpoints
From 1961 to 1989 nearly 90 people died trying to cross
The wall became a symbol of the division between Communism and Capitalism
Consequences
In some ways it was a propaganda victory for the West they claimed Communist countries
had to build a wall to imprison people
However, there was very little the West could do to stop it and the wall did serve its purpose
East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall

Cold War
Change in Relations from 1945-1962
How did the Superpower Relations Change from 1945 - 1962?
Allies to Enemies?
USSR and USA were allies united against Nazi Germany
Once WWII ended, any friendship thawed. Some suggest wartime alliance was just a necessity
for both sides
By 1962, the two allies were on the brink of nuclear war

Alliances
Following the Berlin Blockade (1948-49) tensions rose
Saw creation of two alliances North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Warsaw Pact
Arms Race
Race between the superpowers to try and build more weapons than each other
Development of a huge range of ever-increasing powerful weapons and equipment for war
Vast sums of money were spent by both sides

Mutual Co-Existence
Stalin died in 1953 and relations seemed to improve
The Hungarian Crisis (1956) shoed the USA wouldnt interfere directly in USSR territory
Concept of mutual co-existence both accepted each other, as long as they didnt interfere
Crises
Series of crises rapidly changed the situation

U2 incident (1960)
Berlin Wall (1961)
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
The increase in tension brought the world to the brink of war
After 1962
Both sides realized how dangerous the situation had become
After 1962 there was a gradual thawing of relations in a process that became known as Dtente
There were still serious issues, but both sides took steps to prevent similar situations again

Cold War
Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
What made the Cuban Missile Crisis the most Serious Incident of the Cold War?
Background
In 1959 Fidel Castros rebels overthrew corrupt pro-US government in Cuba
Castro tried to make a trade agreement with the USA
USA refused as they saw Castro as a Communist
Thus Castro turned to the USSR, who readily made a deal

Nuclear Site Spotted
In return for buying Cuban goods, the USSR got permission to build a nuclear missile site in
Cuba
On October 14, 1962 a US U2 spy plane spotted the nuclear site being built
ExComm Set Up
US President Kennedy set up ExComm a committee to decide what to do
On October 22, Kennedy ordered the US navy to blockade Cuba
He stated that any Soviet vessel that tried to break the blockade would be destroyed
On the Brink of War
On October 23, the United Nations backed the US and ordered any missiles to be removed
Soviet ships were spotted heading towards Cuba
The world was on the brink of all out nuclear war

Compromise
On October 27, Khrushchev secretly offered to pull out of Cuba if the USA pulled out of Turkey
Kennedy agreed and a day later Khrushchev ordered Soviet ships to turn around
Consequences
Major propaganda victory for USA they looked to have won
As the compromise was a secret, Khrushchev appeared to have backed down
Both sides began seeking ways of improving relations (a hotline was set up providing immediate
contact)
Kennedy and McNamara in an ExComm meeting

Cold War
Detente
1963ish-1979ish: What was achieved during the era of Detente?
Reasons for Dtente
Both sides had reasons to improve relations
US fighting in Vietnam needed to slow arms race to reduce burden on economy
USSR concerned about Communist China
Both sides wanted to reduce economic expenditure

Better Relations
1963 Hotline set up; nuclear test ban Treaty banned tests above ground
1968 Non-proliferation treaty
1969 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks began reducing mid-range nuclear weapons (SALT)
Cooperation
1972 President Nixon visits Moscow and SALT 1 Treaty signed
1972 Agreements between East and West Germany signed
1975 Space US astronauts and Soviet Cosmonauts docked together in space.

Helsinki Accords
August 1975
Helsinki Agreement signed by 35 countries (including USSR and USA)
Declaration of Human Rights
Current borders of Europe accepted
Demonstration of commitment to improve relations

SALT 2?
1979 SALT 2 treaty proposed to cover long-range nuclear missiles.
Never ratified by US Congress due to Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
USSR claimed they had been asked to restore order. US saw it as an invasion and supported
Afghan rebels
Joe Biden was in on the discussions with Gromyko
Conclusions
Mistrust and suspicion continued during Dtente, but this was a period that generally saw
cooperation and agreement
Both sides had much to gain from increased cooperation such as savings from a slower arms
race and also trade benefits
Ford and Brezhnev signing SALT documents in 1974

Cold War
Gorbachevs Soviet Union
What happened to the Soviet Union under Gorbachev?
Political Problems
Instability Soviet Union had four leaders in four years
Brezhnevs era was one of repression
Corruption
Stalins generation was being replaced by more liberal men
Gorbachev didnt know how serious these problems were

Economic Problems
Soviet Union was virtually bankrupt
Industry was backward and old fashioned, inefficient
Arms Race military commitments in Eastern Europe and nuclear arsenal were very expensive
Thriving black market
Chernobyl 1985 highlighted all these problems

Social Problems
1980 Soviet Union had highest alcoholic rate in world 10% workers drunk at any time
Low standard of living
Luxury goods were scarce and unaffordable

Gorbachevs Aims
End the Cold War
Pull Red Army out of Afghanistan
End Soviet Unions commitment to Eastern Europe
All this was to save communism, not destroy it
Policies were:
Glasnost openness, freedom of information
Perestroika economic restructuring
Why did Gorbachev Fail?
Gorbachev had no real detailed plan, only goals
Too little, too late

Help from the G7 never came
By late 1980s Red Army was no longer being paid
Gorbachev was not prepared to use force to keep the Soviet Union together
Why did Gorbachev Resign?
People wanted more reforms
Allowing Eastern Europe to break away encouraged the break up of the Soviet Union
Gorbachev refused to use force against ethnic uprisings
Gorbachev became isolated politically
Coup of August 1991 Yeltsin
By Dec 1991, Gorbachev was president of nothing

Cold War
End of the Cold War
How and Why Did The Cold War End in 1989? (Is there a new cold war?)
Afghanistan
USSR faced huge pressure over invasion
They feared Islamic fundamentalists (Mujahedin) would take over Afghanistan
What was meant to be a brief invasion turned into their equivalent of Vietnam
Huge financial burden verge of bankruptcy

gee, see any current correlations?
Gorbachev and Reagan
New USSR leader Gorbachev realized drastic changes were needed
Supporting other Communist countries, competing in the arms race and huge military costs were
too much for Russian economy to bear get it?
US spent huge amounts on defense in an effort to finally win the arms race
Friendship
President Reagan came to power with strong anti-Communist stance (e.g. massive defense
spending plans)
Yet the two opposing leaders got along well together suggested possibilities of closer relations
Meetings
Gorbachev and Reagan met in Geneva (1985) and Reykjavik (1986)
INF (Intermediate Range Nuclear Force Treaty) signed in 1987 actual destruction of a range of
nuclear weapons
Change
1989 saw the break-up of the Soviets Sphere of Influence over Eastern Europe
Poland 1989 protests led to free elections
Gorbachev refused to send in Red Army to squash opposition
This sent a signal to other Eastern European countries

End of the Cold War
Borders began to open and Communist governments resigned

In 1989 President Bush and Gorbachev met off Malta and declared the Cold War over
In November 1989 the Berlin Wall was torn down
Soviet Union collapsed, Gorbachev resigned on Dec 25, 1991
Cold War initiatives / dates to know

Strategic Defense Initiative (1983)
MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction)
Containment 1947-1953
Escalation and Crisis 1953-1962
Dtente 1963-1979

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Bacons IB Exam Review - 2009 Exams

Few countries were democracies many were autocracies

Italy was corrupt

Germany Wilhelm was mad

Russia tsar was weak

Turkey was falling apart

Intense national pride

Many peoples wanted self-determination

British Empire covered a fifth of the world

Wilhelm wanted a place in the sun

Germanys Navy Law 1900

Standing, professionally trained armies

European countries thought alliance system would be a deterrent to war

Assassination and blank cheque lead to ultimatum

Boer War (1899-1900)

Bacons IB Exam Review

Conditions in the trenches were unimaginably bad

Bitterly cold in winter, horribly hot in summer

When fighting took place casualties were great

It was clear defense was far easier than offense

The ground separating the opposing trenches

The front line at the beginning of a major battle suffered terribly

Many of the casualties were part of Pals Battalions (English)

Bacons IB Exam Review

The US prepared for war

It suggested that Mexico should attack America if war broke out

In April 1917, US declared war on Germany

American soldiers in France, 1917

Bacons IB Exam Review

Development of new weapons technology meant WWI became a defensive war

The development of machine guns made traditional methods of attack impossible

New Kind of Warfare

WWI saw death and destruction on a scale never experienced before

British Mark I tank, Battle of the Somme, 1916

Bacons IB Exam Review

Germany before 1918 was an empire in the center of Europe

It was ruled by Kaiser Wilhelm II

The government did have some democratic features

They lived on handouts of potatoes, turnips and sawdusty bread

Even basic foods were strictly rationed

The British navy blockaded the sea approaches to Germanys ports

As winter approached in 1918 conditions grew much worse

Adults lived on 1000 calories a day starvation level

The flu virus swept across Germany killing thousands

Revolution was being talked about

Wilhelm had to abdicate

Freidrich Ebert, Chancellor of Germany, 1918-19, President of Weimar Republic 1919-25

Bacons IB Exam Review

Germany started building Dreadnought battleships

= Britain felt threatened

= France and Britain were threatened

= Britain felt threatened

= British people were insulted

In 1908, Austria-Hungary took advantage of a rebellion to annex Bosnia

= Serbia was furious (many Bosnians were Serbs)

= Britain and France were alarmed

= Austria felt threatened

= Russia had failed Serbia again

= Germany thought Britain was a friend

Bacons IB Exam Review

Consequently, he was held personally responsible for further defeats

Nicholas II and family in 1913

Bacons IB Exam Review

Tsar Nicholas II (Romanov)