On Underwater Acoustic Communication & Source Localization

On Underwater Acoustic Communication & Source
Localization
Thesis submitted to the
School of Mechatronics & Robotics

Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur
(Formely Bengal Engineering and Science University)
Howrah- 711103
For award of the degree of
Master of Technology in Mechatronics
by
Bipin Patel
Roll No: 191225008
Regn. No: 235512008
Under the supervision of
Shri. Siva Ram Krishna Vadali
&
Shri. Sambhunath Nandy
School of Mechatronics
CSIR- Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute
Durgapur 713209
May 2014
APPROVAL OF THE VIVA-VOCE BOARD

Date:
Certified that the thesis entitled On Underwater Acoustic Communication

& Source Localization submitted by Bipin Patel to the Indian Institute of
Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur, for the award of the degree
Master of Technology has been accepted by the external examiners and that
the student has successfully defended the thesis in the viva-voce examination held
today.
(Board of Examiners)
...........................................
...........................................
...........................................
CERTIFICATE BY SUPERVISOR
This is to certify that the thesis entitled On Underwater Acoustic Communication & Source Localization submitted by Bipin Patel to Indian Institute
of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur, is a record of bona fi
research work under my supervision and I consider it worthy of consideration for
the award of the degree of Master of Technology. To the best of my knowledge,
the results embodied in this thesis have not been submitted in any other University
or Institutes for the award of any other degree or diploma.
(Shri. Siva Ram Krishna Vadali)

Senior Scientist, CMERI, Durgapur
(Shri. Sambhunath Nandy )

Principal Scientist, CMERI, Durgapur
Countersigned by:
School of Mechatronics & Robotics
Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur
(Dean of Faculty of Engineering and Technology)

Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur, Howrah
Student Declaration
I hereby declare that the work presented in this project entitled On Underwater
Acoustic Communication & Source Localization submitted towards completion of fulfilment of the requirement of the Degree of Master of Technology
at Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur is an
authentic record of my work carried out under the guidance of Shri. Siva Ram
Krishna Vadali & Shri. Sambhunath Nandy . The project was done in full
compliance with the requirements and constraints of the prescribed curriculum.
Place: Durgapur
Date:
/
/
Bipin Patel
Roll No. 191225008
Registration No.235512008
Abstract
Covering almost 75% of the planet, the ocean is a vast, complex, mostly dark
world, largely unknown and unexplored by man. Understanding the ocean and its
behavior is important to scientists in diverse areas such as oceanography, seismic
exploration, weather and climate monitoring, etc., and has barely been touched by
todays science and technology. The ocean is essentially opaque to light and electromagnetic radiation but it is transparent to acoustic signals. Therefore, sound
is the only practical way to propagate signals to great distances in the ocean. The
propagation of sound in the ocean is of vital importance, not only for communication between marine animals but also for fi
objects, measuring water depth,
currents, or other environmental parameters. In order to accomplish all this task
autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV) required and also AUV need to be capable
of estimating their position within the environment and doing communication with
base station. This is a prerequisite of a successful mission since further tasks that
need to be achieved strongly rely on localization information and communication.
In the present work we take up two issues in underwater signal processing where
the objectives under the diff
t notes are as here under :
In Underwater Acoustic Communication Perspective :
(a) To model Underwater Channel Noise.
(b)To Design a Underwater Communication link.
(c) To Test Different Digital Modulation Schemes in Underwater ambience.
In Underwater Acoustic Source Localization Perspective : We have used
time delay estimation(TDE) method to localize the acoustic source in presence of
impulsive noise and in presence of multipath environment.
(a) TDE using Generalized Cross-Correlation Phase Transform GCC-PHAT.
(b) TDE using signal detection based method.
(c) Comparision of GCC-PHAT and signal detection based method for TDE.
(d) Performance improvement of GCC-PHAT and signal detection based method
for TDE using order statistics.
5
The thesis work has been conducted in two phases comprising underwater communications and acoustic source localization. Our main focus is on underwater localization. We have started with problem of underwater channel modelling and
testing diff t communication technique. In autonomous underwater vehicle
(AUV) context communication is the important means to achieve marine monitoring, data acquisition and strategic communications. The underwater channel
is a dynamic and complex environment. Hence to avoid failure of real time underwater communication prediction of the behaviour of underwater acoustic channel
is important.
After that we have taken the problem of acoustic source localization. Various
localization algorithms have been proposed for terrestrial sensor networks, there
are relatively few localization schemes for underwater localization. The characteristics of underwater channel are fundamentally diff t from that of terrestrial
channel. Acoustic source localization in shallow water is commonly dominated
by impulsive noise and multipath phenomenon. Traditionally for acoustic source
localization with sensors spaced several wavelengths apart involves time delay estimation (TDE) via Generalized Cross-Correlation Phase Transform (GCC-PHAT).
However multipath signals and impulsive noise in underwater ambience result in
spurious peaks leading to anomalous TDEs, and in turn erroneous source location.
In the present work we suggest two methods to improve TDE one based on Order Statistics and the other via detection of signals. Simulation results indicate a
significant improvement in time delay estimation as compared to GCC-PHAT in
presence of outlier data and in fading channels.
vi
Acknowledgement
I would like to take this opportunity to thank Director, CSIR-CMERI, Durgapur
and Dean, School of Mechatronics & Robotics, IIEST, Shibpur for allowing me to
carry out my thesis work at CSIR-CMERI, Durgapur.
This thesis would not have existed without the support and guidance of my
supervisors Shri. Siva Ram Krishna Vadali & Shri. Sambhunath Nandy.
They have inspired me a lot to contribute something towards the Underwater Signal Processing arena. They have allowed me to think freely and motivate me as a
researcher, teacher, writer and mentor. They have always inspired me by vision,
mental support and enthusiasm, whenever I needed them. It has been a proud
privilege for me to work under them.
I would also like to thank all my friends Anirban, Biswarup, Purnashis, Sumit,
Susmita, Rijul, Surojit, Amit and Satodhal and seniors Spandan, Souvik and Jeet
for helping me during my thesis work. Their help have been priceless in the course
of my thesis work.
Finally, I dedicate this thesis to my parents and family members for their constant love, encouragement, support and for being behind me always.
Bipin Patel
IIEST-CSIR-CMERI
vii
Contents
Frontmatter
Approval of the Viva-Voce Board ........................................................................ ii

Certificate by Supervisor ..................................................................................... iii
Student Declaration ..............................................................................................iv
Acknowledgement .....................................................................................................vii
1 Introduction
Why Underwater ............................................................................................... 1

Related Work .............................................................................................................. 2
Contribution of Thesis Work ................................................................................ 4
Thesis Organization ......................................................................................5
2 A Survey on Signal Processing for UWA Communication and
Source Localization
Underwater Channel .................................................................................... 6

Channel Characteristics and Link Design Parameters ................ 6
Modelling Noise Behaviour in Shallow Water Environment .
10
Multipath Phenomenon in Underwater Channel ...................... 11
viii
A Brief note on Underwater Acoustic Communication .......................... 14

Coherent Modulation ..................................................................... 15
Acoustic Source Localization in Underwater Ambience......................... 17
Conclusion ................................................................................................... 27
3 Performance Analysis of Digital Modulation Schemes in UW Channel
28
Link Design Analysis for a UWA Communication System ................... 28
3.2
Bit Error Performance of BPSK Modem in UW Channel . .
33
Bit Error Performance of FSK Modem in UW Channel . . .
34
Bit Error Performance of QPSK Modem in UW Channel . .
35
Conclusion
36
4 Proposed Method to Improve UWA Source Localization
37
Order Statistics Based Approach................................................................. 41

Order statistics ................................................................................ 41
Applications of Order Statistics .................................................. 42
Signal Detection Based Approach .............................................................. 42
Performance Improvement of GCC-PHAT in Presence of Impulsive
Noise: Proposed Order Statistics Based Approach ................................ 44
Improved Time Delay Estimation: Proposed LRT based Approach .
47
Performance of GCC-PHAT and LRT based TDE: In Presence of

Outliers when Order Statistics Incorporated ......................................... 50
Conclusion ................................................................................................... 52
5 Conclusion and Future Directions
viii
53
Work Done ................................................................................................... 53

Underwater acoustic communication ............................................53
Underwater acoustic source localization .................................... 54
Scope of Future Work ............................................................................................ 54
6 Publications from Thesis Work
viii
55
List of Figures
Multipath Scenario........................................................................................... 11
Underwater Communication ........................................................................... 14
BPSK Signal Modulated with Carrier Frequency of 1kHz ....................... 16
Carrier Frequency Offset and its Correction using PLL ........................... 16
Match Filter Output of Noisy Data ............................................................ 17
Received Data Sampled by ADC and its Corresponding Correlation
18
SONAR .......................................................................................................... 19
Hydrophone : ..................................................................................................... 20
Pinger ............................................................................................................................ 20
Long-Baseline (LBL) Systems ........................................................................ 21
Ultra Short Base Line .................................................................................. 22
Short Base Line ............................................................................................. 22
GPS Intelligent Buoys ..................................................................................... 23
Positioning System ........................................................................................... 23
Positioning System with Array of Hydrophone ......................................... 24
Time Delay Estimation ................................................................................ 25
Comparision of Time Delay Estimation between CC and GCC-PHAT 26
xi
List of Figures
Temperature vs Depth Curve ...................................................................... 29
Sound Velocity vs Depth Curve .................................................................. 29
Sound Velocity Varying with Salanity ..................................................... 30
SL with Varying Range and Frequency........................................................ 30
SL with Varying Range and DT ................................................................ 31
Power with Varying Range and Frequency .................................................. 31
Ambient Noise with Varying Wind Speed and Frequency ..................... 32
Spectrum and Time versions of Coloured Noise .................................... 33
BER Curves for Theoritical and Underwater Simulations using BPSK
Modulation ................................................................................................................. 34
BER Curves for Theoritical and Underwater Simulations using FSK
Modulation ................................................................................................................. 35
BER Curves for QPSK in AWGN channel and Underwater Channel
using QPSK Modulation .......................................................................................... 36
Sensor Arrangement for TDE based Source Localization .................... 38
Performance of CC and GCC-PHAT in Presence of Gaussian Noise
39
Performance GCC-PHAT in Presence of Outlier Data .......................... 40

Multipath Scenario..................................................................................... 40
CC and GCC-PHAT Performance in Multipath Scenario ...................... 41
Signals Received by Sensor 2 at Different Conditions (i.e signal without any noise, with (noise+outliers) and After Using Order Statistics 45
Performance of GCC-PHAT in Presence of Outliers Before and After
Using Proposed Order Statistics (based approach) ................................................45
Performance of GCC-PHAT in Presence of Cauchy Noise Outliers
Before and After Using Proposed Order Statistics (based approach)
46
xii
List of Figures
Performance of GCC-PHAT in presence of cauchy noise a) Without using Order Statistics b) With Outlier c) With Outlier Using
Proposed Order Statistics (based approach)................................................ 46
Receiver Operating Charecteristic of the detector devised to compute estimated time delay: With and without Outliers............................. 47
Receiver Operating Charecteristic of the Detector in without and
with Multipath .............................................................................................. 48
Comparison of LRT in presence of Cauchy Noise with and without
outlier with diff
t amplitude of the signal ............................................ 49
Comparison of Receiver Operating Charecteristic of the Detector a)
No multipath b)Multipath c)Multipath with outliers ............................... 50
Probability of Detection of GCC-PHAT and LRT without using
Order Statistics in Presence of Outliers .................................................................... 51
Probability of Detection of GCC-PHAT and LRT with using Order
Statistics in Presence of Outliers ............................................................................... 51
xiii
Chapter 1
Introduction
Why Underwater
Human being has managed to conquer variety of environments. At some point, humans could walk on the moon, send expeditions to cold or remote areas in diff t
corners of the planet. Discovering and exploring new environments is an important
human endeavor, a motor for mankinds evolution. One vast environment which is
still much unexplored is the underwater world. Robots have potential to help in
achieving those discoveries. [1].
Applications
1) Oil and geotechenical exploration.
2) Monitoring of animals.
3) Port and waterway protection.
4) Pollution monitoring in environmental systems.
5) Collection of scientific data recorded at ocean bottom stations.
6) Mapping of the ocean fl or for detection of objects.
For exploring these unexplored area by inspecting the sea region by sending the
humans to that place is very diffi
because there are lots of physical and Environmental obstacles and also the area is very huge there. To solve these problems
we can send some robot attached with cable for communicating, Transmitting and
Receiving data from robot, but these cable is very heavy and costly, so we can do
wireless communication to solve this problem. Crucial for its successful exploration
are reliable communication systems. The topic is complex and there are various
diffi
in underwater communication such as chemical constitution, environmental variables, and the presence of various types of noise. A promising solution,
which has been studied and implemented for communicating within this environ1
1.2. Related Work

ment, is the use of acoustic waves for the transmission of signals. Electromagnetic
waves usually are not considered as a solution for underwater communications because their attenuation is too high. Acoustic waves appear as a good alternative,
despite some associated negative aspects. For long communicating distances, an
abrupt decay in pressure may occur, impairing the communication quality. This
phenomenon may occur even for medium distances and it is dependent of the transmitting acoustic wave frequency. Also in order to accomplish various missions,
autonomous underwater vehicles need to be capable of estimating their position
within the environment. This is a prerequisite of a successful mission since further
tasks that need to be achieved strongly rely on localization information as a source
of valuable information. Much has been said about localization in underwater, yet
the research has not reached the level of having as equally precise solution for localization as the one available above the water surface. Underwater sound signals
classification, localization and tracking of sound sources, are challenging tasks due
to the multi-path nature of sound propagation. The system used to acquire the
underwater sound signals is based on a set of hydrophones. The hydrophones are
usually associated with pre-amplifying blocks followed by data acquisition systems
with data logging and advanced signal processing capabilities for sound recognition,
underwater sound source localization and motion tracking.
Related Work
The area of UWAC has experienced significant research over the last decades,
which led to recent progress in this endeavor. This interest started many years ago
when Jean Daniel Colladon, a physicist/engineer, and Charles-Francois Sturn, a
mathematician, performed an experiment, back in 1826, which can be thought as
the starting point for underwater communications. The experiment took place in
the Geneva Lake, in Switzerland, and they used a church bell to prove that sound
travels faster in water than in air. One of them lighted a gunpowder fl and
at the same time struck the church bell that was underwater. The other started
the clock when he saw the gunpowder fl and only stopped it when he heard
the noise made by the church bell (to do so he used a trumpet placed underwater
as can be seen in fi
The distancethat separated the two boats in this experiment was around 10 miles. Despite their simple instruments, they obtained a
sound speed in water of 1435 m/s [1]. This measurement was remarkably accurate,
considering that the value obtained is not too far from currently known values,
2
1.2. Related Work

approximately 1500 m/s [3]. Going further back in time, Leonardo da Vinci, a
genius in several fi imagined how one would be able to produce acoustic waves
in water and then see what would happen at a distant place, when trying to listen
to those waves. Nowadays, fortunately, we have ever-better means and knowledge
basis to explore underwater acoustic communications and, not surprisingly, this
fi of research is now very active. For underwater channel simulation most of the
work at present mostly focus on establishing mathematical model of the underwater acoustic channel. The models of underwater acoustic channel mainly contain
the deep vertical channel channel model. Researchers simulate the underwater
acoustic channel through establishing mathematical models, and further study the
various properties of the acoustic channel by using MATLAB software simulation.
And then test this channel with diff t digital modulation schemes.
While in localization the most common approach for passive source localization
is to exploit time delay signals received by a pair of sensors. For instance, in sonar
signal processing the time delay between signals received by hydrophones is used to
estimate the source range and bearings [21], [23], [24]. The basic idea behind time
delay estimation is that sensor arrays may be deployed to extract phase information present in signals picked up by spatially separated sensors. When the sensors
are spatially separated, the acoustic signals arrive at the sensors with diff
in
times of arrival. From the known array geometry, Direction of Arrival (DOA) of
the signal can be obtained from the measured time delays. The time delays are
estimated for each pair of sensors in the array. Finally the best estimate of the
DOA is obtained from time delays and geometry [28]. Hence for acoustic source
localization, precise time delay estimation is highly essential. There are several
methods for time delay estimation like correlation [21], [25], higher order statistics
based methods etc [26]. In view of its simplicity, correlation is most commonly
adopted method for the purpose. Other time delay estimation methods include
-Generalized Cross-Correlation Phase Transform (GCC-PHAT), Maximum Likelihood (ML) method, Average Square Difference Function (ASDF) method and
Least Mean Square (LMS) adaptive fi method. Of all these, GCC-PHAT is
the most widely used method to estimate time delay [27]. Two major detterents
for underwater source localization are the multipath phenomenon and impulsive
noise. These problems lead to false correlation peaks and hence erroneous time
delay estimates [29] - [32]. Moreover time delay estimation in passive ranging is in
the order of micro-seconds and fl
from this lead to inaccurate localization
and it is necessary to devise alternative methods which can increase the accuracy
of estimated time delay. Since GCC-PHAT is more commonly used method, its
1.3. Contribution of Thesis Work

performance analysis was taken up and simulation analysis is carried out in underwater ambience. GCC-PHAT works well under the gaussian noise assumption and
availability of strong direct path signals. However, if either of these assumptions
fail to hold, so does the concept of GCC-PHAT and the estimated time delay. It
is felt that very little work is observed to have initiated to improve the capability
of GCC-PHAT in presence of multipath and impulsive noise.
Contribution of Thesis Work

(a) Underwater channel noise is simulated in MATLAB: We have simulated underwater channel noise for 8-16 Khz range.
(b) Link design for underwater communication: We have calculated power
required to transmit a signal for a specified distance, frequency, range and for a
fi detection threshold.
(c) Testing of different digital modulation schemes on underwater : Different digital modulation schemes has been tested in simulated underwater channel.
The bit error rate (BER) clearly shows the diff
when viewed in an underwater situation it clearly reveals that it requires more SNR than in an AWGN case
to transmit data in an underwater case for the same BER.
(d) Time delay estimation using GCC-PHAT :GCC-PHAT fails to estimate
the time delay in multipath environment and in presence impulsive noise modelled
as outlier data and also in presence of Cauchy noise.
(e) Performance Improvement of GCC-PHAT using order statistics: It
is possible to improve TDE performance of GCC-PHAT in presence of impulsive
noise and Cauchy noise by using order statistics.
(f) Comparision of GCC-PHAT and signal detection based method for
time delay estimation:Signal Detection based TDE is feasible and is much better
as compared to traditional GCC-PHAT when SNR at the receiver is low. Moreover,
it is also possible to improve the TDE performance of LRT using order-statistics.
1.4. Thesis Organization
Thesis Organization
The present thesis is divided into six chapters. Brief review of each chapter is
enumerated below :
(a) Chapter 1: This chapter gives a brief introduction to the idea of the UWA
communication and source localization. The motivation behind our attempt at the
problem has also been presented and various aspects of its applications have also
been discussed. The basic framework of the problem has been mentioned as well.
(b) Chapter 2: This chapter gives survey on signal processing for UWA communication and source localization in this channel charecteristics and link design
parameter, modelling noise behaviour in shallow water environment, multipath
channel, underwater communication and acoustic source localization in underwater ambience.
(c) Chapter 3: This chapter comprises a discussion on performance analysis of
digital modulation schemes in underwater channel. It includes link design analysis
for a UWA communication system, simulation analysis of underwater channel, and
analysis of bit error performance of BPSK, FSK, QPSK modem in UW channel.
(d) Chapter 4: This chapter presents proposed method to improve UWA source
localization method to improve time delay estimation for underwater acoustic
source localization. Which include order statistics based approach, signal detection based approach and performance improvement of GCC-PHAT in presence of
impulsive noise.
(e) Chapter 5: This chapter gives a brief conclusion drawn from the current work
on UWA communication and source localization and the scope of the future work.
Chapter 2
A Survey on Signal Processing for
UWA Communication and Source
Localization
Underwater Channel
At present, the researches for wireless underwater acoustic (WU-A) channel mostly
focus on establishing mathematical model of the underwater acoustic channel. Researchers simulate the underwater acoustic channel through establishing mathematical models, and further study the various properties of the acoustic channel
by using MATLAB software simulation [2], [3], [4], [5].
Channel Characteristics and Link Design Parameters

Sound propagation under water is primarily determined by transmission loss, noise
reverberation, and temporal and spatial variability of the channel. Transmission
loss and noise are the principal factors determining the available bandwidth range
and SNR Time varying multipath infuences signal design and processing often
imposing severe limitations on the system performance. And so for any reliable
communication system the fi
task should be the LINK DESIGN. Since we are
doing underwater communication so we have to design underwater link. This gives
what is the power level required with respect to diff
t range, frequency, wind
speed. For that purpose we fi
simulate the underwater link design equation in
MATLAB. We have also simulate the noise present in the underwater channel that
6
2.1. Underwater Channel

is of colour noise. After that we apply diff t baseband modulation technique
and fi the probability of bit error.
Acoustic Wave Characteristics : Acoustic waves are a type of longitudinal
waves that propagate by means of adiabatic compression and decompression. Longitudinal waves are waves that have the same direction of vibration as their direction of travel. Important quantities for describing acoustic waves are sound
pressure, particle velocity, particle displacement and sound intensity. Acoustic
waves travel with the speed of sound which depends on the medium theyre passing through [3]- [11] & [43]- [50].
Range, Bandwidth and SNR
Transmission loss is caused by energy spreading and sound absorption While the
energy spreading loss depends only on the propagation distance, the absorption
loss increases not only with range but also with frequency, thus setting the limit
on the available bandwidth. In addition to the nominal transmission loss, link
condition is largely infuenced by the spatial variability of the underwater acoustic
channel Spatial variability is a consequenc of the channel behavior as a waveguide,
which results in various phenomena, including formation of the shadow zones.
Transmission loss at a particular location can be predicted by many of the propagation modeling techniques with various degrees of accuracy Spatial dependence
of transmission loss imposes particularly severe problems for communication with
moving sources or receivers. Noise observed in the ocean exhibits strong frequency
dependence as well as site dependence. Generally, the inshore environments, such
as marinework sites, are much noisier than deep ocean, due to the man made noise
Unlike the man made noise, most of the ambientnoise sources can be described
as having a continuous spectrum and Gaussian statistics. As a fi approximation, the ambientnoisepower spectral density is commonly assumed to decay at 20
dB/decade, both in shallow and deep water, over frequencies which are of interest
to communication systems design Ambient noise, together with frequency dependent transmission loss, determines the relationship between the available range,
bandwidth and SNR at the receiver input. This dependence shows the frequency
dependent portion of SNR for several transmission ranges. Evidently, this dependence infl
the choice of a carrier frequency for the desired transmission range.
From the fi the relationship between the available range and frequency band
also becomes apparent Underwater acoustic communication links can be classified
according to range as very long, long, medium, short and very short links. For a
long range system operating over 10-100 km the bandwidth is limited to few kHz
for a very long distance on the order of 1000 km the available bandwidth falls below

a kHz. A medium range system operating over 1-10 km has a bandwidth on the
order of 10 kHz while only at very short ranges below about 100m more than a hundred kHz of bandwidth may be available Within this limited bandwidth the signal
is subject to multipath propagation through a channel whose characteristics vary
with time and are highly dependent on the location of the transmitter and receiver.
The multipath structure depends on the link configuration, which is primarily designated as vertical or horizontal While vertical channels exhibit little multipath,
horizontal channels may have extremely long multipath spreads. Most notable in
the long and medium range channels, multipath propagation causes severe degradation of the acoustic communication signals. Combating the underwater multipath
to achieve a high data throughput is without exception considered to be the most
challenging task of an underwater acoustic communication system [1].
(a)Acoustic pressure : Given a plane wave, acoustic Pressure (P), with unit Pa
or N/m2, is defi
by the following equation
v
p = 0 = c2f, =
where 0 represents the fl
2f
(2.1)
density, c is the velocity of the sound wave propagation
and v is the particle velocity. The variable v is equivalent to 2pf . This quantity
P is analogous to the potential diff
inelectrical circuits.The quantity 0 c is
called specific impedance and has the same role has the intrinsic impedance defi
for a transverse electromagnetic.
(b) Acoustic impedance :The acoustic impedance is given by
Z =
P
U
(2.2)
where U is the acoustic volume fl w. This equation is analogous to Ohms law and
Z is a function offrequency, with real and imaginary components.
(c)Acoustic intensity : The acoustic intensity I (unit/m2) is the energy per
second that crosses the unit area. For a planewave it is given by:
I = Pv
(2.3)
so that it may be viewed as the acoustic power density produced by the source.
Normally, a reference intensityIr is defi ed for each medium under certain circumstances. For example, the underwater reference intensity is the one produced by a
plane wave with root mean square pressure of1 Pa.

(d)Sound speed profiles : Sound speed in water depends of several parameters, such as temperature,salinity and pressure.
c(T, S, Z) = a1 +a2 T +a3 T 2 +a4 T 3 +a5 (S 35)+a6 Z +a 7 Z 2 +a8 T (S 35)+a9 T Z 3
(2.4)
Where T, S, and z are temperature in degrees Celsius, salinity in parts perthousand
and depth in meters, respectively. The constants a1, a2,...., a9 are a1 = 1448.96,
a2 = 4.591, a3 = 5.304 102 , a4 = 2.3746 104 , a5 = 1.340 , a6 = 1.630 102
a7 = 1.675 107, a8 = 1.025 102, a1 = 7.139 1013
(e)
Directivity Index:The directivity index (DI) may be defi as the ratio
of the intensity of a source in some specified direction (usually along the acoustic
axis of the source) to the intensity at the same point in space of an Omni directional point source with the same acoustic power. Through the principle of
reciprocity, the same principle applies to the receiving transducer. The
transmitter and receiver directivity are analogous to the RF terms for antenna
gain.
(f) Acoustic Source Level : The source level quantity associated with a projector, is commonly defi in terms of the sound pressure level at a well-defined
distance of 1m from its acoustic center. The source intensity at this reference point
is:
Ptx
(2.5)
I=
Area
SLprojector = 10log((Ptx/12.6)/Iref )(dB)
(2.6)
SLprojector (P, , DI) = 170.8 + 10logPtx + 10logtx + DItx(dB)
PSL = SL 10log10(W )
(2.7)
(2.8)
(g)Transmission Loss: Transmission loss is the reduction in signal intensity

which occurs as an acoustic wave propagates away from transmission source. Transmission loss in ocean can be categorized according to spreading loss and attenuation
loss. Absorption loss describes those effects in the ocean in which a portion of the
sound intensity is lost through convention of the heat.
44f 2
0.11f 2
+ 2.75 104f 2 + 0.003
+
(f ) = 1 + f 2
4100 + f 2
(2.9)
SS = 20logr
TL = SS + r 103
where f is frequency in KHz, r is the range in meter, SS is a spherical spreading
factor and is absorption coefficient . Spreading loss consists of cylindrical spreading and spherical spreading. Cylindrical spreading usually occurs in shallow water
9

and spherical spreading in deep water.
(h)
Noise : The ambient noise in underwater environment can be divided
into 4 major factors noise: Turbulence (Nt) , Shipping (Ns), Wind (Nw ) and
Thermal (Nth). Figure 4.5 shows the variation of noise with frequency at diff
t wind speeds.
10logNt(f ) = 17 30logf
10logNs(f ) = 40 + 20(s 0.5) + 26logf 60log(f + 0.03)
1
10logNw (f ) = 50 + 7.5w 2 + 20logf 40log(f + 0.4)
10logNth(f ) = 15 + 20logf
(2.10)
(i) Received SNR : The acoustic link uses basic sonar theory to estimate the
available signal level at the receiver.
SNR = PSL TL AN + DIxmt + DIrev
(2.11)
where
SNR = signal to noise ratio at the receiver.
PSL = pressure spectrum level of transmitting platform
TL = transmission loss in medium
AN = ambient noise
DIxmt = transmitter directivity
DIrev = receiver directivity
All quantities are expressed in dB re 1Pa
Modelling Noise Behaviour in Shallow Water Environment

A shallow water communication channel [5] is a combination of several spiky signals. It is for this reason, a underwater channel is commonly modeled to behave
impulsive in nature. In general impulsive noise is modeled in two ways:
a) Heavy tailed non gaussian distributed noise ( - stable).
b) Contaminated gaussian noise (i.e. gaussian noise with outlier data).
High velocity-water leading to the formation of a cavitation bubble, which colapses
rapidly, causing aloud broadband snapping sound. The shrimp are usually found
in such large numbers that there is a permanent crackling background noise in
10

warm shallow waters throughout the world. As ambient snapping shrimp noise is
composed of impulsive noise sources, the resulting noise statistics are non gaussian.
Several publications report that underwater acoustic noise (UWAN) does not
follow the normal distribution. In fact, this type of noise shows probability density
function with extended tails shape, reflecting an accentuated impulsive behavior
due to the high incidence of large amplitude noise events. From these sources, it
is known that UWAN follows the alpha-stable distribution class [4].
An symmetrical alpha-stable (SS) distribution has a characteristic function given
by.
() = E[exp(jX)] = exp(j || )
(2.12)
where is the location parameter and > 0 is the dispersion parameter. Cauchy
and Gaussian distributions are particular cases of the alpha-stable distribution for
= 1 and = 2 respectively. The cauchy noise contains powerful noise spikes
that can be more than a hundred times the magnitude of the humbler gaussian
noise spikes. The thicker tails on the cauchy bell curve mean that extreme events
have more probability of occuring then they do with the thinner-tailed gaussian
curve.
Multipath Phenomenon in Underwater Channel

While wireless communication technology today has become part of our daily life,
the idea of wireless undersea communications may still seem far-fetched. However,
research has been active for over a decade on designing the methods for wireless
information transmission underwater.
Human knowledge and understanding of the worlds oceans, which constitute
Figure 2.1: Multipath Scenario
the major part of our planet, rests on our ability to collect information from remote undersea locations. The major discoveries of the past decades, such as the
11

remains of Titanic, or the hydro-thermal vents at bottom of deep ocean, were made
using cabled submersibles. Although such systems remain indispensable if highspeed communication link is to exists between the remote end and the surface, it
is natural to wonder what one could accomplish without the burden (and cost) of
heavy cables. Hence the motivation, and our interest in wireless underwater communications. Together with sensor technology and vehicular technology, wireless
communications will enable new applications ranging from environmental monitoring to gathering of oceanographic data, marine archaeology, and search and rescue
missions.
The signals that are used to carry digital information through an underwater channel are not radio signals, as electro-magnetic waves propagate only over extremely
short distances. Instead, acoustic waves are used, which can propagate over long
distances. However, an underwater acoustic channel presents a communication
system designer with many diffi
The three distinguishing characteristics of
this channel are frequency-dependent propagation loss, severe multipath, and low
speed of sound propagation. None of these characteristics are nearly as pronounced
in land-based radio channels, the fact that makes underwater wireless communication extremely diffi t, and necessitates dedicated system design. Path loss that
occurs in an acoustic channel at distance d limits the available bandwidth: for
example, at distances on the order of 100 km, the available bandwidth is only on
the order of 1 kHz. At shorter distances, a larger bandwidth is available, but in
practice it is limited by the that of the transducer. Also in contrast to the radio
systems, an acoustic signal is rarely narrowband, i.e., its bandwidth is not negligible with respect to the center frequency. Within this limited bandwidth, the
signal is subject to multipath propagation, which is particularly pronounced on
horizontal channels. In shallow water, multipath occurs due to signal reflection
from the surface and bottom. In deep water, it occurs due to ray bending, i.e.
the tendency of acoustic waves to travel along the axis of lowest sound speed. The
multipath spread, measured along the delay axis, is on the order of 10 ms in this example. The channel response varies in time, and also changes if the receiver moves.
Regardless of its origin, multipath propagation creates signal echoes, resulting in
intersymbol interference in a digital communication system. In a digital communication system which uses a single carrier multipath propagation causes intersymbol
interference (ISI) and an important fi of merit is multipath spread in terms
of symbol intervals While typical multipath spreads in the commonly used radio
channels are on the order of several symbol intervals in the horizontal underwater
acoustic channels they increase to several tens, or a hundred of symbol intervals
12

for moderate to high data rates For example a commonly encountered multipath
spread of 10 ms in a medium range shallowwater channel causes the ISI to extend
over 100 symbols if the system is operating at a rate of 10 kilosymbols per second
(ksps). The mechanisms of multipath formation in the ocean are diff
t in deep
and shallowwater and also depend on the frequency and range of transmission.
Understanding of these mechanisms is based on the theory and models of sound
propagation. Depending on the system location there are several typical ways of
multipath propagation [2], [3], [4], [36]. It is mostly the water depth that determines the type of propagation. The defi
of shallow and deep water is not
a strict one, but usually implies the region of continental shelves, with depth less
than about 100 m, and the region past the continental shelves, respectively. Two
fundamental mechanisms of multipath formation are reflection at the boundaries
(bottom, surface and any objects in the water), and ray bending (sound speed
is a function of depth) and the rays sound always bend towards regions of lower
propagation speed If the water is shallow, such as in the littoral region and the
region of continental shelves, propagation will occur in surface bottom bounces in
addition to a possible direct path If the water is deep, as in the regions past the
continental shelves, the sound channel may form by bending of the rays toward the
location where the sound speed reaches its minimum, called the axis of the deep
sound channel. Since there is no loss due to reflections, sound can travel in this
wayover several thousands of kilometers. Alternatively, the rays bending upwards
may reach the surface focusing in one point where they are reflected, and the process is repeated periodically. The region between two focusing points on the surface
is called a convergence zone, and its typical length is 60-100 km. The geometry
of multipath propagation and its spatial dependence are important for communication systems which use array processing to suppress multipath The design of
such systems is accompanied by the use of a propagation model for predicting the
multipath configuration. Ray theory and the theory of normal modes provide basis
for such propagation modeling. Recent references commonly use ray tracing for
determining the coarse multipath structure for communication channel modeling.
A diff
t class of underwater acoustic communication systems has recently been
developed which do not rely on the particular multipath geometry, and is equally
applicable in a varietyofchannels, regardless of the parameters such as range to
depth ratio which determine the angles of incidence of multipath arrivals [1] [6].
As we have seen Shallow water channels being multipath dominated, signals travelling through acoustic channel suffer from multipath induced fading effects. Such
multipath phenomenon leads to constructive as well as destructive interference and
13
2.2. A Brief note on Underwater Acoustic Communication

results in phase shift of the signal.
2.2
A Brief note on Underwater Acoustic Communication
Figure 2.2: Underwater Communication
Figure 2.2 shows typical underwater acoustic communication. Underwater

acoustic communication is a technique of sending and receiving message below
water [7], [19], [36], [37]. There are several ways of employing such communication but the most common is using hydrophones. Under water communication is
diffi due to factors like multi-path propagation, time variations of the channel, small available bandwidth and strong signal attenuation, especially over long
ranges. In underwater communication there are low data rates compared to terrestrial communication, since underwater communication uses acoustic waves instead
of electromagnetic waves.
14
2.2.1 Coherent Modulation

With the goal of increasing the bandwidth effciency of an underwater acoustic
communication system research focus over the past years has shifted towards
phase-coherent modulation techniques, such as PSK phase shift keying and QAM
quadrature amplitude modulation. Phase-coherent communication methods, previously not considered feasible, were demonstrated to be a viable way of achieving
highspeed data transmission over many of the underwater channels, including the
severely time spread horizontal shallow water channels. The new generation of
underwater acoustic communication systems, based on the principles of phase coherent detection techniques, is capable of achieving raw data throughputs that are
an order of magnitude higher than those of the existing noncoherent systems.
Depending on the method for carrier synchronization, phase-coherent systems
fall into two categories - diff tially coherent and purely phase-coherent. The
advantage of using diff tially encoded PSK (DPSK) with diff tially coherent
detection is the simple carrier recovery it allows. Its disadvantage is performance
loss as compared to coherent detection. While bandwidth efficient methods have
successfully been tested on a variety of channels, real time systems have mostly
been implemented for application in vertical and the very short range channels,
where little multipath is observed and the phase stability is good. In the very short
range channel, where bandwidth in excess of 100 kHz is available, are representative system operates over 60 m at a carrier frequency of 1MHz and a data rate of
500 kbps. This system is used for communication with an undersea robot which
performs maintenance of a submerged platform.
BPSK Modulation and Demodulation : BPSK or Binary Phase Shift Keying
is a simple modulaton scheme where a phase change of represents a transition
of a 1 to 0 or vice versa. Each bit here represents a symbol. Modulation is first
carried out in baseband. This is simply done by changing 0s to -1. Then passband transformation is obtained by multiplying a carrier signal with a carrier with
desired frequency. Figure 2.3 shows a sample of BPSK signal modualted with carrier frequency of 1kHz. The modulated signal is then sent through channel where
it gets added to noise. At the receiever the noise added signal is received and
demodulation is carried out to retransform the passband signal to corresponding
baseband form. However demodulation requires the generation of carrier with exact frequency and also the knowledge of exact symbol time. Therefore schemes are
employed to generate a local oscillator signal whose frequency offset is corrected
through a PLL and exact symbol time is obtained by an early-late gate scheme.
15
Figure 2.3: BPSK Signal Modulated with Carrier Frequency of 1kHz
Carrier Frequency Off : CFO or Carrier frequency offset arises due to imperfect local oscillator signal generation. Even a very highly accurate oscillator has
some offset and to correct it a phased locked loop design is essential. The phase
locked loop here is a proportional and integral controller which makes it a second
order system. Figure 2.4 shows the effect of offset in carrier and how the PLL
corrects the offset.
Symbol Timing Recovery : At the receiver the samples of signal received
Figure 2.4: Carrier Frequency Offset and its Correction using PLL
is sampled by ADC. ADC samples at a high rate and after sampling the number
of samples to be taken as a symbol has to be determined. Essentially this is the
16
2.3. Acoustic Source Localization in Underwater Ambience

same as determining the correct sampling instant. The function of ADC can be
reciprocated as that of an interpolator in simulation. The timing estimate is done
fi by a match fi whose impulse response is basically same as that of the signal. Thus the convolution is same as autocorrelation of the signal which gives a
rough estimate of the symbol time. To correctly determine the symbol time, an
early-late gate scheme is used. However this scheme essentially requires at least 3
samples per symbol and is only used for low data rate purposes. Figure 2.5 shows
the match fi output of noisy data for 3 symbols having 40 samples each. Figure
2.16 shows the data sampled by ADC and its corresponding match fi
output.
Figure 2.5: Match Filter Output of Noisy Data
2.3
Acoustic Source Localization in Underwater

Ambience
Recent years have witnessed an impressive growth in the technology of robotics for
undersea exploration. And autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) are still more
research topics than commercial products; however, they held the promise of being
17
Figure 2.6: Received Data Sampled by ADC and its Corresponding Correlation
the next significative step in ocean exploration and exploitation, cutting costs and
allowing operations that are presently prohibitive from surface ships or by ROVs.
One of the problems that prevents commercial applications of AUVs, or at least
mitigate their efficiency, is that of vehicle localization: on-board systems, as inertial navigation systems (INS), cannot maintain the requested accuracy over the
desired interval of operation of the system,and are highly expensive. Localization
in underwater is challenging as radio frequency (RF) waves are heavily attenuated
under water and hence, employing technology like GPS is not feasible. A number of
localization schemes have been proposed to date which take into account a number
of factors like the network topology, device capabilities, signal propagation models
and energy requirements. Most localization schemes require the location of some
nodes in the network to be known. Nodes whose locations are known are referred
to as anchor nodes or reference nodes in the literature. The localization schemes
that use reference nodes can be broadly classified into two categories: range-based
schemes (schemes that use range or bearing information), and range-free schemes
(schemes that do not use range or bearing information). Here our main emphasis
is on range-based schemes (schemes that use range or bearing information).
Range-Based Schemes :In range-based schemes, precise distance or angle measurements are made to estimate the location of nodes in the network. Rangebased schemes, which rely on range and/or bearing information, use time of arrival (TOA), time difference of arrival (TDOA), angle of arrival (AOA) or received
signal strength indicator (RSSI) to estimate their distances to other nodes in the
system. UWB-based localization , GPS , and Cricket are examples of schemes that
18

use ToA or TDoA of acoustic or RF signals for localization in terrestrial sensor
networks.
Techniques used for underwater acoustic source localization
SONAR: SONAR (originally an acronym for Sound Navigation And Ranging)
Figure 2.7: SONAR
is a technique that uses sound propagation (usually underwater, as in submarine

navigation) to navigate, communicate with or detect objects on or under the surface of the water, such as other vessels. Two types of technology share the name
SONAR. Passive SONAR is essentially listening for the sound made by vessels.
Active SONAR is emitting pulses of sounds and listening for echoes. SONAR as
shown in fi 2.7 may be used as a means of acoustic location and of measurement of the echo characteristics of targets in the water. Acoustic location in air
was used before the introduction of radar. SONAR may also be used in air for
robot navigation. The term SONAR is also used for the equipment used to generate and receieve the sound. The acoustic frequencies used in SONAR systems vary
from very low (infrasonic) to extremely high (ultrasonic). The study of underwater
sound is known as underwater acoustics or hydroacoustic.
Hydrophone : Figure 2.8 shows hydrophone (Greek hydro = water and
phone = sound) is a microphone designed to be used underwater for recording
or listening to underwater sound. Most hydrophones are based on a piezoelectric
transducer that generates electricity when subjected to a pressure change. Such
piezoelectric materials, or transducers can convert a sound signal into an electrical signal since sound is a pressure wave. Some transducers can also serve as a
projector, but not all have this capability, and may be destroyed if used in such
19
Figure 2.8: Hydrophone :
a manner. A hydrophone can listen to sound in air, but will be less sensitive
due to its design as having a good acoustic impedance match to water, which is a
denser substance than air. Likewise, a microphone can be buried in the ground,
or immersed in water if it is put in a waterproof container, but will give similarly
poor performance due to the similarly bad acoustic impedance match.
Pinger : Pingers as shown in fi
2.9 are guiding devices used to provide an
Figure 2.9: Pinger
acoustic energy source that can be heard with a hydrophone. Used as an acoustic
beacon, pingers are commonly deployed for the relocation of equipment or revisitation by divers to a specific site. Pingers can also be attached to underwater
vehicles for tracking and navigation purposes. The pinger is attached to an underwater location where it continuously transmits a sonar signal [12]- [19].
Underwater Acoustic Positioning System: An underwater acoustic positioning system is a system for the tracking and navigation of underwater vehicles or
divers by means of acoustic distance and/or direction measurements, and subsequent position triangulation. Underwater acoustic positioning systems are commonly used in a wide variety of underwater work, including oil and gas exploration,
20

ocean sciences, salvage operations, marine archaeology, law enforcement and military activities. Underwater acoustic positioning systems are generally categorized
into three broad types or classes.
(a) Long-Baseline (LBL) systems :Long-baseline (LBL) systems, as shown in
fi 2.10 below, use a sea-floor baseline transponder network. The transponders
Figure 2.10: Long-Baseline (LBL) Systems
are typically mounted in the corners of the operations site. LBL systems yield
very high accuracy of generally better than 1 m and sometimes as good as 0.01m
along with very robust positions. This is due to the fact that the transponders are
installed in the reference frame of the work site itself (i.e. on the sea fl or), the
wide transponder spacing results in an ideal geometry for position computations,
and the LBL system operates without an acoustic path to the (potentially distant)
sea surface.
(b) USBL - Ultra Short Base Line :As we see in fi 2.11 The calculation of
positioning is based on range and on vertical and horizontal angle measurements,
from a single multi element transducer. The system provides three-dimensional
transponder positions relative to the vessel. The HPR (Hydroacoustic Positioning Reference) and HiPAP (High Precision Acoustic Positioning) systems are both
leaders within these principles.The disadvantage is that positioning accuracy and
robustness is not as good as for LBL systems.
21
Figure 2.11: Ultra Short Base Line
(c) SBL- Short Base Line : As we see in fi
2.12 SBL. The calculation of
Figure 2.12: Short Base Line
position is based on range, and vertical and horizontal angle measurements from a
minimum of three hull mounted transducers. The baselines are between transducers on the vessel. A transponder is positioned relative to the vessel. Accuracy is
22

0.5 %of slant range. The system provides three-dimensional transponder positions
relative to the vessel.
(d) GPS intelligent buoys (GIB) : As we see in fi
2.13 GPS intelligent
Figure 2.13: GPS Intelligent Buoys
buoys (GIB) systems are inverted LBL devices where the transducers are replaced
by fl
buoys, self-positioned by GPS. The tracked position is calculated in
realtime at the surface from the Time-Of-Arrival (TOAs) of the acoustic signals
sent by the underwater device, and acquired by the buoys. Such configuration
allow fast, calibration-free deployment with an accuracy similar to LBL systems.
At the opposite of LBL, SBL ou USBL systems, GIB systems use one-way acoustic
signals from the emitter to the buoys, making it less sensible to surface or wall
reflections. GIB systems are used to track AUVs, torpedoes, or divers.
Hydroacoustic positioning principles : A hydroacoustic positioning as shown
Figure 2.14: Positioning System
in fi 2.14 & 2.15 system consists of both a transmitter (transducer) and a receiver (transponder). A signal (pulse) is sent from the transducer, and is aimed
23

towards the seabed transponder. This pulse activates the transponder, which responds immediately to the vessel transducer. The transducer, with corresponding
electronics, calculates an accurate position of the transponder relative to the base
station [8] [9] [10].
Time delay Estimation for Acoustic Source Localization: There are many
Figure 2.15: Positioning System with Array of Hydrophone
techniques to estimate the position of a sound source based on energy densities,

intensity of received signals, triangulation, particle velocity etc [22]. However, the
most common approach for passive source localization is to exploit time delay signals received by a pair of sensors. For instance, in sonar signal processing the time
delay between signals received by hydrophones is used to estimate the source range
and bearings [24]. The basic idea behind time delay estimation is that sensor arrays may be deployed to extract phase information present in signals picked up by
spatially separated sensors. When the sensors are spatially separated, the acoustic
signals arrive at the sensors with diff
in times of arrival. From the known
array geometry, Direction of Arrival (DOA) of the signal can be obtained from the
measured time delays. The time delays are estimated for each pair of sensors in
the array. Finally the best estimate of the DOA is obtained from time delays and
geometry [28], [41]- [50]. Hence for acoustic source localization, precise time delay
estimation is highly essential.
Here we have simulated two Time Delay Estimation technique(CC and GCCPHAT) in matlab and compaired both the technique and found that GCC-PHAT
is the best technique it is more accurate than CC Two methods of TDE estimation
are presented, they are as follows.
24
Figure 2.16: Time Delay Estimation
(a) Cross Correlation: In signal processing cross correlation is a measure of

similarity between 2 signals as a functionof time lag between them. One common
method to estimate the time delay is to compute the cross correlation function
between the received signals at two microphones. Then locate the maximum peak
in the output which represents the estimated time delay . The CC can be modelled
by:
Let there be 2 signals:
S1(t) = X1(t) + n1(t).
(2.13)
S2(t) = X2(t) + n2(t)
(2.14)
For continuous signals S1 (t) and S2(t) cross correlation is defi

[S1 S2] =
S1( )S2( + t)d( )
as
(2.15)
where * is the complex conjugate of a function

TDOA is given as follows
T DOA = argmax([S1 S2](t))
(2.16)
As the signals we will be using are sampled discrete signals cross correlation for
discrete signals is defi
as
k=
S1 [k]S2[n + k]
(2.17)
T DOA = argmax((S1 S2)[n])/Fs
(2.18)
(S1 S2)[n] =
k=
25

where Fs is defi as the sampling rate.
(b) GCC-PHAT (Generalized Cross-Correlation using Phase transform)
: A way to sharpen the cross correlation peak is to whiten the input signals by
using weighting function, which leads to the so-called generalized cross-correlation
technique (GCC). The block diagram of a generalized cross-correlation processor is
shown in Figure . The PHAT is a GCC procedure which has received considerable
attention due to its ability to avoid causing spreading of the peak of the correlation
function ]. This can be expressed mathematically by:
X1(f ) = F (S1(t))
(2.19)
X2(f ) = F (S2(t))
(2.20)
where F is the Fourier transform of a function

X1(f ) X2(f )
|
|
|X1(f )| |X2(f )|
(2.21)
T DOA = argmax(Rphat(t))
(2.22)
GP HAT =
and Rphat (t) is defi
as:
Rphat = F 1(GP HAT )
(2.23)
There are several other methods for time delay estimation like correlation [11]
5
x 10
0.8
0.7
1.5
correlation peak
correlation peak
0.6
1
0.5
0
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.5
0.1
1
0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000 10000 12000 14000 16000

correlation lag
18000
2000
4000
6000
8000 10000
correlation lag
12000 14000 16000
18000
x 10
CC
15
GCCPHAT
0.7
correlation peak
correlation peak
0.6
10
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
5
200
210
220
230
240
250
correlation lag
260
270
280
290
200
210
220
230
240
250
correlation lag
260
270
280
290
Figure 2.17: Comparision of Time Delay Estimation between CC and GCC-PHAT
26
2.4. Conclusion
[12] [21] [25], [26] higher order statistics based methods etc. In view of its
simplicity, correlation is most commonly adopted method for the purpose. Other
time delay estimation methods include, Maximum Likelihood (ML) method, Average Square Difference Function (ASDF) method and Least Mean Square (LMS)
adaptive fi method. Of all these, GCC-PHAT is the most widely used method
to estimate time delay [27].
2.4 Conclusion
From this chapter we can acknowledge that for underwater channel simulation
mathematical model have been established which is complex, there is a need of
simple method. And in underwater localization lot has been said about time delay
estimation using correlation techinique but it may fail in underwater ambience
because of impulsive and multipath behaviour, There is need to improve the time
delay estimation method.
27
Chapter 3
Performance Analysis of Digital
Modulation Schemes in UW
Channel
In chapter-2 we have seen link design parameters and channel charecteristics and
about some digital modulation schemes which is very important for any communication system. Link design gives what is the power level required with respect
to diff t range, frequency, wind speed. So for acheiving the above task in this
chapter we fi simulate the underwater link design equation, simulated the noise
present in the underwater channel that is of colour noise and subsequently we have
applied diff t digital baseband modulation technique to fi the probability of
bit error such as BPSK, FSK and QPSK in MATLAB.
3.1
Link Design Analysis for a UWA Communication System
Figure 3.1 shows the typical temperature profi with surface of the sea at higher
temperature than the temperature at the sea bed. Here we can see, temperature
decreases with depth till some depth value 300 m and after that getting constant.
This corresponds to a summer profi of a typical sea. The impact of temperature
and pressure upon the sound velocity, c is shown in Figure . This can be viewed in
three domains. In the fi
domain, temperature is the dominating factor upon the
velocity of sound. In the second domain or transition domain, both the temperature and depths are dominating upon the velocity of sound. In the third domain,
28
3.1. Link Design Analysis for a UWA Communication System
Figure 3.1: Temperature vs Depth Curve
sound velocity purely depends on depths.

These three domains can be seen in fi
3.2, fi
domain is till depths of 200 m,
Figure 3.2: Sound Velocity vs Depth Curve
transition domain is from 200-400 m and the third domain is above 400m. Dependence of c on salinity, S is shown in fi 3.3. Here, with the increase of S,velocity
of sound, c, also increases keeping the shape of the profi unaff
[20]. From
fi 3.4 we can see that for a fi frequency if we increase the range, source
level requred is also increasing so as we increase the range source level required is
also increasing and from fi we can also see that for fi range as we increase
the frequency, source level required is also high. From figure 3.5 we can see that
for a fi detection threshold if we increase the range, source level requred is
also increasing so as we increase the range source level required is also increasing
and from fi we can also see that for fi range as we increase the detection
threshold , source level required is also increasing. From fi 3.6 we can see that
29
Figure 3.3: Sound Velocity Varying with Salanity

f
120
110
SLin dB
100
4KHZ
8KHZ
12KHZ
16KHZ
90
80
70
60
0
200
400
600
800
1000
range in meter
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
Figure 3.4: SL with Varying Range and Frequency
for a fi frequency if we increase the range, power requred to transmit the signal
is also increasing so as we increase the range power required is also increasing and
from fi we can also see that for fi range as we increase the detection threshold power required is also high. From fi 3.7 below we can see that ambient
noise is frequency and wind speed dependent as we increase the frequency for a
fi wind speed ambient noise decreases and after 100 hz for a fi frequncy as
wind speed increases ambient noise increase. In this chapter we present the results
obtained from a BPSK system with frequency offset correction and symbol timing
recovery in underwater scenario. The description for simulating underwater noise
30
140
130
120
SLin dB
110
100
SL vs range with DT = 20 dB
SL vs range with DT = 0 dB
90
80
70
60
0
200
400
600
800
1000
range in meter
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
Figure 3.5: SL with Varying Range and DT

10
x 10
Transmit Power vs Range: For a given Freq, DT = 20dB

F
F
F
F
3.5
= 4kHz
= 8kHz
= 12kHz
= 16kHz
Power in micro Watts
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
500
1000
range in meter
1500
2000
Figure 3.6: Power with Varying Range and Frequency
is presented and the performance of BPSK modulation is descibed in the following

subsections.
Simulating Underwater Channel
Communication channel modeling is important in detection theory. Due to the
randomness of the underwater medium, it is imperative to conduct a statistical
approximation of the real environment of the sea. Itis particularly diffi to
generate an exact statistical representation of the underwater channel due to its
inhomogeneity and non-stationary. It is common in the scientific and engineer31
Figure 3.7: Ambient Noise with Varying Wind Speed and Frequency
ing world to use additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) to represent the noise
in communication channels. Although it provides researchers with fairly good
approximation of the real data, it does not address specific cases of noise power
distribution. In this research, we will use the power spectral density function to
simulate model of underwater noise.
As highlighted before, the noise for an underwater scenario depends on frequency and wind speed. For simulation purpose a frequency range of 8-16 kHz has
been chosen. Colour noise is modeled by fi
additive white noise with underwater ambient noise spectrum level profi for wind speed 4 to 6 knots. For this the
ambient noise spectrum level values are obtained from Wenz curves (Figure3.7) for
sea state-3 at 1khz discrete intervals from 8khz to 16khz . In order to simulate the
underwater ambient noise scenario, first Additive White Gaussian Noise(AWGN)
with zero mean is generated. A FFT is applied to this AWGN noise to obtain
its frequency response. Then a point-to-point multiplication of the ambient noise
spectrum values and the AWGN noise at 1 khz interval is carried in frequency
domain. These frequency domain values are again subjected to IFFT to get the
time domain version of the noise. The spectrum and time domain versions of the
simulated colour noise are shown in Figure 3.8.
32
Spectrum of coloured noise
x 10
|N(f)|
3
2
1
0
2
1.5
0.5
0
f(Hz)
0.5
1.5
2
4
x 10
Coloured Noise
4
Amplitude
2
0
2
4
6
0
0.5
1.5
2
t
2.5
3.5
4
x 10
Figure 3.8: Spectrum and Time versions of Coloured Noise
Bit Error Performance of BPSK Modem in UW Chan- nel

For simualtion purpose random data has been generated and is BPSK modulated
with a carrier of frequency 12 kHz [37]- [40]. After modulation the generated
coloured noise is added and then demodulation has been performed with carrier
offset correction and timing recovery schemes thus recreating a complete BPSK
system. The performance metric used is the bit error rate (BER) calculation. The
theoritical and the observed values are plotted to obtain Figure. From fi
3.11
we can see BPSK BER in presence of white, color noise with and without carrier
offset. Here we can see that BER is highest for color noise with offset for a fi
SNR. This clearly shows that the it is very diffi
to do underwater communication as compaired to doing communication in free space.
33
Bit error probability curve for bpsk
10
10
10
Bit Error Rate
10
theory
white noise
colour noise
white noise with offset
colour noise with offset
10
10
white noise with offset corrected

colour noise with offset corrected
10
10
6
10
12
snr(dB)
Figure 3.9: BER Curves for Theoritical and Underwater Simulations using BPSK Modulation
Bit Error Performance of FSK Modem in UW Channel

Like BPSK here also for simulation purpose random data has been generated and
is FSK modulated with a carrier of frequency 12 kHz. After modulation the generated coloured noise is added and then demodulation has been performed with
carrier offset correction and timing recovery schemes thus recreating a complete
FSK system. The performance metric used is the bit error rate (BER) calculation.
The theoritical and the observed values are plotted to obtain Figure. From fi
3.10 we can see FSK BER in presence of white, color noise with and without carrier
offset. Here we can see that BER is highest for color noise with offset for a fi
SNR. This clearly shows that the it is very diffi
to do underwater communication as compaired to doing communication in free space.
34
Bit error probability curve for FSK with coloured noise
10
Bit Error Rate
10
10
theoretical ber
ber with coloured noise and with offset
ber with coloured noise and without offset
ber with coloured noise and with offset correction
10
10
5
snr(dB)
10
Figure 3.10: BER Curves for Theoritical and Underwater Simulations using FSK Modulation
3.1.3
Bit Error Performance of QPSK Modem in UW Channel
For simualtion purpose random data has been generated and is QPSK modulated
with a carrier of frequency 12 kHz. After modulation the generated coloured noise
is added and then demodulation has been performed thus recreating a complete
QPSK system. The performance metric used is the bit error rate (BER) calculation. The BER performance in presence of AWGN and Colored noise channel
observed values are plotted to obtain fi
rom fi 3.11 we can see QPSK
BER in presence of white, color noise . Here we can see that BER is highest for
color noise for a fi SNR.
35
3.2. Conclusion
bit error probabality vs snr
10
10
probabality of bit error
10
QPSK BER in Presence of AWGN Channel

QPSK BER in Presence of Color Noise
10
10
10
10
10
0
snr in dB
10
Figure 3.11: BER Curves for QPSK in AWGN channel and Underwater Channel using
QPSK Modulation
Conclusion
So from this chapter results we can analyze that bit error performance of diff t
digital modulation schemes performes badly in underwater channel as compared to
AWGN channel. So from above results we can see that receiving correct message
is extremly difficult in underwater scenario. It require more power and with many
other limitation such as low bandwidth, low data rate, low range etc.
36
Chapter 4
Proposed Method to Improve
UWA Source Localization
In chapter-3 we have seen the BER performance of diff t digital modulation
schemes. In this chapter we try to analyze the performance of well known time
delay estimation ( TDE ) techinique (GCC-PHAT) in underwater scenario where
noise is of impulsive nature and presence of multipath environment. And we have
proposed improved TDE method for underwater scenario.
Let s(t) represent a signal source periodically transmitting a signal. Let x1(t)
and x2(t) be signals received by two sensors at a distant location, arranged in a
known geometry. The received continous time signal is converted into discrete time
signal by an ADC as x1[n] and x2[n]. We then have,
x1[n] = s[n] + v1[n]
x2[n] = s[n D] + v2[n]
(4.1)
where v1[n] and v2[n] represent additive white gaussian noise and D is the discrete
time delay after which the second sensor received the transmitted signal. In general,
cross correlation of discrete time signals is defi as :
k=
Rx1x2 [n] =
x1 [k]x2[n + k]
(4.2)
k=
The Time Difference of Arrival (TDOA) of the two signals at the receivers is given
as,
T DOA = argmax(Rx1x2 [n])/Fs
37
(4.3)
Figure 4.1: Sensor Arrangement for TDE based Source Localization
where Fs is the sampling rate [31]. In case of low SNR at the receiver CC usually
fails to predict accurate time delay due to multiple correlation peaks. Generalized
Cross Correlation (GCC) is a modifi version of CC commonly used to estimate
time delay, D. Phase Transform (PHAT) is a modifi version of GCC which has
received considerable attention due to its ability to avoid spreading of correlation
peak [21]. GCC-PHAT can be mathematically expressed as:
GP HAT =
X1 (f ) X2 (f )
|X1(f )| |X2 (f )|
RP HAT (n) = F 1(GP HAT )
(4.4)
The Time Difference of Arrival (TDOA) is then obtained as,

T DOA = argmax {RP HAT (n)}
(4.5)
Once time delay D is computed, one may also compute direction of arrival of signal
as :
cD
= sin1
(4.6)
d
where d is the distance between two sensors, D is the estimated time delay, is
the angle of arrival of signal and c is the speed of sound in water. Since signal and
noise are uncorrelated (Rxv (n) = 0) Rx1x2 (n) has a correlation peak at n = D [26].
Figure 4.2 shows performance of TDE CC and GCC-PHAT in the presence of
white gaussian noise. A sharp peak corresponding to the time delay (D = 70) may
be seen in case of GCC-PHAT which indicates its improvement over CC.
In chapter-2 it is described that a shallow water communication channel is a
combination of several spiky signals [31] and also shallow water channels being
multipath dominated . We evaluate the performance of GCC-PHAT in presence of
38
Comparison of CC and GCC in AWGN Channel

1
CC
GCCPHAT
0.8
correlation peak
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
20
40
60
80
Correlation Lag
100
120
Figure 4.2: Performance of CC and GCC-PHAT in Presence of Gaussian Noise
contaminated gaussian noise. Figure 4.3 shows performance of 10% GCC-PHAT in

presence of outlier data (An outlier is an observation that is distinctly diff tfrom
bulk of the data). Clearly, several peaks are seen and we may conclude that the
probability of incorrect estimation of time delay is very high.
Coming to another scenario where GCC fails to accurately estimate the time
delay is in multipath channels. Shallow water channels being multipath dominated,
signals travelling through acoustic channel suffer from multipath induced fading
effects. Such multipath phenomenon leads to constructive as well as destructive
interference and results in phase shift of the signal. The mathematical model of
multipath scenario is commonly represented as:
x1(t) = s(t) h1,K (t) + n1(t)
x2(t) = s(t ) h2,K (t) + n2(t)
(4.7)
here is the delay, K is the number of paths taken by source signal to reach the
receiver. n1(t), n2(t) represent white gaussian noise and h1(t), h2(t), the impulse
response of underwater channel as seen by the two receivers in Figure-4.4.
39
Comparison of CC and GCC in Presence of Outliers

correlation peak
1
CC
0.5
0
0.5
1
20
40
60
80
Correlation Lag
correlation peak
0.05
100
120
GCCPHAT
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
20
40
60
80
Correlation Lag
100
120
Figure 4.3: Performance GCC-PHAT in Presence of Outlier Data
Figure 4.4: Multipath Scenario
In Figure-4.5 it may be seen that performance of Cross Correlation and GCCPHAT are degraded in multipath environment [35]. Thus we conclude that there
is a strong need to improve the performance of available TDE based localization
in underwater scenario.
40
4.1. Order Statistics Based Approach
Comparison of CC and GCC in Multipath Scenario

Correlation peak
1
CC
0.5
20
40
60
80
Correlation Lag
Correlation peak
0.06
100
120
GCCPHAT
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
20
40
60
80
Correlation Lag
100
120
Figure 4.5: CC and GCC-PHAT Performance in Multipath Scenario
Methods to Improve Time Delay Estimation for Underwater Acoustic Source Localization : It is evident that the performance of GCC-PHAT
degrades in presence of multipath environment and impulsive noise. To improve
estimation of time delay in such environments, we propose two approaches:
A) Order statistics based approach
B) Signal detection based approach
Order Statistics Based Approach

Order statistics
Suppose that (X1,...,Xn) are n jointly distributed random variables. The correI
sponding orderstatistics are the X i s arranged in non decreasing order. The smallI
est of the X is denoted by X1:n the second smallest is denoted by X2:n,..., and,
fi
, the largest is denoted by Xn:n. Thus X1:n X2:n .... Xn:n.

41
4.2. Signal Detection Based Approach
Applications of Order Statistics

(a) Robust Location Estimates
Suppose that n independent measurements are available, and we wish to estimate
their assumed common mean. It has long been recognized that the sample mean,
though attractive from many viewpoints, suffers from an extreme sensitivity to
outliers and model violations. Estimates based on the median or the average of
central order statistics are less sensitive to model assumptions. A particularly wellknown application of this observation is the accepted practice of using trimmed
means (ignoring highest and lowest scores)in evaluating Olympic fi skating
performances.
(b) Detection of Outliers
If one is confronted with a set of measurements and is concerned with determining
whether some have been incorrectly made or reported, attention naturally focuses
on certain order statistics of the sample. Usually the largest one or two and/or the
smallest one or two are deemed most likely to be outliers. Typically we ask questions like the following: If the observations really were iid, what is the probability
that the latgest order statistic would be as large as the suspiciously large value we
have observed?.
In this method we propose to improve the performance of GCC-PHAT in channels modeled with impulsive noise by exploiting the feature of order statistics of a
sample. Going by the proposed method, We fi fi order statistics of the sample
obtained at the two sensors, independently. Once order statistics are obtained, as
a next step we replace the fi few and last few order statistics by the assumed
(underlying) noise by choosing outliers from order statistics of the observed sample. Finally re-order the data as it was acquired. In other words we substitute the
outlier data by assumed noise. The point we have here is that impulsive noise is
responsible for multiple peaks when signal is such masked in noise. However it is
observed that order statistics based approach can only subdue multiple peaks in
impulsive noise, but not in multipath environment.
Signal Detection Based Approach

In previous subsection, we have suggested to use order statistics to improve the
performance of GCC-PHAT in presence of impulsive noise. However, it was observed order statistics based method does not to improve the accuracy of time
42
4.2. Signal Detection Based Approach

delay estimation in case of a multipath dominated environment. In order to improve the accuracy of localization through TDE methods, it is felt that one may
also view the time delay estimation problem to be a detection problem. The point
we have here is that - in TDE based localization, one fi the time delay between receiving signals at diff t sensors. That is if one sensor, S1 has received
the transmitted signal, then the other, S2 does not receive till some time, which
depends on geometrical arrangement of sensors. It is for this reason under this
proposition, we propose to view the TDE problem as a detection problem. Assuming the fi sensor to have received a signal, the second sensor receives only noise
under H0 for a time duration D, and the signal after this period. With this hypothesis, we may devise a binary detection problem at the second sensor as follows:
Under H0: x(n) = w(n), for duration D
Under H1: x(n) = A + w(n), after duration D
where n : 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . N-1. In the above devised detection problem,
x(n) represents the received signal at sensor S2 (assuming S1 has received a signal D secs ago, A represents the presence of a signal and w(n) is Additive White
Gaussian Noise (AWGN). According to [33], a Neyman Pearson likelihood ratio
test (LRT) decides H1, if
p(X; H1)
>
(4.8)
p(X; H0)
Since w(n) follows a gaussian distribution, the LRT detection statistic, T(X) boils
down to,
T (X) =
xi >
(4.9)
i=1
where =
is: =
NA
2
+ ln. For a given probability of false alarm (P

A
FA
), threshold
Q1(PF A). However it needs to be mentioned here that the purpose

of detection in present scenario is to estimate the time delay estimate between two
signals at the receivers. For this we defi a window length, by which we compute
equation-4.9 on this window. In computing , we substitute N by WL, where WL
is the window length to compute T(X). If T(x) does not cross the threshold , the
window is moved by one sample and an initialized count is incremented by one (1).
As the window is moved progressively, the count accumulates and when the signal
is detected (for one of the shifts), the accumulated count amounts to estimated
time delay.
43
4.3. Performance Improvement of GCC-PHAT in Presence of Impulsive Noise:

Proposed Order Statistics Based Approach
We shall demonstrate that LRT based approach improves accuracy of estimated
time delay as compared to GCC-PHAT in multipath environments as well as in
presence of outliers. We shall also demonstrate that the performance of LRT based
TDE improves with signal to noise ratio, i.e. with A. Futhermore if the sample
contains a few outliers, we recommend to use order statistics based methodology to
increase the TDE performance of LRT based approach. TDE performance of the
two methods proposed above. Through simulation First we present the of scope of
improvement of GCC-PHAT in presence of impulsive noise. Then we present the
proposed signal detection (LRT) based solution for improved TDE as compared to
GCC-PHAT in presence of impulsive noise as well as in multipath environments.
Towards the end of the section we also compare the performance of GCC-PHAT
and LRT based TDE when used with order statistics based approach.
Performance Improvement of GCC-PHAT in

Presence of Impulsive Noise: Proposed Order Statistics Based Approach
We have observed that GCC-PHAT estimates the time delay in presence of gaussian
noise with a strong direct path signal availability. However it fails, when these
assumptions fail to hold. In such poor channel state, when GCC-PHAT is used
with the order statistics based approach, perfomance of GCC-PHAT to estimate
the time delay improves greatly. Figure 4.6 depicts the received signal, and the
signals before and after incorporating order statistics. It is evident from the fi
that as the outlier data is substituted by underlying (assumed) gaussian noise, the
shape of received signal at one of the sensors is retrieved. Figure 4.7 compares the
performance of GCC-PHAT before and after fi
order statistics and replacing
the 10% extreme order statistics presence of 10% of outliers. Clearly before fi
order statistics, multiple peaks are seen whereas after fi
order statistics a
sharp peak corresponding to delay of D = 70 may be observed.
Figure-4.8 &
4.9 shows probability of correct TDE in presence of cauchy noise. It depicts the
received signal, and the signals before and after incorporating order statistics.
It is evident from the fi that corrupted data is substituted by underlying
(assumed) gaussian noise, the shape of received signal at one of the sensors is
retrieved. Figure 4.8 compares the performance of GCC-PHAT before and after
fi
order statistics and replacing the 10% extreme order statistics presence
44

Amplitude
50
0
50
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
1000
2000
3000
time
4000
5000
6000
Amplitude
200
0
200
0
Amplitude
20
0
20
Figure 4.6: Signals Received by Sensor 2 at Different Conditions (i.e signal without any
noise, with (noise+outliers) and After Using Order Statistics
GCCPHAT Performance in Presence of outliers
0.05
Correlation peak
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
20
30
40
50
60
70
Correlation lag
80
90
100
110
120
GCCPHAT in Presence of outlier after using Orderstatistics
0.05
Correlation peak
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
20
30
40
50
60
70
Correlation lag
80
90
100
110
120
Figure 4.7: Performance of GCC-PHAT in Presence of Outliers Before and After Using
Proposed Order Statistics (based approach)
of 10% of outliers. Clearly before fi g order statistics, multiple peaks are seen
whereas after fi
order statistics a sharp peak corresponding to delay of D = 70
may be observed. Even in presence of cauchy noise (very impulsive noise) if we
45

Probability of Correct time delay estimate using GCC
10
GCC in Cauchy noise with outlier

GCC in Cauchy noise with outlier using orderstatistic
10
10
10
50
100
150
200
250
Amplitude
300
350
400
450
500
Figure 4.8: Performance of GCC-PHAT in Presence of Cauchy Noise Outliers Before and
After Using Proposed Order Statistics (based approach)
Probability of Correct time delay estimate using GCC
10
10
GCC in Cauchy noise with outlier

GCC in Cauchy noise with outlier using orderstatistic
10
10
50
100
150
200
250
Amplitude
300
350
400
450
500
Figure 4.9: Performance of GCC-PHAT in presence of cauchy noise a) Without using

Order Statistics b) With Outlier c) With Outlier Using Proposed Order
Statistics (based approach)
incorporate the order statistics method this approach work well as we see in fi
4.8 & 4.9.
46
4.4. Improved Time Delay Estimation: Proposed LRT based Approach
Improved Time Delay Estimation: Proposed

LRT based Approach
In this subsection we present simulation results and observations for the proposed
signal detection based approach for time delay estimation. For this we assume a
signal with N ( = 4500) samples is received at sensor S1. We also assume that the
sensor S2 receives no signal for a duration D (= 550 samples) sec and then receives
the transmitted signal with amplitude (A volts) after D samples. We consider a
fi window length (WL = 45) for present simulations and perform detection of
signal. That is, for agiven PF A we fi a threshold and compute the statistic in
equation-4.9. In case no signal is detected we move the window one sample further
and perform detection once again. This way we move the window (by a sample)
till a signal is detected. Each time we move the window to detect a signal, we
increment the estimated delay by one. The number of times the detection window
is moved, the delay is estimated as the effective delay count. For diff t PF A,
the probability of detecting the delay is evaluated and plotted.
0
Probability of Detection( Correct TDE )
10
LRT
LRT10% Outlier
0.2
0.4
0.6
Probability of False Alarm
0.8
Figure 4.10: Receiver Operating Charecteristic of the detector devised to compute estimated time delay: With and without Outliers
47

Figure-4.10 depicts the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) of the designed detector, for two cases, namely without and with (10%) outliers in the
received signal. As may be seen in Figure-4.11, when a few (10%) outliers were
overlaid on the signal, performance of the detector degrades. However, performance of the LRT based time delay estimation was better than GCC-PHAT, as
may be several times observed in Table 4.1.
From fi
4.12 we can see that LRT perform very well in presence of cauchy
0
10
LRT
LRT in Multipath without no Outlier
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure 4.11: Receiver Operating Charecteristic of the Detector in without and with Multipath
noise even in low amplitude also as compaired to GCC-PHAT. In presence of

cauchy noise outlier it perform not so well as without outliers. Figure 4.13 compares the performance of proposed detection based TDE for 3 cases, namely no
outliers, multipath environment (when no outlier) and in multipath with impulsive
noise. It is observed that GCC-PHAT could not improve TDE accuracy in multipath environments. However the proposed LRT based method could accurately
estimate the time delay in multipath environments, both in presence as well as in
absence of outliers.
Table 4.1 demonstrates the performance improvement of the LRT based TDE
as compared to GCC-PHAT when 10% outliers were present in the data, especially for low SNR case. As SNR increases, probability of peak detection and
48
Probability of correct time delay estimate
LRT in presence of cauchy noise

LRT in presence of cauchy noisewith outlier
0.1
10
0.2
10
10
15
Amplitude
Figure 4.12: Comparison of LRT in presence of Cauchy Noise with and without outlier
with different amplitude of the signal
Table 4.1: Comparison of GCC-PHAT and LRT for Time Delay Estimation in Presence
of Outliers
Pd
(GCC-PHAT)
0.01
0.0013
0.1
0.0018
0.5
0.0028
1
0.0031
2
0.0036
5
0.0169
8
0.1767
10
0.4546
Pd
(LRT)
0.4986
0.5027
0.5035
0.5061
0.5070
0.5081
0.5085
0.516
hence time delay estimation improves in case of GCC-PHAT which is due to the
basic characteristic of GCC.
49
4.5. Performance of GCC-PHAT and LRT based TDE: In Presence of Outliers

when Order Statistics Incorporated
Performance of GCC-PHAT and LRT based

TDE: In Presence of Outliers when Order
Statistics Incorporated
Table 4.2: Comparision of GCC-PHAT and LRT for time delay estimation in Presence
of Outlier after using order-stastics
Pd
(GCC-PHAT)
0.01
0.0016
0.1
0.0081
0.5
0.0879
1
0.8541
2
1
5
1
8
1
10
1
Pd
(LRT)
0.4827
0.4952
0.5235
0.5567
0.6260
0.7840
0.8526
0.8648
Table 4.2 compares performance of GCC-PHAT and LRT when order statistics
based idea is corporated in both GCC -PHAT and LRT based methods. Though
LRT based approach proposed better as seen in Table 4.1, however when GCC-
10
LRT
LRT in Multipath with no Outlier
LRT in Multipath with outlier
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure 4.13: Comparison of Receiver Operating Charecteristic of the Detector a) No

multipath b)Multipath c)Multipath with outliers
50
4.5. Performance of GCC-PHAT and LRT based TDE: In Presence of Outliers

when Order Statistics Incorporated
Probability of detection (Table I)
10
10
GCCPHAT
LRT
10
10
4
6
Amplitude of the signal
10
Figure 4.14: Probability of Detection of GCC-PHAT and LRT without using Order
Statistics in Presence of Outliers
0
Probability of detection (Table II)
10
GCCPHAT
LRT
10
10
10
4
6
Amplitude of the signal
10
Figure 4.15: Probability of Detection of GCC-PHAT and LRT with using Order Statistics in Presence of Outliers
PHAT and LRT based approach are performed after taking order statistics (and
replacing 5% extreme order statistics of the sample) it is observed that GCC-PHAT
gradually outperform LRT based method, for in large SNR scenario.
51
4.6. Conclusion
Conclusion
From the results shown in this chapter, it is observed that there is a significant
improvement in the estimated TD if the proposed signal detection based method
is employed for improvement of TDE, and hence for localization in underwater
scenario.
52
Chapter 5
Conclusion and Future Directions
Work Done
The fi of underwater communication and acoustic source localization has been
a subject of great interest to academia for a variety of reasons. There has an
increasing scope for its applications in underwater sea environment with increasing automation. The thesis undertaken by us has culminated in very encouraging
results in the fi ld of of underwater acoustic communication and source localization.
Underwater acoustic communication

The main goal of the present work was to analyze the behaviour of digital modulation techniques in underwater ambience. It is felt that a simplified approach to
designing the channel model was a good solution to start investigations in such a
complex fi of study, such as underwater and work was inititated on that front.
First we had analyzed the characteristics of underwater channel. Using the characteristics underwater colour noise has been simulated in the range of 8-16 kHz.
This simulated noise has been added to BPSK, FSK and QPSK modulated data
and BER performance has been evaluated. The BER plots clearly indicate the
diff
between a white noise and coloured noise assumption. It is evident from
the obtained results that it requires more SNR than in an AWGN case to transmit
data in an underwater case for the same BER.
53
5.2. Scope of Future Work
Underwater acoustic source localization

In Localization GCC-PHAT a well known method fails to accurately estimate the
time delay in multipath dominated environments and in presence of impulsive
cauchy noise. Two methods were proposed to estimate time delay in these channels, and it is demonstrated through Monte-carlo simulations that performance of
GCC-PHAT can be improved by using order statistics. By using LRT test based
approach, it is observed that where it is not possible to estimate time delay in
impulsive and multipath environments by GCC, improved time delay estimation is
possible with the proposed signal detection based approach, which in turn improves
acoustic source localization in underwater channels.
5.2 Scope of Future Work

During the course of the entire thesis work, there have been several problems. The
thesis has achieved the goal, though with larger form factor than anticipated in
the begining. In this research, direct path transmission was assumed, future work
can improve our model by adding Rayleigh fading (fading of a signal according to
Rayleigh distribution) as well as Doppler Effect (change in the observed frequency
of a sound signal when the source and observer are in motion relative to each other).
Another relevant area that requires further study is the modulation techniques
used, where more simulation and testing of various types of modulations need to be
done and compared. This may be particularly diffi in scenarios where multipath
occurs and so more robust and complex modulation techniques, like OFDM, should
be tried. These aspects have to be balanced with coding strategies that can, in
some cases, be sufficient to achieve an adequate BER with a simpler modulation.
These considerations will largely depend on the application being investigated and
the channel characteristics, leading to more complex or simpler solutions. It is
expected that all this work will lead to a robust underwater communication system.
In localization real time experiments could make it more realistic also these aspects
of the above results have been dealt with hardware and it is perceived that the
current thesis work has future scope in this direction.
54
Chapter 6
Publications from Thesis Work
[1].Bipin Patel, Susmita sen, Sambunath Nandy, Siva Ram Krishna Vadali, On
Methods to Improve Time Delay Estimation for Underwater Acoustic Source Localization, The IEEE International Conference On Mechatronics and Automation,
Tianjin, China, 2014 (Accepted).
55
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[6] M. Stojanovic. Recent advances in high-speed underwater acoustic communications. Oceanic Engineering, IEEE Journal of, 21(2):125136, 1996.
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On Underwater Acoustic Communication & Source

School of Mechatronics & Robotics

APPROVAL OF THE VIVA-VOCE BOARD

Certified that the thesis entitled On Underwater Acoustic Communication

(Shri. Siva Ram Krishna Vadali)

(Shri. Sambhunath Nandy )

(Dean of Faculty of Engineering and Technology)

Approval of the Viva-Voce Board ........................................................................ ii

Why Underwater ............................................................................................... 1

Underwater Channel .................................................................................... 6

Multipath Phenomenon in Underwater Channel ...................... 11

A Brief note on Underwater Acoustic Communication .......................... 14

Bit Error Performance of BPSK Modem in UW Channel . .

Bit Error Performance of FSK Modem in UW Channel . . .

Bit Error Performance of QPSK Modem in UW Channel . .

4 Proposed Method to Improve UWA Source Localization

Order Statistics Based Approach................................................................. 41

Performance of GCC-PHAT and LRT based TDE: In Presence of

Work Done ................................................................................................... 53

Performance GCC-PHAT in Presence of Outlier Data .......................... 40

1.2. Related Work

1.2. Related Work

1.3. Contribution of Thesis Work

Contribution of Thesis Work

1.4. Thesis Organization

Channel Characteristics and Link Design Parameters

2.1. Underwater Channel

2.1. Underwater Channel

density, c is the velocity of the sound wave propagation

2.1. Underwater Channel

(g)Transmission Loss: Transmission loss is the reduction in signal intensity

2.1. Underwater Channel

Modelling Noise Behaviour in Shallow Water Environment

2.1. Underwater Channel

Multipath Phenomenon in Underwater Channel

Figure 2.1: Multipath Scenario

2.1. Underwater Channel

2.1. Underwater Channel

2.2. A Brief note on Underwater Acoustic Communication

A Brief note on Underwater Acoustic Communication

Figure 2.2: Underwater Communication

Figure 2.2 shows typical underwater acoustic communication. Underwater

2.2. A Brief note on Underwater Acoustic Communication

2.2.1 Coherent Modulation

2.2. A Brief note on Underwater Acoustic Communication

Figure 2.3: BPSK Signal Modulated with Carrier Frequency of 1kHz

2.3. Acoustic Source Localization in Underwater Ambience

Figure 2.5: Match Filter Output of Noisy Data

Acoustic Source Localization in Underwater

2.3. Acoustic Source Localization in Underwater Ambience

2.3. Acoustic Source Localization in Underwater Ambience

Figure 2.7: SONAR

is a technique that uses sound propagation (usually underwater, as in submarine

2.3. Acoustic Source Localization in Underwater Ambience

Figure 2.8: Hydrophone :

Figure 2.9: Pinger

2.3. Acoustic Source Localization in Underwater Ambience

Figure 2.10: Long-Baseline (LBL) Systems

2.3. Acoustic Source Localization in Underwater Ambience

Figure 2.11: Ultra Short Base Line

(c) SBL- Short Base Line : As we see in fi

2.12 SBL. The calculation of

Figure 2.12: Short Base Line

2.3. Acoustic Source Localization in Underwater Ambience

On Underwater Acoustic Communication & Source Localization

On Underwater Acoustic Communication & Source Localization