CHAPTER 15

MOTIVATING ORGANIZATIONAL MEMBERS

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter discusses motivation; the things that influence a person to behave as
he or she does. This is crucial information for a manager to know in order to
successfully lead organizational members to success. There are many approaches
to studying motivation. This chapter discusses the main approaches, which are
needs-based approaches, process approaches and contemporary approaches. The
needs-based approaches include Maslows Hierarchy of Needs, Herzbergs TwoFactor Model, and McClellands Acquired-Needs Theory. The process theories
include expectancy theory, equity theory, goal setting and reinforcement theory.
The topics of participative management, money, employee ownership and
motivating team performance are discussed under the heading of contemporary
approaches. Finally, international aspects of motivation are discussed.
NOTES
I.

Motivation:
The force that energizes and gives direction to behavior.
Mangers need to understand what influences people to engage is certain
behaviors so they can influence people to focus their behavior on achieving
the organizational goals.

II.

Basic Motivation Process.

A. Motivation: The forces and expenditure of effort acting on or within a
person that cause that person to behave in a specific, goal-directed
manner.
B. Motivation combines with ability to result in performance; that is,
Motivation X Ability = Performance.
C. Ability was discussed in chapter 14 as an existing capacity to perform
various tasks needed in a given situation. Abilities include:
1. Mental skills.
2. Mechanical skills.
3. Psychomotor skills.

III.

Motivational Approaches.
A. Needs-Based Models:
Models of motivation that emphasize specific
human needs or the factors within a person that energize, direct, and stop
behavior.

B. Process Models:
Models that focus on understanding the thought
processes that take place within the individuals mind and act to affect
behavior.
IV.

Needs-Based Approaches of Employee Motivation.

A. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs: People have five fundamental needs:
physiological, security, affiliation, esteem, and self-actualization. Maslow
argued that individuals try to satisfy these needs using a priority system
or hierarchy (see Figure 15.2 in the textbook). The five needs are:
1. Physiological Needs: Needs such as food, water, air, and shelter; at
the bottom of the hierarchy.
2. Security Needs:
environment.
3. Affiliation Needs:
belonging.

The desire to have a safe physical and emotional

The desire for friendships, love, and a feeling of

4. Esteem Needs: Needs for personal feelings of achievement and selfworth and for recognition, respect, and prestige from others.
5. Self-Actualization Needs: Needs for self-fulfillment and the opportunity
to achieve ones potential; at the top of the hierarchy.
B. Two-Factor Model: A motivation model, proposed by Herzberg, that
proposes two major factors leading to job satisfaction and job
dissatisfaction.
1. Motivator Factors: Factors related to job content, or what people
actually do in their work; associated with an individuals positive
feelings about the job.
2. Hygiene Factors:
Factors associated with the job context or
environment in which the job is performed.
3. The basic idea of the model: Normally, people will not be motivated
until the hygiene factors are to a level that do not cause
dissatisfaction. Only after that will the motivator factors influence a
person to be satisfied with the situation.
4. Cautions related to the Two-Factor Model.

a. It basically assumes that satisfaction is the same as performance or

at least leads to performance. See chapter 14.

b. It says that money is not a motivator. Discuss that later in this

chapter.

C. Acquired-Needs Model: Needs are learned from the life experiences in the
culture in which we live.
1. Need for Achievement: The drive to excel, to accomplish challenging
tasks, and to achieve a standard of excellence.
2. Need for Power: The need to influence and control ones environment;
may involve either personal power or institutional power.
3. Need for Affiliation:
relationships.
V.

The desire for friendly and close interpersonal

Process Approaches to Employee Motivation.

A. Expectancy Model: A motivational model suggesting that work motivation
is determined by the individuals perceptions of the relationship between
effort and performance and the desirability of various work outcomes
associated with different performance levels.
1. Expectancy: The belief that a particular level of effort will be followed
by a particular level of performance.
2. Instrumentality: The individuals perception that a specific level of
achieved task performance will lead to various work outcomes.
3. Valence: The value or importance that the individual attaches to
various work outcomes.
B. Equity Model: A motivation model focusing on an individuals feelings
about how fairly he or she is treated in comparison with others.
1. Assumptions:
The equity model makes two assumptions:
individuals evaluate their interpersonal relationships just as
evaluate any exchange process, such as the buying or selling
home, shares of stock, or a car. Second, individuals compare
situations with those of others to determine the equity of
situation.

First,
they
of a
their
their

2. Tactics for Reducing a Perceived Inequity: The equity model suggests

that maintaining our self-esteem is an important priority. To reduce a
perceived inequity, a person may take one of the following actions:
(See Figure 15.5.)

a. Change work inputs either upward or downward to a level that is

perceived as equitable
.

b. Change outcomes to restore equity.

c. Psychologically distort comparisons.

d. Change the comparison person he or she is using to another

person.

e. Leave the situation (e.g., quit the job or transfer to another

department).

C. Goal Setting: A process of increasing efficiency and effectiveness by

specifying the desired outcomes toward which individuals, groups,
departments, and organizations should work.
1. Goals must be SMART.

a. Specific.
b. Measurable.
c. Achievable, or realistic.
d. Results oriented, not focused on actions.
e. Time related. Goals must have a deadline.
2. Should goals be set participatively?

a. If the employees will resist goals that they do not help set.
b. If set participatively, then the manager must keep employees
informed and provide feedback.
D. Reinforcement Theory: The basic belief that people learn to repeat
behaviors that are positively rewarded and avoid behaviors that are
punished or not rewarded.
1. Four Types of Reinforcers.

a. Positive Reinforcement:

The administration of positive and

rewarding consequences or events following a desired behavior.

b. Negative Reinforcement; also called Avoidance:

desired behavior
consequence.

by

allowing

escape

from

Strengthening
an undesirable

c. Extinction:

The withdrawal of the positive reward or reinforcing

consequence for an undesirable behavior.

d. Punishment:

Administering negative consequences following an

undesirable behavior.

2. Schedules of Reinforcement:
reinforcement.

Specify the basis for and timing of

a. Fixed-Interval Schedule:

Rewards are given at specified time

intervals, assuming that the desired behavior has continued at an
appropriate level.

b. Fixed-Ratio Schedule: When a reinforcer is provided after a fixed

number of occurrences of the desired behavior.

c. Variable-Interval Schedule: When reinforcement is administered at

random or varying times that cannot be predicted by the person.

d. Variable-Ratio Schedule:

When reinforcement is provided after a

varying, or random, number of occurrences of the desired behavior
rather than after variable time periods.

3. Using Behavior Modification

a. To date, most behavior modification programs have been applied to

employees at operational levels clerical employees, production
workers, or mechanics.
Behavior modification is more easily
applied to relatively simple jobs.

b. How successful has behavior modification been in the workplace?

Its use has had some notable successes.

c. Do all people use the basic concepts of behavior modification in

their daily lives?
4. Criticisms of Behavior Modification: Critics of behavior modification
charge that it is essentially bribery and that workers are already paid
for performance.
VI.

Contemporary Motivational Approaches.

A. Participative Management: An umbrella term that encompasses various
activities in which subordinates share a significant degree of decisionmaking power with their immediate superiors and where power,
knowledge, information, and rewards are moved downward in the
organization.
B. Money as a motivator.
1. Not when it is considered to be below what is expected (hygiene
factor).
2. When considered to be a large enough amount and tied directly to
desired outcome.

3. When it is valued, wanted by, the employee.

C. Employee Ownership as a Motivator.
1. When productive behavior and goals have been established.
2. When good performance can be measured.
3. When ownership, stocks and options, etc., are tied directly to
performance.
D. Rewarding Team Performance.
1. A significant part of a persons reward must be based on team
performance.
2. Reward the individual for contributing to positive team functioning.
VII.

International Perspectives.
A. The basics of the motivational models seem to hold across many cultures.
B. Certainly, the details differ. That is, people in some cultures/countries
have different needs, different perceptions, and may place different values
on rewards.

VIII.

Implications for Leaders.

A. Find out what motivates each person.
B. Tie rewards to the behavior that you want.
C. Help the people see what the right behavior and performance is.
D. Specifics:
1. Tell people what you expect them to do.
2. Make the work valuable.
3. Make the work doable.
4. Give feedback.
5. Reward successful performance.