Soc Indic Res (2012) 108:525534

DOI 10.1007/s11205-011-9891-9

Association Between Caregiving, Meaning in Life,

and Life Satisfaction Beyond 50 in an Asian Sample:
Age as a Moderator
Rebecca P. Ang Jiaqing O

Accepted: 13 June 2011 / Published online: 21 June 2011

Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

Abstract The association between caregiving, meaning in life, and life satisfaction was
examined in sample of 519 older Asian adults beyond 50 years of age. Two hierarchical
multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine age as moderator of the associations between caregiving, meaning in life, and life satisfaction. Age moderated the
association between caregiving and life satisfaction; the association between caregiving
and life satisfaction was statistically significant for the middle adulthood group but not for
the late adulthood group. Age moderated the association between meaning in life and life
satisfaction; the association between meaning in life and life satisfaction was statistically
significant for both groups, but it was stronger in magnitude for the late adulthood group
compared to the middle adulthood group. These findings highlight that there are certain
key developmental tasks encountered by individuals at the middle and late adulthood
stages, and that these distinctive relevant tasks at various developmental stages differentially predict individuals life satisfaction in an Asian sample.
Keywords

Caregiving
Meaning in life
Life satisfaction
Older adults

1 Introduction
Interest in caregiving issues grew, in part due to the sheer number of grandparents in the
United States who were staying with and actively caring for their grandchildren (US Census
Bureau 2000). Typically, grandparents become custodians of their grandchildren because
their adult children had a divorce, had substance abuse issues or were incarcerated (Goh
2009). Studies typically examined the burden and negative consequences of grandparent
caregivers (Goh 2009). Disproportionately few studies have examined grandparenting or
R. P. Ang (&)
Division of Psychology, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological
University, 14 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637332, Singapore
e-mail: rpang@ntu.edu.sg
J. O
Department of Psychology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia

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caregiving by older persons in relation to positive correlates such as life satisfaction. In a

related body of literature on caregiving, often studied areas were issues such as the burden
experienced by caregivers of older adults with some form of affliction (e.g., Brazil et al.
2003; Okamoto and Harasawa 2009). Most of these studies investigated caregiving for older
adults rather than caregiving by older adults (Varona et al. 2007). There are a few studies
that have started to examine issues of caregiving by older adults, but more research is
needed in investigating the relationship between caregiving and positive aspects such as life
satisfaction. More information is needed to understand such relationships older adults.
Meaning in life is at the very core of human existence and is highly influential in
determining a persons well-being (Tali et al. 2009). Frankl (1963) asserted that emotional
distress will eventuate if one experienced an absence of meaning in life. Older adults who
reported a sense of meaning in life felt more energized, were eager to embrace life in a
purposeful manner, and were more likely to have a longer life span as compared to those
with diminished meaning in life (Krause 2009). While researchers have paid increasing
attention to the relationship between meaningfulness and life satisfaction among people in
middle and late adulthood, the emphasis has largely neglected studying this relationship
from a non-Western cultural viewpoint using non-Western samples (Steger et al. 2008).
Stern and Kalof (1996) argue that theory building and science gains credibility when
generalizability of existing findings is possible, and this is made possible when similar
findings emerge from studies that use different procedures, populations or observers.
There is a consistently high positive correlation between general health and life satisfaction. There are numerous studies showing empirical evidence that general health is
predictive of heightened life satisfaction (e.g., Borg et al. 2008; Gwozdz and Sousa-Poza
2010). Across studies, it appears that general health is predictive of life satisfaction in both
impaired and non-impaired adults in middle and late adulthood. Therefore, to strengthen
the studies investigating predictors of life satisfaction, researchers should control for
general health.
1.1 Eriksons Theory
During middle adulthood individuals face the psychosocial crisis of generativity versus
stagnation, in which the key developmental task is generativitycontributing to society
and helping to guide future generations (Santrock 2008). Individuals in late adulthood
encounter the crisis of integrity versus despair (Santrock 2008). A sense of integrity
develops if it is felt that life has been well-lived and productive. Eriksons theory posits
that individuals in late adulthood are more concerned with issues relating to the kinds of
meaning one can get from earlier phases in ones life compared to those in middle
adulthood. Therefore, regret resolution and making sense of life as a whole is a central
feature of integrity in late adulthood. On the other hand, individuals in middle adulthood
are more concerned with tasks such as caregiving, construed as mentoring and developing
the next generation, compared to those in late adulthood. Eriksons different psychosocial
crises that present to individuals in distinctive developmental stages were postulated to
variedly and significantly influence individuals subjective well-being across cultures (Cote
and Levine 2002).
1.2 Applying Eriksons Theory: Caregiving and Life Satisfaction
Although early findings were not always consistent (e.g., McAdams et al. 1993; Ryff and
Heincke 1983), there is increasing evidence corroborating Eriksons theory in recent

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527

research. Generative behaviors were shown to be greater among those in middle adulthood
as compared to those in young or late adulthood (e.g., Miner-Rubino et al. 2004).
McAdams (2006) aptly observed that while measurement differences and variability within
age groups are influential, the general trend appeared to be that generativity increases from
young adulthood to reach a peak in middle adulthood and declines in the later years
similar to what Erikson had originally proposed.
Previous research has shown midlife generativity to be positively related to an interest
in fulfilling intergenerational roles, of which caregiving is key (Peterson 2002). In recent
studies, correlates of midlife generativity were also examined. Generativity was evidenced
to be linked with positive emotionality and satisfaction with both work and life in general,
and its contribution to satisfaction was suggested to be greater in middle adulthood
(Ackerman et al. 2000). Generally, research points towards generative behaviors such as
caregiving having a positive relationship to life satisfaction, and that this relationship
appears to be stronger and more salient for individuals in middle adulthood. However, to
the best of our knowledge, there have been no studies examining caregiving by older adults
and life satisfaction in an Asian sample.
1.3 Applying Eriksons Theory: Meaning in Life and Life Satisfaction
Early research showed that individuals in late adulthood considered themselves as having
more integrity compared to what they remembered of themselves some time ago, while
those in young and middle adulthood expected themselves to have more integrity in late
adulthood as opposed to their own evaluation currently (Ryff and Heincke 1983). Similarly, Torges et al. (2008) reported that people who had resolved their regrets in middle
adulthood had greater integrity than those who did not 9 years later, those who had
resolved their regrets in their 60 s also had greater concurrent levels of integrity.
Studies have been conducted to examine integrity in late adulthood and correlates of
integrity. Research studies have demonstrated a positive association between integrity and
enhanced life satisfaction in diverse samples such as male retirees and well-educated
women who had graduated from prestigious colleges in the 1960s (Lowis and Raubenheimer 1997; Torges et al. 2009). Successful resolution of Eriksons eighth stage occurs
when the individual can accept what has gone before as inevitable and satisfying. Torges
et al. (2008) found that older adults were more likely to resolve regrets than younger adults,
and that successful regret resolution contributed significantly to better adjustment, greater
well-being, and lower levels of rumination. Collectively, it appears that individuals at late
adulthood are better able to successfully resolve issues in their lives and those who are able
to do so have a greater sense of meaning and are more satisfied. Interestingly and relatedly,
Bohlmeijer and colleagues have found that for older adults, integrative reminiscence and
life review which is a process by which individuals reconcile discrepancies and resolve
past conflicts, has been shown to enhance well being and life satisfaction (Bohlmeijer et al.
2007, 2008). Likewise, the relationship between meaning in life and life satisfaction among
those in middle and late adulthood has not been explored in an Asian sample.
1.4 Present Study and Hypotheses
The aim of this study was to examine the association between caregiving, meaning in life,
and life satisfaction in a sample of older Asian adults beyond 50 years of age We
hypothesized the following: (a) Controlling for general health and gender, age will moderate the positive association between caregiving and life satisfaction, and this effect will

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be stronger for those in middle adulthood than for those in late adulthood; (b) Controlling
for general health and gender, age will moderate the positive association between meaning
in life and life satisfaction, and this effect will be stronger for those in late adulthood than
for those in middle adulthood.

2 Method
2.1 Participants
The total sample consisted of 519 Asian participants between the ages of 51 and 84
(M = 61.13, SD = 6.40) who were categorized into the middle adulthood and late
adulthood groups for subsequent analyses. Adults 50 years of age and older were invited to
participate in an anonymous study through the help of a leading non-profit organization in
Singapore who organizes programs and activities for older persons in the community. The
age of the 376 adults in the middle adulthood group (168 males, 206 females, 2 did not
specify gender) ranged from 51 to 64 years (M = 57.88, SD = 3.16). Self-reported ethnic
identification for this group was as follows: 80.3% of the participants were Chinese, 4.3%
were Indian, 13.8% were Malay, 1.6% endorsed Others. Of these, 86% were married, 5.8%
were divorced, 5.3% were single/never married, and 2.9% were widowed. 62.3% had at
least a high school diploma.
The late adulthood group comprised 143 adults (68 males, 75 females) between the ages
of 65 and 84 (M = 70.01, SD = 4.59). Self-reported ethnic identification for this group was
as follows: 81.6% of the participants were Chinese, 3.3% were Indian, 11.7% were Malay,
3.4% endorsed Others. Of these, 75.5% were married, 1.4% were divorced, 4.2% were
single/never married, and 18.9% were widowed. 52.5% had at least a high school diploma.
2.2 Measures
2.2.1 Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ)
The MLQ (Steger et al. 2006) measures presence of, and the search for, meaning in life.
Participants rated items on a Likert scale from 1 (Absolutely untrue) to 7 (Absolutely true).
Higher scores indicate greater meaning in life. The MLQ yields two scores, Presence
(5 items) and Search (5 items). Only the MLQ-Presence scale was used in this study. The
Cronbach alpha reliability estimate obtained for the present sample was .82.
2.2.2 Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS)
This 5-item SWLS (Diener et al. 1985) measures global cognitive judgments of satisfaction
with ones life. Participants rated items on a Likert scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7
(Strongly agree). The SWLS yields one total score, and higher scores indicate greater life
satisfaction. The present samples Cronbach alpha reliability estimate was .87.
2.2.3 General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12)
The GHQ-12 (Goldberg and Williams 1988) contains 12 items that measure short-term
change in mental health and in levels of psychological functioning. Responses are given on

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529

a 4-point scale, ranging from better than usual to much less than usual. The GHQ-12
yields one total score with higher scores indicating worse conditions. The Cronbach alpha
reliability estimate for the present sample was .73
2.2.4 Caregiving
We asked respondents on their caregiving involvement. Caregiving was defined as care for
children from birth through 12 years of age in a range of activities such as physical care for
the young, playing with the children, helping children with schoolwork, and giving advice
to children. Slightly more than half the sample from both middle (52.6%) and late
adulthood (54.9%) groups was involved in some type of caregiving. Of those who indicated that they were involved with caregiving, a majority (middle = 84%; late = 87%)
cared for their grandchildren or grand nieces/nephews, while the remainder cared for
neighbors children/grandchildren or others. For the purposes of this study, this variable
was analyzed as a dichotomous variablepresence or absence of caregiving involvement.
2.3 Consent and Procedure
Division of Psychology Ethics Committee at Nanyang Technological University, approved
the study. Participation was voluntary and written informed consent was obtained from all
participants. Two versions of the questionnaire were used. The original version is in
English because English is the main language of commerce and instruction in Singapore.
No translation is typically necessary, but because this study sampled an older population, a
Mandarin option was also available. The translated Mandarin version used two forward
translations and one independent backward translation. Discrepancies were identified and
items reworded where necessary. More than half the respondents (middle = 60.1%;
late = 55.9%) chose to complete the questionnaire in English. Respondents who completed the English and Mandarin versions did not differ on age, the moderator variable to
be tested (t = -.548, p [ .05), and did not differ on life satisfaction, the dependent variable in this study (t = -1.82, p [ .05). Questionnaires were administered to older adults
attending the non-profit voluntary welfare organization for various activities and programs.
Participants could complete the questionnaire at their own time. Data collection took place
over a period of 5 months and the return rates were 83.6 and 80.2% for the middle and late
adulthood groups respectively.
2.4 Analytic Procedure
Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS version 17. A p-value of .01 was used to
determine statistical significance. Two hierarchical multiple regression analyses were
conducted. Age was dummy coded as 0 for middle adulthood (age 5164) and 1 for late
adulthood (age 6584). Caregiving was analyzed as a dichotomous variable with values of
1 and 0 representing those with and without caregiving involvement. Meaning in life as a
continuous variable was centered using the sample mean prior to creating and entering the
interaction term into the equation. For both analyses, general health and gender were
entered as control variables in Step 1 and life satisfaction was the dependent variable. The
main effect of caregiving and meaning in life were entered in Step 2 while the two-way
interactions were entered in Step 3 of the respective analyses. The testing, probing and
interpretation of interaction effects followed methods outlined by Aiken and West (1991).

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3 Results
Age group moderated the association between caregiving and life satisfaction, DR2 = .016,
DF (1, 452) = 7.78, p \ .01. Detailed statistical results are presented in Table 1. The DR2
values highlight the amount of additional variance that can be explained over and above
what was explained in the previous step. In this instance, an additional 1.6% of the
variance could be explained by the two-way interaction, Age Group 9 Caregiving
Involvement, after accounting for the variance explained by the control variables and the
independent variables. The two-way interaction (Age Group 9 Caregiving Involvement)
was statistically significant, b = -.21, p \ .01. To interpret the interaction effect, we
plotted separate regression lines for middle and late adulthood groups (Fig. 1), and tested
the significance of the simple slopes of the regression lines at single values of age
(0 = middle adulthood, 1 = late adulthood). The association between caregiving and life
satisfaction was statistically significant for the middle adulthood group, b = 1.73,
t(456) = 2.89, p \ .01, but not for the late adulthood group, b = -1.55, t(456) = -1.54,
p = .125.
Similarly, age group moderated the association between meaning in life and life satisfaction, DR2 = .015, DF (1, 464) = 9.37, p \ .01. Detailed statistical results are presented
in Table 2. An additional 1.5% of the variance could be explained by the two-way interaction, Age Group 9 Meaning in Life, after accounting for the variance explained by the
control variables and the independent variables. The two-way interaction (Age Group 9
Meaning in Life) was statistically significant, b = .14, p \ .01. To interpret the interaction
effect, separate regression lines for both groups were plotted (Fig. 2). Likewise, the significance of the simple slopes of the regression lines at single values of age (0 = middle
adulthood, 1 = late adulthood) were tested. The association between meaning in life and
life satisfaction was statistically significant for both groups, but it was stronger in magnitude
Table 1 Hierarchical multiple regression analysis: age group as moderator of the association between
caregiving, and life satisfaction
Predictor measure and step

R2

DR2

DF

.016

.016

3.64

.032

.016

3.78

.048

.016

7.78*

Step 1
General health

-.07

Gender

-.10

Step 2
General health

-.07

Gender

-.10

Age group

.10

Caregiving involvement

.09

Step 3
General health

-.07

Gender

-.09

Age group
Caregiving involvement
Age group 9 caregiving involvement

.24*
.15*
-.21*

As a continuous variable, general health was centered using the sample mean prior to analysis. Gender, age
group, and caregiving involvement were dichotomous variables
* p \ .01

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531

29

Fig. 1 Regression lines for

relations between caregiving
involvement and life satisfaction
as moderated by age group

28.21

Life Satisfaction

28

27

26.87
26.61

26

25

25.09
LATE

24

MIDDLE

Caregiving

Table 2 Hierarchical multiple regression analysis: age group as moderator of the association between
meaning in life, and life satisfaction
Predictor measure and step

R2

DR2

.019

.019

4.52

.281

.262

83.87*

.296

.015

9.37*

DF

Step 1
General health

-.09

Gender

-.10

Step 2
General health

-.05

Gender

-.04

Age group

.11*

Meaning in life

.51*

Step 3
General health

-.05

Gender

-.04

Age group

.12*

Meaning in life

.43*

Age group 9 meaning in life

.14*

As continuous variables, general health and meaning in life were centered using the sample mean prior to
analysis. Gender and age group were dichotomous variables
* p \ .01

for the late adulthood group, b = .72, t(463) = 9.60, p \ .01, compared to the middle
adulthood group, b = .45, t(463) = 9.16, p \ .01.

4 Discussion
There were two major findings from this study. First, caregiving involvement and greater
life satisfaction was found only for Asian individuals in middle adulthood but not for
individuals in late adulthood. Second, Asian individuals in late adulthood, relative to those

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R. P. Ang, J. O
30

Fig. 2 Regression lines for

relations between meaning in life
and life satisfaction as moderated
by age group

LATE

MIDDLE
29.3244

Life Satisfaction

29
28
27.51
27.114

27
25.98

26
25.6956
25
24

24.846

-2.52

2.52

Meaning in Life

in middle adulthood, showed a stronger association between having meaning in life and
greater life satisfaction.
The first finding provides additional evidence of the applicability of Eriksons theory in
an Asian sample. As researchers have suggested, generative behaviors of which caregiving
is a prime example, peak during middle adulthood and declines in the later years
(McAdams 2006; Peterson 2002). It is during midlife that adults are most concerned with
caregiving, would find these activities relevant, and caregiving involvement was significantly associated with life satisfaction. In contrast, caregiving involvement and having
greater life satisfaction was unrelated in individuals in late adulthood. As would be
expected, caregiving would be more salient in middle rather than in late adulthood.
It is interesting to note that for the second finding, we found statically significant
relationships between having meaning in life and greater life satisfaction for both middle
and late adulthood individuals, with individuals in the late adulthood group evidencing
stronger associations. Eriksons theory posits that individuals in late adulthood negotiate
the crisis of integrity versus despair, and at this stage, individuals are mostly concerned
with the kinds of meaning one can get from earlier phases in ones life. In line with
previous research (e.g., Torges et al. 2009), the present finding suggests that older adults
who have a sense of meaning in their lives also had enhanced life satisfaction. Additionally, because successful resolution of Eriksons eighth stage involves a cumulative
process of integrating and making sense of the meaning of life across previous stages, it is
of note that individuals at both middle and late adulthood experience the positive relationship between meaning in life and life satisfaction, and that this relationship is logically
stronger at the late adulthood stage.
One key implication arising from these findings is that for middle-adulthood Asian
adults, it is possible to consider their involvement in caregiving as an added resource in
contributing to the development and maintenance of their wellbeing and life satisfaction, if
they are relatively physically healthy. In the present study we controlled for general health
and gender, and found that caregiving involvement was significantly associated with life
satisfaction in middle but not in late adulthood. These findings have also provided additional evidence for the cross-cultural applicability of theories of development. Making
sense of life is a cumulative and integrative process and in line with Eiksons theory, older
Asian adults who have a sense of meaning in their lives also had enhanced life satisfaction
and this association was stronger in late adulthood.

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Our findings need to be interpreted with these limitations in mind. Owing to the crosssectional design, causality cannot be determined. Also, we acknowledge that there may be
other potentially relevant moderators that we did not include in the study and did not
assess. Finally, these limitations notwithstanding, findings of the present study contribute
to a growing database of studies on wellbeing and life satisfaction of older persons which
becomes increasingly important as our world population ages at an accelerated rate.
Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to Mr. Kok Tee Phua, CEO of SAGE, and two student
assistants Shihan Loh and Eileen Ong for their help.

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