Experiment No: 9

Metre bridge

Date
Aim: To determine the specific resistance of a given wire by using metre bridge.
Apparatus: Metre bridge, the given wire galvanometer, DC source, variable resistance
box, Screw gauge, connecting wires etc.,
Formula: = RA / l Where R is the resistance of the given wire, A is the area of cross
section of the wire l is the length of the wire.
If X is in the right gap X = R (100- l1) / l1
If X is in the left gap

X = R l1 / (100-l1)

Circuit diagram:

Observation: X in the right gap

S.No
.

l1

cm

100- l1 X = R (100-l1)
l1
cm

Mean X =
X in the left gap

S.No
.

l1

cm

100- l1 X =
cm

R l1
(100 - l1)

Mean X =

Least count of the screw gauge = 0.01mm

Zero error =

Zero correction =

h
S.No

PSR
mm

HSR

CHSR

TR= PSR+(CHSR x LC)

mm

Mean =

Procedure:

Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram. Switch on the circuit. .Adjust the variable
resistance say for 1. Check for the opposite deflection in the galvanometer by
keeping the jockey at the extreme ends of the metre bridge wire. If there are opposite
deflections the circuit connections are correct. Or else check for tightness of the
connections, source connections and the correctness of the wiring. Once the
connections are found correct, adjust the variable resistance for different values and in
each case find the balancing length and record the values in the l 1 column. Calculate
the X value in each case by using the formula for right gap X and record the values.
Find the average X and record. Repeat the whole experiment by keeping the X in the
left gap and the variable resistance in the right gap. Calculate the average of the
averages obtained in the two cases. Calculate the diameter of the given wire with the
help of a screw gauge. Calculate the resistivity of the wire and record.
Result: The resistance of the given wire =
The resistivity of the given wire

Sources of error: 1. Connections may be loose.

2.The cross section of the bridge wire may not be uniform.
Precautions: 1 Check for tight connections.
2 Do not scratch the wire by sliding the jockey

Experiment 10

Potentiometer internal resistance

Date:
Aim: To determine the internal resistance of a given primary cell
Apparatus: Potentiometer, given cell, galvanometer, variable resistance, rheostat, DC
source, plug keys, high resistance ,connecting wires etc.,

Formula:

r = R ( l1 l 2 ) / l 2

Circuit diagram:

Procedure: Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram. Switch on key 1. Check for
opposite deflections for the extreme ends of the potentiometer wire. If there is no
deflection or one side deflection check for the correctness of the connections and their
tightness. Find the balancing length l1 by keeping Key 2 open. Record the value. Press
Key 2 closed and adjust the R value say for 1 . Find out the balancing length l 2 for
different values of R determine l2 in each case and record the values. Calculate the
internal resistance by using the formula: r = R ( l1 l2 ) / l2. Record the values.
Calculate the average internal resistance.

Observation:

Balancing length l1
S.N
o

cm

L2 cm

r = R ( l1 l2)
l1

cm

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Result: The internal resistance of the given cell is found to be =

Sources of error:
1.There may be loose connections
2.Parallax error may occur in measurement
3.Number of the wire in which the balancing point is taken may go wrong
Precautions:
1. Avoid parallax
2. Check for tight connections
3. Count the number of the wire in which the balancing point is observed carefully

Experiment: 11

Metre bridge Laws of resistances

Date
Aim: To verify the law of resistances using metre bridge.
Apparatus: Metre bridge, the given resistances, galvanometer, DC source, variable
resistance box, connecting wires etc.,
Formula: Rs = R1+R2

1/Rp = 1/R1+ 1/R2

If unknown resistance X is in the right gap X = R (100- l 1) / l1

Where Rs is is the net resistance in series and Rp is the net resistance in
parallel and R1 and R2 are the given resistances, R is the variable resistance and the
l1 is the balancing length.
Circuit diagram:

Observation: R1 in the right gap

S.No
.

l1

cm

100- l1 R1 = R (100-l1)
l1
cm

Mean R1 =
R2 in the right gap

S.No
.

l1

cm

100- l1 R2 = R (100-l1)
l1
cm

Mean R 2 =

R1 & R2 in series in the right gap

S.No
.

l1

cm

100- l1 Rs = R (100-l1)
l1
cm

Mean Rs =

R1 & R2 in parallel in the right gap

S.No
.

l1

cm

100- l1
cm

Rp = R (100-l1)
l1

Mean R p =
Procedure:
Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram. Switch on the circuit with R 1 in the right
and the variable resistance in the left gap of the metre bridge.. Adjust the variable
resistance R say for 1. Check for the opposite deflection in the galvanometer by
keeping the jockey at the extreme ends of the metre bridge wire. If there are opposite
deflections the circuit connections are correct. Or else check for tightness of the
connections, source connections and the correctness of the wiring. Once the
connections are found correct, adjust the variable resistance for different values and in
each case find the balancing length and record the values in the l 1 column. Calculate
the R1 value in each case by using the formula for right gap and record the values. Find
the average R1 and record. Repeat the whole experiment by keeping the R 2 in the right
gap. Repeat the experiment with R 1 and R2 in series and in parallel in the right gap and
record the values. Calculate the net values of resistances in series and in parallel by
using the laws of reistances. Compare the calculated values and the experimental
values.
Result: The resistance R1=

The resistance R2=

Resistances in series by experiment =

Resistances in series by formula

=

Resistances in parallel by experiment =

Resistances in parallel by formula

=
Hence the laws are verified.
Sources of error: 1. Connections may be loose.
2.The cross section of the bridge wire may not be uniform.
Precautions: 1 Check for tight connections.
2 Do not scratch the wire by sliding the jockey
Experiment :12
AC Sonometer

Date:
Aim: To find the frequency of the household alternating current by using a sonometer.
Apparatus: Sonometer, Step down transformer, hanger with variable weights,
connecting wires, magnet etc.,

n = (1/2l) T/m

Formula:

Where n is the frequency of AC, l is the vibrating length at resonance, T is the tension
in the wire and m is the mass per unit length of the wire. We can modify the formula as
follows
n = (g/d2)(M/l 2) Where is density of the wire, M is the load in the
hanger and d is the diameter of the wire.
Observation:
S.No.

Load M
kg

Vibrating length
Loadin unloadin
g
g

cm
Mean

(kg/cm 2)

Mean M

Diameter of the wire:

=
2

Least count of the screw gauge = 0.01mm

Zero error =

Zero correction =

h
S.No

PSR
mm

HSR

CHSR

TR= PSR+(CHSR x LC)

mm

Mean d =
Procedure:
Connect the terminals of the step down transformer with the ends of the sonometer
brass wire with the help of two connecting wires. Adjust the weight on the hanger of the
sonometer say for 0.6 kg. Keep the permanent magnet at the centre of the sonometer.
Adjust the positions of the knife edges such that they are very close and at equal
distances from the magnet on either sides. Switch on the transformer. Move the knife
edges slowly away from the magnet. Observe the wire. At one stage it starts vibrating
with maximum amplitude. This happens at resonance. i.e., the frequency of the ac and
the natural frequency of the wire are equal. Measure the gap between the knife edges
as the vibrating length. Note down in the vibrating length loading column. Repeat the
experiment by increasing the load in steps of 200 gram. Repeat the experiment by
reducing the weight in steps of 200gm and record the values of vibrating length in the
unloading column. Calculate the mean vibrating length for each load. Calculate the
value of M
in each case and record the values. Calculate the mean of last column.

Measure the diameter of the wire with the help of a screw gauge and record the values.
Calculate the value of n and record the value.
Result:
The frequency of the AC is found to be =

hertz

Sources of error:
1 There may be loose connections
2 The wire may get heated up due to the current and its resistance
3 Knife edges may not be at equi- distant from the magnet.
4 The amplitude may not be the exact maximum.
Precautions: 1.Check for tight connections
2.Avoid heating up of the wire by doing the observation fast.
3.Maintain the knife edges always at equal distance from the magnet
4. Try always for the maximum amplitude

Experiment:13
Date:

Galvanometer

Aim: To find out the resistance of a given galvanometer and to calculate its figure of
merit.
Apparatus: Given galvanometer, variable resistance boxes, DC source, plug keys,
connecting wires etc.,
Formula:

G = (RS) / ( R-S )

R and S are variable resistances and G is the galvanometer resistance

Figure of merit of a galvanometer is K = E / (R+G) Where K is figure of merit, E is
the emf of the source used and is the deflection made by the galvanometer needle.
Circuit diagram:

Observation:
S.N
o

/2

G = RS / R- S

K = E / (R+G)

A/Div

Procedure: Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram. By keeping K 1 closed and K2
open adjust the value of R such that you get some deflection in the galvanometer with
even number of divisions. Note down the value of R and in the tabular column. Switch

on K2 and adjust the value of S such that the deflection in the galvanometer becomes
/2. Note the value of S. Repeat the experiment for different even number values of .
Note down the value of emf E of the electric source used. Calculate the values of G
and K in each case. Record the values. Find the average values of G and K.

Result: The galvanometer resistance G =

The figure of merit of the galvanometer K =

Sources of error: 1. There may be loose connections.

2. There may be parallax error.
3. The resistance may get heated up.

Precautions: 1.Check for tight connections

2.Avoid parallax during observations
3.Do not allow the current for a long time

Experiment:14
Date:

Zener Diode

A/division

Aim: To draw the characteristic curve of a Zener diode and hence to determine its
reverse break down voltage.
Apparatus: Zener diode circuit board with voltmeters and ammeters, connecting wires
Circuit diagram & Sample graphs:

Procedure:
Connect the circuit as shown in the forward bias circuit diagram. Switch on the circuit.
Adjust the supply voltage in steps and record the values of the voltage and the
corresponding current values. Remove the connections and wire the circuit as shown in
the reverse bias circuit. Switch on the circuit and adjust the supply voltage in steps and
record the values of the voltage and the corresponding current values in each case. Plot
the graphs between V and I for the forward bias and reverse bias observations. Note
down the break down voltage for the Zener diode and record.
Observation:
Least count of the voltmeter =
Least count of the ammeter =

Forward bias

Reverse bias

S.N
O

Pot.Dif Curren
Curre
Pot.Diff
fV V
tnt
mA
mA

S.NO

Result:
The reverse bias break down voltage of the Zener diode is =
Sources of error:
1.There may be loose connections
2. Parallax error may occur
3.Diode may get heated up
Precautions:
1. Check for tight connections,
2. Avoid parallax
3. Make the observations fast and switch of the source when the circuit is not in use.

Experiment: 15
Date:

Transistor Characteristics

S.No.

VBEVBE V V

A
IBIB A

Aim: To draw the

NPN transistor at
determine its

characteristics curves of an
common emitter mode and to
current gain

Apparatus:
common emitter
and voltmeters,
etc.,

Transistor circuit board at

mode with required ammeters
rheostat, connecting wires

Formula:

Current gain

Where Ic is the
IB is the change

change in collector current and

in base current

=I

Circuit diagram:
Observation:
Least count of
A
Least count of
V
Least count of
mA
Least count of
V

the ammeter for IB

the voltmeter for VBE =

the ammeter for IC
S.No.

the voltmeter for VCE =

Input Characters:
Output voltage
Output voltage

VCE = 4V
VCE = 6 V

/ IB

S.No.

VCEV V
VCE

mA
ICIC mA

Output
Input current IB
Input current IB

Characters:
= 40 A
= 60 A

Transfer
=6V

characteristics:

S.No
.

IB A

IC mA

S.N
o

IB

IC

mA

S.No
.

10

11

12

S.No.

Output voltage
IB

IC

mA

Procedure:
Connect
the
Switch on the
the
potential
ensure the zero

circuit as shown in the diagram.

circuit. To begin with rotate both
divider knobs anti clock wise to
values are shown by the meters.

Input
circuit potential
voltage say 4V.
constant,
knob gently to
steps.
Note
voltages
and

Characters: Adjust the output

divider knob for an output
By keeping this output voltage
adjust the input potential divider
increase the input voltage in
down the various values of input
the corresponding input currents

in the tabular column. Repeat the experiment for another steady output voltage say 6V.
Bring the knobs to zero value once again.
Output Characters: Now by gently adjusting input supply knob, set an input current at
40A. Keeping this fixed at the same value of input current, adjust the output voltage
supply knob in steps to get different values of output voltages. Note down the output
voltages and the corresponding output currents in the tabular column. Repeat the
experiment for another input current say 60 A. Bring the knobs to zero value once
again.
Transfer Characters: Adjust the output circuit knob for a steady output voltage say 6V.By
keeping this steady adjust the input circuit knob in steps to get different input currents.
In each case record the input and the corresponding output current values.
Draw separate graphs for the input characteristics, output characteristics and transfer
characteristic graphs using the data collected. Calculate the current gain from the slope
of the transfer characteristic graph.
Result: The characteristic curves of the given NPN transistor is drawn.
The current gain is found to be

Sources of error:
1.There may be loose connections
2. Parallax error may occur
3.Transistor may get heated up
Precautions:
1. Check for tight connections,
2. Avoid parallax
3. Make the observations fast and switch of the source when the circuit is not in use.
Activity : 1

Identification of electronic components

Date :

Aim: To identify the various electronic components from a collection

Apparatus: The given components: Diode, Transistor, IC, LED, Capacitor, Resistor
etc.,

Procedure: From the mixed components identify

i
ii
iii

iv
v

vi

The one with maximum number of legs. i.e., more than 3 leads, it is an
integrated circuit (IC)
The one with two leads and with color rings on its body is a resistor
Resistors of different sizes and body colors but all will have color rings
The one with two leads but with green/ black body color is a diode
The green diode will have a flat end and another end curved. The black diode
will have a silver ring on one end of the body.
The one with three legs is a transistor. Some transistors have metallic body
and some with plastic
The one with two leads but wrapped with a plastic cover printed with the details
of voltage and capacitance value is a capacitor. In a dielectric capacitor the
leads will have difference in length. Longer leg is positive terminal and the other
is negative
The one with two leads but transparent body with either white or colored body
is an LED. This will also have legs with length difference. Longer is positive and
the short one is negative

Result: The given components are identified

Activity : 2

Polaroids

Date:
Aim: To study the effect of rotation of one polaroid in front of the other
Apparatus: The given Polaroids
Procedure: Hold the set of polaroids in your hand. Stretch your arm towards a
glowing white light source or towards the window or door of your lab such that the
centres of the polaroids are in line with your eye sight. By keeping one polaroid fixed
rotate the other slowly and steadily. Observe the brightness of the light visible to you

when you see through the polaroids. You can notice that at one stage there is no light
passing through the polaroids. From this position rotate slowly further through a full
circle, either clock wise or anticlockwise and observe with care . You can notice that
slowly the darkness decreases and maximum brightness is visible at 90 rotation.
Then slowly the brightness decreases and maximum darkness is reached at 180.
Again the darkness decreases and maximum brightness is reached again at 270.
Then for further rotation in the same direction brightness decreases to reach the
maximum darkness at 360

Result: The effect of the change in brightness of light passing through polaroids due to
the change in angle between the optical axes of two polaroids is observed.

Activity : 3

Potential gradient

Aim: To determine the potential gradient along the length of a wire

Apparatus: Potentiometer, DC source, Rheostat, Plug Key, Voltmeter, Connecting
wires etc.,
Formula: Potential gradient = V / l Where V is potential difference and l is the length
of the wire.
Circuit diagram:

Observation:
S.N
o

Potential
Difference
volt

Length of
the wire
(cm)

K = V/ l
v/cm
Procedure:
Connect the potentiometer circuit
as shown in the diagram. Switch on
the circuit. Keep the jockey at

50,150,250,350,450,550,650,750,850,950 cm lengths of the potentiometer and record

the corresponding potential differences in the voltmeter. Calculate the potential gradient
by using the formula k=v/l. Find the average potential gradient.
Result: The potential gradient of the potentiometer wire is =

v/cm

Activity 4

Glass slab

Date:
Aim: To study the lateral shift in the path of a light ray in a glass slab
Apparatus: Drawing board,glass slab, protractor, scale, pencil, drawing sheet etc.,
Observation:
S.No.

Thickness

cm

Lateral shift cm

Procedure:
Fix the drawing sheet on the drawing board. Place the glass slab on the sheet. Mark the
outline of the slab with a sharp pencil. Select a point of incidence on the left half of the
top line of the slab. Draw a normal at that point. By using a protractor mark 30 angle
and draw the incident ray. Fix two pins with sufficient gap between them and with
sufficient gap with the slab. Replace the slab on its outline perfectly. See from the other
side of the slab. Fix two pins on the other side of the slab by looking through the slab
such that the images of the first two pins seen through the slab and the 3 rd and 4th pin
are aligned as if there is only one pin. Join the positions of the 3 rd and 4th pin. Extend the
incide4nt ray. Find the lateral shift of the incident ray. Repeat experiment for various
faces of the slab. Compare and conclude the relation between the thickness of the glass
and the lateral shift.
Result: As thickness increases the lateral shift also increases

Activity: 5

Inductance and resistance

Date:
Aim: To study the inductance and resistance of a coil of wire by passing ac through a
coil.
Apparatus: The given coil, iron core, ac source, dc source, connecting wires, voltmeters
and ammeters
Circuit diagram:

Observation:
Core

DC V

DC

AC V

AC

Reactance

Air

Iron
Procedure: Connect the coil with dc source as shown in diagram 1.Switch on the circuit,
measure the volt and current with and without iron core. Calculate the values of
resistance in both cases. Repeat the experiment by connecting the coil with an ac
source and ac meters. Find the inductive reactance and compare it with the resistance
of the coil.
Result:
Resistance of the coil in DC circuit: with iron core =
Without iron core =
Reactance of the coil in ac source with iron core =
Without iron core =