LR - Steric Stablization by Polimers

Center for Industrial Sensors and Measurements
Department Materials Science & Engineering

Group Inorganic Materials Science
Literature Review
Steric Stabilization
MSE
Jingyu Shi
The Ohio State University
Group Inorganic Materials Science
2041 College Road, 281 Watts Hall
Columbus OH 43210-1178
USA
September 2001- August 2002
06502/CISM/jys
August 29, 2002
Abstract
Steric stabilization by polymers adsorbed on inorganic particle surfaces is gaining more
and more attention in both industry and academia because it plays an important role in
stabilizing colloidal dispersions. In this review, basic concepts and some related topics
about steric stabilization are introduced. In addition the application of steric stabilization
in dispersing ceramic particles in non-aqueous media is summarized. It is found that
functional groups, such as carboxyl, hydroxyl, amine, and ester groups in the molecular
polymer structure generally play an important role in steric stabilization. Polymers
containing carboxyl groups turn out to be the most effective steric stabilizers because
carboxyl groups are supposed to interact strongly with basic sites, often present on the
particle surface. On the other hand, the long chain hydrocarbons in the molecular
structures extend from the surface into nonaqueous solvent and act as good moieties in
nonaqueous media. The longer the hydrocarbon chains, the better the stabilization effect.
It is also shown in the literature that copolymers are usually more effective in steric
stabilization than homopolymers because copolymers consist of more than one type of
repeated unit. One type of repeated unit can act as anchor; the other type can act in the
moieties extending into a nonaqueous solution.
Steric stabilization in the modified emulsion precipitation method to prepare ceramic
nanoparticles is discussed at the end of this review. Poly(octadecyl methacrylate)
(PODMA) is used as the steric stabilizer in that method. It is suggested that the ceramic
nanoparticles are stabilized by a bilayer of polymer (PODMA) and surfactant (DiDAB).
The exact stabilization mechanism still needs further study.
Table of contents
Abstract
Table of contents
Introduction
1.1
Colloid stability
1.2
Methods for stabilizing colloids
1.2.1 Electrostatic stabilization
1.2.2 Polymeric stabilization
5
5
5
6
6
Steric stabilization
2.1
Advantages of steric stabilization
2.2
Steric stabilizers
2.2.1 Some definitions
2.2.2 The best steric stabilizers
2.3
Steric stabilization mechanism
2.4
Stability of the colloidal particles in steric stabilization
2.4.1 The critical flocculation point (CFPT)
2.4.2 Factors affecting CFPT
2.5
Adsorption of polymers from solution
8
8
8
8
10
11
12
12
12
13
Flocculation by bridging
16
Application of steric stabilization in dispersing ceramic particles in

nonaqueous media
17
Steric stabilization in preparing nanoparticles via modified emulsion

precipitation
21
5.1
The structure of PODMA
21
5.2
The selection of PODMA as steric stabilizer
21
5.3
The role of PODMA
23
References
24
26
26
26
27
27
28
28
28
Organic component data

A.1
poly(dimethyl siloxane)
A.2
Polyamides
A.3
PMMA
A.4
Dioxane
A.5
Organomethoxysilanes [ C18 H37Si(OCH3 )3 ]
A.6
Organomethoxysilanes [C 18 H37 (CH3 )2 Si(OCH3 )]
A.7
Styrene
Table of contents
A.8
A.9
A.10
A.11
A.12
A.13
A.14
A.15
A.16
A.17
A.18
A.19
A.20
A.21
A.22
A.23
A.24
A.25
A.26
A.27
A.28
A.29
A.30
A.31
A.32
Methyl ethyl ketone

Alkyl poly(oxyethylene)
Ethylene oxide
Polyacrylate
Oleic acid
glycerol trioleate
KD-2
melamine/linseed oil
Adipic acid
Neopentyl glycol
Poly(octadecyl methacrylate)
Poly(vinyl butyral) (PVB)
Methacrylate
Methacrylic acid
Acrylamide
Pyridyl
Perchlorethylene
Butadiene
Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)
Poly (vinyl acetate) (PVA)
IPA, isopropylalcohol
L-7500 (silwet surfactants; butoxy terminated polypropylene oxide;
3000 D)
L-7604 (hydroxyl terminated polyethyleneoxide; 4000MW)
Arkopal 40 (Nonylphenol tetraethyleneglycol ether)
DiDAB (Didodecyldimethylammonium)
28
29
29
29
30
30
31
31
34
34
34
35
35
36
36
36
36
37
37
38
38
39
40
40
41
Symbols
42
Distribution list
43
Introduction
Colloidal systems are dispersed phases finely subdivided in a dispersion medium. This
subdivision results in a very high interfacial surface area which determines largely the
physical properties of the system [1]. In most common colloidal systems, the continuous
phase (dispersion medium) is a liquid. A system exhibits properties of a colloidal
character when the particles (the dispersed phase) have a diameter between 1 and
1000 nm. This review will be concerned primarily with liquid droplets or solid particles
in a liquid.
1.1
Colloid stability
Colloidal particles in a dispersion medium always show Brownian motion and hence
collide with each other frequently. The stability of colloids is thus determined by the
interaction between the particles during such a collision. There are two basic interactions:
one being attractive and the other repulsive. When attraction dominates, the particles will
adhere with each other and finally the entire dispersion may coalesce. When repulsion
dominates, the system will be stable and remain in a dispersed state [2].
Van der Waals forces are the primary source of attraction between colloidal particles.
These forces are always present between particles of similar composition. Therefore, a
colloidal dispersion is said to be stable only when a sufficiently strong repulsive force
counteracts the van der Waals attraction [2]. There are three different possible origins for
van der Waals forces: permanent dipole-permanent dipole (Keesom) forces, the
permanent dipole-induced dipole (Debije) interactions and transitory dipole-transitory
dipole (London) forces. The first two are very short range interactions, but the London
forces are longer range attractions. Since only London forces contribute to the long-range
attraction between colloidal particles, the magnitude and range of the van der WaalsLondon (VDWL) attraction are decisive in determining strategies for stabilizing colloid
particles. For many colloid systems, the range of significant VDWL attraction is between
5 and 10 nm.
1.2
Methods for stabilizing colloids
Since there are always strong, long-range attractive forces between similar colloidal
particles, it is necessary to provide a long range repulsion between the particles to
impart stability. This repulsion should be at least as strong as the attractive force and
comparable in range of the attractive interaction. Stability can be obtained by
surroundig colloidal particles:
With an electrical double layer (electrostatic or charge stabilization).
With adsorbed or chemically attached polymeric molecules (steric stabilization).
With free polymer in the dispersio n medium (depletion stabilization).
Combination of the first two stabilization mechanisms lead to electrosteric stabilization.
The latter two types of stabilization are often realized by the addition of polymers to
stabilize dispersions and are called polymeric stabilization.
1.2.1
Electrostatic stabilization
An effective way to counterbalance the VDWL attraction between colloidal particles in

polar liquids is to provide the particles with Coulombic repulsion. In liquid dispersion
media, ionic groups can adsorb to the surface of a colloidal particle through different
mechanisms to form a charged layer. To maintain electroneutrality, an equal number of
counterions with the opposite charge will surround the colloidal particles and give rise to
overall charge-neutral double layers. In charge stabilization, it is the mutual repulsion of
these double layers surrounding particles that provides stability.
The thickness of the double layer depends, amongst others, on the ionic strength of the
dispersion medium. The ionic strength can be expressed as I = 12 zi 2 ci , where z is the
i
charge number of ions, i, and c is the molar concentration of the ions. For 1:1
electrolytes, the ionic strength is proportional to the concentration. Here we will use the
concentration c to represent ionic strength. At low ionic strengths (electrolyte c=10-3 M),
the thickness of the double layer is about 5-10 nm, which is of the same order as the
VDWL attraction. This explains the observation of charge stabilization in dispersion
media of low ionic strength. The thickness of the double layer is reduced significantly
with increasing the ionic strength. At ionic strengths for electrolyte c>10-1 M, the
thickness of the double layer is less than 1 nm. In that case, the range of double layer
electrostatic repulsion is usually insufficient to counterbalance the VDWL attraction.
This accounts for the fact that most charge-stabilized dispersions coagulate when
increasing the ionic strength of the dispersion medium [3]. Hence, one great disadvantage
of charge stabilization of particles is its great sensitivity to the ionic strength of the
dispersion medium. In addition it only works in polar liquid which can dissolve
electrolytes. However, due to the advantages in simplicity and cost price, charge
stabilization is still widely used in stabilizing dispersions in aqueous media.
1.2.2
Polymeric stabilization
For polymers with molecular weights >10000 D, the chain dimensions are comparable to,
or in excess of, the range of the VDWL attraction. Hence, as long as they can generate
repulsion, these polymer molecules can be used to impart colloid stability [3].
There are two different mechanisms accepted for polymeric stabilization of colloidal
dispersion: steric stabilization and depletion stabilization.
Figure 1.1 :
Schematics of steric stabilization
Figure 1.2 :
Schematics of depletion stabilization
Introduction
Steric stabilization of colloidal particles is achieved by attaching (grafting or
chemisorption) macromolecules to the surfaces of the particles (figure 1.1). The
stabilizatio n due to the adsorbed layers on the dispersed particle is generally called steric
stabilization.
Depletion stabilization
Depletion stabilization of colloidal particles is imparted by macromolecules that are free
in solution (figure 1.2). The study of this type of stabilization is still in its initial stage.
Electrostatic and steric stabilization can be combined as electrosteric stabilization. The
origin of the electrostatic component may be a net charge on the particle surface
(figureFigure 1.3a) and/or charges associated with the polymer attached to the surface
(i.e. through an attached polyelectrolyte) (figureFigure 1.3b). It is also possible to have
combinations of depletion stabilization with both steric and/or electrostatic stabilization.
The combination of depletion and steric stabilization is very common when there are high
concentrations of free polymer in the dispersion medium.
Figure 1.3 : Schematics of electrosteric stabilization: (a) charged particles with nonionic polyme rs; (b)
polyelectrolytes attached to uncharged particles.
2
2.1
Advantages of steric stabilization
Steric stabilization has several distinct advantages over electrostatic stabilization [3]:
Relative insensitivity to the presence of electrolytes. For instance, for 1:1 electrolytes
( I = z 2c ), a charge-stabilized dispersion will not be stable and coagulate when the
concentration of electrolytes exceeds the 10-1 M limit. The dimensions of polymer
chains display no such dramatic sensitivity and sterically stabilized dispersions are
relatively insensitive to the presence of electrolyte.
Equal efficacy in both aqueous and nonaqueous dispersion media. Charge
stabilization is less effective in nonaqueous dispersion media than it is in aqueous
media. This is primarily due to the low relative dielectric constant (<10) of most
nonaqueous media. In contrast, steric stabilization is effective in both nonaqueous
media and aqueous media. This explains why steric stabilizion is usually preferred for
nonaqueous dispersion media.
Equal efficacy at both high and low solids content. In charge stabilization in
nonaqueous media, the thickness of the double layers can be so large, (due to the low
dielectric constant of the dispersion medium), that the mere preparation of high solids
dispersions forces the particles too close together which then leads to coagulation. In
aqueous dispersion media, the preparation of charge-stabilized particles at high solids
dispersions is often difficult because of the gel formation induced by the interactions
between the double layers surrounding each particle.
Reversibility of flocculation. The coagulation of charge-stabilized particles (induced
by the addition of electrolyte) is usually irreversible by subsequent dilution. In
contrast, flocculation of sterically stabilized dispersions (induced by the addition of a
nonsolvent for the stabilizing moieties) can usually be reversed spontaneously by
mere dilution of the nonsolvent concentration to a suitably low value. This difference
is due to the fact that sterically stabilized dispersions may be thermodynamically
stable while charge stabilized dispersions are only thermodynamically metastable. As
a consequence, for charge stabilized dispersions, the coagulated state represents a
lower energy state and the coagulation can be reversed only after input of work into
the system. Another important consequence of the thermodynamic stability of
sterically stabilized dispersions is that they can redisperse spontaneously after drying.
2.2
Steric stabilizers
2.2.1
Some definitions
Polymer: a polymer molecule is defined as a molecule of relatively high molecular

weight consisting of regularly repeating units, or chemically similar units, connected by
primary covalent bonds. The units are called monomer.
Copolymer: Copolymer refers to a polymer having two different monomers incorporated

into the same polymer chain [4]. Copolymers may be of the random (statistical), block or
graft (comb) type:
Figure 2.1 :
Structure of random, block or graft copolymer.
Random copolymer: In random polymers, the units of one monomer and of the other
have no definite order or arrangement along any given chain and generally composition
or ratio of one monomer to the other may slightly differ between chains [4].
Block copolymer: Block polymers have a long segment or block of one monomer
followed by a block of a second monomer. The result is that different homopolymers
chains are joined in a head-to-tail configuration [4]. So a block polymer is a linear
arrangement of blocks of different monomer composition. A diblock copolymer is polyA-block-poly-B, and a triblock copolymer is poly-A-block-poly-B-block-poly-A [1]. If A
is a hydrophilic group and B is hydrophobic group, the result can be regarded as
polymeric surfactant.
Graft copolymer (comb copolymer): A graft polymer is a type of copolymer in which
the chains of one monomer are grafted onto main chains of the other monomer.
10
2.2.2
The best steric stabilizers
It is found that the best steric stabilizers

are amphiphilic 2-block or graft
copolymers, as sho wn in figureFigure 2.2.
Polymer A has a strong affinity for the
adsorbent (particle surface) and serves to
anchor the copolymer to the particle
surface. Polymer B is much more
compatible with the dispersion medium
and has little affinity for the surface.
Hence, it is extended into the dispersion
medium and provides a steric barrier [2].
Random copolymers are usually not so
effective in steric stabilization as block or
graft copolymers. However, some
amphiphilic homopolymers can be
effective if their structure is based on
monomers having the same role as
polymer A and polymer B in block or graft
copolymers.
Figure 2.2 : Examples of (a) block copolymers and

(b) graft copolymers used as stabilizers. A is the
anchor group, and B is the soluble group providing
the steric barrier.
Figure 2.3 illustrates the reason why amphiphilic molecules are such effective steric
stabilizers. The part of polymer that is insoluble in the dispersion medium and shows
affinity to the particle surface would attach itself to the particles by either physi- or
chemisorption or even by incorporation in a growing particle. This insoluble part of
polymer serves to anchor the soluble part of polymer to the colloidal particles and is
accordingly referred to as the anchor polymer. The role of the soluble part of polymer is
to impart steric stabilization and, for this reason, such chains are termed the stabilizing
moieties [3].
It can be imagined that amphiphilic
polymer molecules can serve as effective
steric stabilizers if a second identical
particle
approaches
the
one
in
figureFigure 2.3. The stabilizing moieties
that reach out into the dispersion medium
must be mutually repulsive to effectively
keep the particles at a distance from each
other. They have to be attached to the
particle strongly enough as not to be
desorbed from the surface when particle
undergoes Brownian collisions. Complete
surface coverage also helps preventing
escape.
Figure 2.3 : Schematic representation of the steric

stabilization of a colloidal particle by an amphipathic
block copolymer (only some of the stabilizing chains
are shown).
Generally, any polymer that is appropriately soluble in the dispersion medium is effective
as a stabilizing moiety and any polymer that is insoluble in the dispersion medium and
also shows affinity to the particle surface at the same time is effective as an anchor
11
polymer. Some typical stabilizing moieties and anchor polymers for aqueous and
nonaqueous dispersion media are shown in table 2.1 [3].
Table 2.1:
2.3
Typical stabilizing moieties and anchor polymers for sterically stabilized dispersions.
Steric stabilization mechanism
When two particles with adsorbed polymer layers approach each other at a distance of
less than twice the thickness of the adsorbed layer, interaction of the two layers takes
place. The degree of stabilization can be defined quantitatively in terms of the energy
change occurring upon the interaction of the adsorbed layers. The Gibbs free energy
change G of the overlap interaction of the adsorbed layers is expressed
as G = H TS . If G is negative upon the overlap of the adsorbed layers,
flocculation or coagulation will result, and if G is positive, stabilization will result.
Under isothermal conditions, the stability is then a function of the enthalpy change,
H and the entropy change, S .
Many theories for explaining the steric stabilization mechanism have been proposed and
many theoretical equations for calculating the energy change with the overlap of the
adsorption layer have been devised. Here we only introduce the generally accepted
entropic stabilization theory.
In one entropic stabilization theory, it is assumed that a second surface approaching the
adsorbed layer is impenetrable. Thus, the adsorbed layer is compressed and the polymer
12
segments present in the interaction region lose configurational entropy. That is, the
polymer segments occupy fewer possible configurations in the compressed state than in
the uncompressed state. This reduction in entropy increases G , producing the net effect
of repulsion between the particles and thus preventing the particles from flocculating. In
the entropic stabilization theory, the enthalpic interaction between the adsorbed
molecules and the dispersion medium is neglected so that G = TS [2].
2.4
Stability of the colloidal particles in steric stabilization
2.4.1
The critical flocculation point (CFPT)
The point at which flocculation is first detected on decreasing the affinity of the
dispersion medium for the stabilizing moieties is termed the critical flocculation point.
The transition from long-term stability to catastrophic flocculation occurs abruptly at the
CFPT. Thus, CFPT can be used to evaluate the stability of the colloidal particles in steric
stabilization. The CFTP can be influenced by the following system parameters: particle
number concentration, the particle size, the nature of the anchor polymer, the surface
coverage of the particles, the nature of the dispersed phase, the nature and molecular
weight of the stabilizing moieties and the solvent.
2.4.2
Factors affecting CFPT
Particle concentration effect . For high molecular weight stabilizing chains, the CFPT
is relatively insensitive to the particle number concentration. For low molecular
weight stabilizing moieties and large colloidal particles, dilute dispersions display
greater stability than more concentrated systems.
Particle size effect. The CFPT is independent of the particle size when the stabilizing
moieties are of high molecular weight and the particle size is not too large. For low
molecular weight stabilizing moieties, which give rise to thin steric layers, the
dispersions become progressively easier to coagulate as the particle size increases.
This is ascribed to the VDWL attraction increasing with increasing particle size.
Anchor polymer nature effect. Provided the anchor polymer is attached sufficiently
strong to the colloidal particles, its chemical nature has no significant effect on the
observed CFPT. Insolubility in the dispersion medium is often sufficient to ensure
effective anchoring, if the molecular weight of the anchor polymer is sufficiently
high.
Surface coverage effect. Any decrease in surface coverage will lead to an increase in
the ease of coagulatio n and thus decrease in stability. Particles only partially coated
by stabilizer may undergo irreversible coagulation caused by VDWL attraction
between the core particles, followed by irreversible chemical bonding. It seems likely
that, under the stress generated by a Brownian collision, well-anchored stabilizing
chains can move laterally on the surface of colloidal particles (surface migration).
This creates bare patches on the surfaces, allowing their close approach to proceed
further.
Dispersed phase nature effect. It is believed that with thin steric layers, the nature of
the dispersed phase could exert an influence on stability if its chemical nature is
drastically different (e.g. polymer, an inorganic salt or a metal). In this case, the
13
VDWL attractio n between the core particles will be different according to the nature
of the dispersed phase.
Molecular weight and adsorbed layer thickness effect . The CFPT is found to be
independent of the molecular weight of the stabilizing moieties provided that their
molecular weight is sufficiently high (e.g. at least several thousands). For low
molecular weight stabilizing moieties, limiting stabilities are controlled by the
VDWL attraction between the core particles. A molecular weight dependence of the
flocculation point is then observed. The higher the molecular weight of the stabilizing
moieties, the thicker the adsorbed layer and the further apart are the core particles. As
the VDWL attraction decreases with increasing distance of separation, particles
stabilized by higher molecular weight stabilizers appear to be more stable near the
CFPT.
Solvent affinity effect . Solvent affinity is a very important factor in steric stabilization.
The better solvent the dispersion medium is for the stabilizing moities, the more
extended the chains become and the bigger their sphere of influence. In a good
solvent, repulsive interactions between colloidal particles occur if the grafting density
is high enough. If the solvent affinity is poor, attractive interactions between particles
can lead to flocculation.
In summary, if the colloidal particles are small in size and fully coated by well-anchored,
high molecular weight stabilizing moieties, the observed CFPT is essentially independent
of the volume fraction and the chemical nature of the disperse phase, the chemical nature
of the anchor polymer, the particle size, and the molecular weight of the stabilizing
moieties. Flocculation at the CFPT is reversible. However, the CFPT is dependent on the
surface coverage by the stabilizing chains. On the other hand, if the stabilizing moieties
are of low molecular weight and the particle size relatively large, stability appears to be
affected by the VDWL dispersion attraction between the core particles. The CFPT
becomes a function of the particle size and larger particles are easier to flocculate. In
addition, the CFPT becomes a function of the particle number concentration and dilute
dispersions are more stable [3].
2.5
Adsorption of polymers from solution
Before discussing adsorption of polymers from solution, two terms, adsorbent and
adsorbate will be defined first. Adsorbent is the substance where another substance is
adsorbed on and adsorbate is the substance that is adsorbed on the surface of the
adsorbent.
A polar surface is supposed to have acidic and/or basic sites and the polar groups of the
polymers refer to the acidic or basic functional groups in the molecular structure of
polymers. It is found that both poly(dimethyl siloxane) [A.1] and polyamides [A.2] are
significantly adsorbed onto strongly polar particles but not onto the weakly polar ones
[2]. Ellersterin and Ullman [5 ] also showed that strong polar groups in a polymer
molecule enormously enhance the adsorption of the polymer because of the interaction of
functional groups of polymer with the acidic and/or basic sites on particle surfaces. When
low- molecular-weight molecules having strong basic or acidic groups are used to
stabilize powders with opposite acid-base characteristics in nonaqueous media, an
electrostatic stabilization can be present along with steric stabilization. When high-
14
molecular-weight polymeric molecules having acidic or basic functional groups are used
to stabilize the dispersions, the predominant dispersion mechanism is steric stabilization.
Usually, besides the adsorbate, solvent molecules can also adsorb to the adsorbent. The
competition between adsorbate and solvent adsorption is determined by the chemical
nature of the adsorbent surface. Thus, in addition to the acid-base strength of polymer
functional group and the particles, the solvent also plays an important role. If the
functional group of the polymer is less acidic (or basic) than the solvent, the polymer will
not absorb on the surface of particles, resulting in poor dispersion stability. The
absorption of PMMA (basic) [A.3] in various solvents illustrates the effect of solvents in
dispersions. PMMA is effectively absorbed from CCl4 , a neutral solvent, but is not
absorbed from CHCl3 , an acidic solvent which dissolves the polymer too well for it to be
taken from the completely dissolved state. PMMA is poorly absorbed in silica from
dioxane [A.4] because this basic solvent preempts the acidic surface of silica so
successfully that the basic polymer is excluded [6].
Purely steric stabilization of particles can be obtained by chemically bonding the
dispersant to the particle. Organoethoxysilanes (C 8 , C16 , C18 ) were covalently bonded to
silica in hexane to give improved dispersion stability [7]. The C18 silane gave the best
dispersion stability because of the longer chain. Organomethoxysilanes C18 H37 Si(OCH3 )3
[A.5] and C18 H37 (CH3 )2 Si(OCH3 ) [A.6] showed little difference in their effect on steric
stability. High- molecular-weight polystyrene [A.7] was grafted onto silica to obtain very
good steric stabilization of the powder in toluene, whereas homopolystyrene was
ineffective [8]. These examples suggest that powders in nonaqueous dispersion can be
stabilized by a purely steric mechanism and a wide range of dispersant molecular weights
can be effective.
It is clear that the most effective way to stabilize inorganic powder in a nonaqueous
medium is to chemically bond a polymer soluble in the medium to the particles. Polymers
with relatively strong acid or base groups opposite in polarity to those on the particle
surface generally work well by chemisorption to the particles. However, the effectiveness
of polymers with weaker acidic (or basic) strength depends to a large degree on the acidic
or basic strength of the solvent. Homopolymers without functional groups such as
polystyrene [A.7] are the least effective. Block polymers are more effective when one
block has interacting functiona l groups, but can be effective in some cases without
interacting functional groups with the proper choice of solvent [6].
Since water molecules are always present on the surface of hydrophilic adsorbents even if
they are carefully dried, the presence of water may play an important role in the
adsorption process in a nonaqueous solution. For polymers covalently bonded to the
particle surface, the presence of water may reduce the adsorption process. For example,
in the adsorption of poly(dimethyl siloxane) [A.1] onto iron powder and powdered glass
[9], traces of water in solution significantly reduced the amount of polymer adsorbed.
And, in the adsorption of polystyrene [A.7] onto charcoal [10], traces of water in methyl
ethyl ketone [A.8] caused anomalous delay in the adsorption process. On the other hand,
the presence of water may also assist the interaction of polar groups of polymers with the
acidic or basic sites on the particle surfaces and additional electrostatic stabilization may
result in this case. For example, in the presence of traces of water, the carboxyl groups of
polymers will ionically bound to the particle surfaces and enhance the stabilization.
15
Alkyl poly(oxyethylene) [A.9] surfactant molecules adsorb on the solid surface by the
ethylene oxide [A.10] (hydrophilic) chain and leave the hydrophobic hydrocarbon (alkyl)
chain in the dispersion medium. This is a typical case of the adsorption of nonionic
surfactants on inorganic pigments in an organic dispersion medium [2]. The general
formula is Cn H2n+1 (CH2 CH2 O)xOH or Cn Ex. Van der Waarden [11] found that this
stabilizing activity increases with the length of the aliphatic chain (C 8 to C16 ) and with the
number of chains per molecule. It is supposed that the adsorbed molecules are able to
prevent the particles from approaching each other to such a distance where they enter
each others sphere of attraction.
16
Flocculation by bridging
For a better understanding of stabilization mechanisms and a proper design and use of
stabilizing agents, it is helpful to discuss the behavior of polymeric materials as
flocculants.
Particles that are stabilized by polymers can flocculate by the bridging mechanism in two
ways [12]. One is flocculation by the bridging of two or more particles by one polymer
molecule, as shown in figureFigure 3.1(A); the other is bridging by the interaction of
polymer chains adsorbed onto different particles, as shown in figureFigure 3.1(B).
Figure 3.1 : Bridging flocculation: (A) two particles by one polymer molecule; (B) two particles by two
separately adsorbed polymer molecules.
Type A flocculation occurs when:

The polymer molecule has more than two adsorbable segments.
The chain is long enough to adsorb onto more than one particle.
The surface coverage by adsorption of polymer is low, so that there are more chances
for adsorption of polymer extending from one particle to another particle. This
bridging flocculation occurs only at low polymer concentrations where the surface
coverage of the particles is less than half of the saturation value.
Type B flocculation occurs when the polymer chains are very long and the surface
coverage by adsorbed polymer is so high that adsorption sites are scarce, and the
probability for polymer extending between the particles is low. Another condition for this
type of flocculation is that the affinity between the interacting chains should be large
enough to overcome the repulsion cause by steric stabilization.
In summary, very long polymer molecules contribute to bridging flocculation. However,
if the polymer molecules are made too short to avoid this effect, they will form a dense
thin layer on the particle surface and can not act as effective steric stabilizers. Whether
the polymer acts as a stabilizer or as a flocculant also depends on many other factors.
Further study is needed in this field.
17
Application of steric stabilization in dispersing

ceramic particles in nonaqueous media
In nowadays ceramic processing, less expensive homopolymers are almost universally

used to stabilize ceramic particle dispersions. Unfortunately, these may be subject to
desorption, which is a complex process depending on several different solvent and
particle parameters.
Homopolymers such as polyacrylates [A.11] are fairly simple molecules that can provide
both electrostatic and steric stabilization, provided the polymer adsorbs on the surface to
give full coverage in a good solvent. Strong attraction to the surface can occur when the
polymer has several segments which have an affinity to the particle surface. However, in
cases where very strong adsorption of segments occurs, the polymer may stick to the first
area of contact and prevent further polymers from adsorbing in the vicinity, producing
poor overall coverage. Weaker adsorption generally allows mobility resulting in a surface
rearrangement and hence better packing. Also, there must be sufficient polymer present
in solution to give a high steric layer density. In cases of low polymer concentration in a
poor solvent, it is possible for adsorption to occur at more than one particle surface at a
time, forming an extend link, which can cause bridge flocculation [13].
Generally, the most effective and economic stabilizers for ceramic oxide systems in
nonpolar media are small molecules such as fatty acids, amines, and esters. Early studies
by Koelmans [14] showed that good dispsersions of Al2 O3 and Fe2 O3 in xylene could be
obtained with a monomolecule layer of oleic acid [A.12] . Doroszkowski and Lambourne
[15] have shown how dispersant properties depend on the molecular architecture of the
fatty acid. They found that a variety of acids bind to titania surfaces through the carboxyl
groups, with the molecular chains roughly perpendicular to particle surfaces. More polar
solvents gave a lower surface coverage of dispersant and a greater degree of flocculation.
Branched chains and increasing chain length both lead to reduced flocculation.
Fish oil is universally used in dispersing alumina or ferrite powders in tape casting. It has
been demonstrated by Calvert [16] that fish oil which can be converted to carboxylic
acids by natural oxidation is a superior stabilizer for -Al2 O3 in toluene compared with
pure glyceryl trioleate [A.13] (fish oils major component). The reason is that carboxylic
acid impurities resulting from oxidation of the oil turn out to be a better stabilizer than
glyceryl trioleate. Although both the ester group in glyceryl trioleate and the carboxylic
group in acid can adsorb strongly to -Al2 O3 in toluene, the latter can force the
hydrocarbon chains to extend into solvent more effectively and act as a better steric
stabilizer. Thus, he suggested that a suitable synthetic analog to fish oil should be a
multiple-branched polyester with a molecular weight of a few thousand and several acid
groups per molecule. Other studies have shown that additive KD-2 [A.14] which consists
of a basic ethoxylated amine stabilizes oxidized silicon particles in ethanolic media [17].
Mikeska and Cannon [18] studied the stability of tape casting BaTiO 3 in an ethanolmethyl ethyl ketone solution and found that a phosphate ester, a fish oil, a fatty acid and
an ethoxylate give the best performance.
In addition, many other homopolymers are used in stabilizing ceramic particles. The
study of Romo [19] shows that a dispersion of TiO 2 in xylene can be stabilized by the
18
presence of melamine/linseed oil [A.15]. Sato[20] studied the stability of dispersions of

red iron oxide in cycohexanone in the presence of fatty polyamides [A.2], and found that
there is a close relationship between the adsorption of the polyamides and the stability of
the dispersion. The greater the adsorption, the better the stability. He also found that the
stabilizing effect of polyamides on dispersing TiO 2 and Fe2 O3 increases with an
increasing amine value of the polyamides, namely, the number of anchoring segments.
Crowl and Malati [21] studied the dispersion of TiO 2 and Fe2 O3 in benzene stabilized by
a polyester of adipic acid [A.16] and neopentyl glycol [A.17]. They found that the
stability of dispersions prepared with hydroxyl-terminated polyesters is extremely low
compared with those with the carboxy-terminated polyesters. Adsorption of the hydroxylterminated polyesters by pigments is also lower. Crowl and Malati attributed this to the
fact that the carboxy-terminated polymer anchored more strongly to the solid surface.
Joppien and Hamann [22] found that the rate of sedimentation of alumina particles
decreased as the fraction of carbonyl groups in adsorbed polyesters decreased, suggesting
that the resultant increase in film thickness slowed down the flocculation rate.
Yin et.al. [23] suggested that an Al2 O3 powder could be packed to high density
(58.7vol.%) during slow sedimentation in heptane by use of a poly(octadecyl
methacrylate) (PODMA) [A.18] polymer.
From above, it is clear that functional groups in polymers, such as carboxyl, hydroxyl,
amine, and ester group play an important role in the steric stabilization. These functional
groups can interact with the particle surface and act as good anchors. It is also found that
hydroxyl and acetate groups in Poly(vinyl butyral) (PVB) [A.19] are important sites for
interaction with alumina [24]. Poly(alkylmethacrylate) [A.20] polymers improved the
dispersion of alumina in heptane and paraffin oil because poly(alkylmethacrylate)s can
interact with the alumina by hydrogen bonding, as determined by Diffusive Reflection
Infrared Fourier Transform spectroscopy [23].
As mentioned in section 2.2.2, copolymers are supposed to be the best steric stablizers. A
large number of copolymers containing functional groups have been used to stabilize
inorganic powders in nonaqueous media. Copolymers of methyl methacrylate and small
amounts of methacrylic acid [A.21] (3.2% or less) gave very good dispersion of TiO 2
powder in methyl ethyl ketone where methyl methacrylate homopolymers have been
shown to be ineffective [25].
Howard and Ma [25] studied the adsorption of methyl metharylate homopolymer and its
copolymers on surface-modified titanium dioxide (pigments are coated to impart various
degrees of acidity to their surfaces) in polar and nonpolar dispersion medium. They found
that homopolymers adsorb poorly from methyl ethyl ketone (polar) and do not stabilize
the dispersions of the coated pigments; however, they are better adsorbed from their
solutions in toluene (nonpolar) and are then effective in dispersion stabilization. This
difference may be due to the poor solubility of methyl methacrylate in toluene or due to
the competition for surface sites by the basic methyl ethyl ketone. Incorporation of small
quantities of carboxylic acid polar groups into the macromolecular chain increases the
adsorption and has a beneficial effect on dispersion ability. Copolymers with small
amounts of nitrile, acrylamide [A.22], pyridyl [A.23], and hydroxyl groups also show
enhanced adsorptions but do not, in general, improve dispersion stability.
Application of steric stabilization in dispersing ceramic particles in nonaqueous media
19
Thies [26] studied the effect of molecular structure on stabilization by determining the
amount and composition of polymers adsorbed on stabilized and on flocculated silica
particles dispersed in perchlorethylene [A.24]. The polymers used were styrene
[A.7]/butadiene [A.25] copolymers which varied in composition and molecular weight.
Thies found that the copolymer adsorbed on the flocculated silica was richest in styrene.
Copolymer adsorbed on stabilized silica contained less styrene than the original
copolymer blend and the unadsorbed copolymer had the lowest styrene content. These
results indicated the importance of a favorable balance between the anchoring unit
(styrene polymer) and the extending unit (butadiene polymer), to achieve the optimum
stabilizing performance.
Parker et.al. [27] studied the sedimentation behavior of alumina powder in the presence
of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) [A.26] and poly (vinylpyrrolidone-co-vinyl acetate)
(PVP/VA) [A.27] in thermodynamically good (IPA, isopropylalcohol) [A.28] as well
as poor solvents (toluene) for the PVP homopolymer. The steric stabilizing efficiency
of PVP in alumina slurries (in IPA) is increased by the incorporation of the VA
comonomer because IPA is a good solvent for PVP but a poor solvent for PVA. NMR
results suggested that the PVP/VA copolymer is anchored to the alumina powder surface
by means of VA (VA is supposed to have strong affinity with the basic groups on Al2 O3
surface), whereas the PVP moieties extend into the continuous phase of the slurry
medium. The effect of stabilization is reduced when a solvent poor for PVP but good for
PVA (such as toluene) is added. This is ascribed to chain contraction of the PVP mietoies
upon the addition of a poor solvent and VA moieties desorbing upon the addition of a
good solvent.
In Armstrongs study [6] of the stability of alumina dispersions in a 90:10 wt.% tolueneethanol mixed solvent it was found that:
High- molecular-weight sulfonated polystyrene (60,000 D) having a low suphonation
level is an effective stabilizer.
Low- molecular-weight sulfonated polystyrene (10,000 D), silwet surfactants L-7500
[A.29] (butoxy terminated polypropylene oxide; 3000 D) and L-7604 [A.30]
(hydroxyl terminated polyethyleneoxide; 4000MW) and homo-polystyrene are
ineffective stabilizers.
Discussion
Generally, functional groups, such as carboxyl, hydroxyl, amine, and ester groups in
polymer molecular structure play an important role in the steric stabilization. These
functional groups can interact with the particle surface and act as good anchors. Among
all the functional groups, carboxyl groups turn out to be the most effective anchors to the
ceramic particle surface because they are supposed to interact strongly with the basic
sites on the particle surface. Ester groups can interact with the ceramic particle surface by
hydrogen bonding. However, this interaction is less strong than that of carboxyl groups.
Thus, polymers which only contain ester groups are not as good stabilizers as those
including carboxyl groups. The long chain hydrocarbons in the molecular structures may,
on the other hand, extend from the surface into nonaqueous solvent and act as good
moieties in nonaqueous media. Usually, the longer the hydrocarbon chains, the better the
stabilization effect. Sometimes, hydrocarbon chains containing a benzene group are used
20
as such moieties. The selection of polymer moieties depends on the dispersion media
used.
Usually, copolymers are more effective in steric stabilization because they consist of
more than one type of repeated unit. One type of repeated units can act as anchor; the
other type can act in the moieties extending into the nonaqueous solution. However, if a
homopolymer consists of repeated units which contain both the anchor and the moiety
function, it can also stabilize the particles effectively. For example, the repeated units of
polyacrylic acid contain both carboxyl groups and a long chain hydrocarbon.
21
Steric stabilization in preparing nanoparticles via

modified emulsion precipitation
In the modified emulsion precipitation method for preparation of ceramic nanoparticles,

metal oxide precursors tend to aggregate during the water removal step. These aggregates
can not be destroyed by redispersing the precipitate in decane via ultrasonification.
Aggregates with sizes of 5-50 m quickly lead to sedimentation of the dispersions. Large
contact areas between the particles indicate an early aggregation. To prevent aggregation
at a high content of the dispersed phase in decane, steric stabilization by adding
poly(octadecyl methacrylate) (PODMA) is used.
5.1
The structure of PODMA
Molecular Formula: (-CH2 C(CH3 )[CO2 (CH2 )17 CH3 ]-)n

Molecular weight: 170,000
PODMA is a homopolymer whose repeated unit contains an ester group and a C18
hydrocarbon chain. The ester groups COO are supposed to bind to the hydroxyl groups
on the particle surface through hydrogen bonding and act as anchors. The hydrocarbon
chains extend into the decane and act as the mioeties.
5.2
The selection of PODMA as steric stabilizer
To select a suitable polymer, the following criteria must be fulfilled: the stabilizing
moiety of the copolymer should be soluble in decane and should not contain species such
as silicon that may end up as an unwanted residual in the final microstructure. The
anchoring group should not be soluble in decane. A further requirement is that the total
polymer, added before or after emulsification, must be soluble in the decane phase and
should not influence emulsion stability.
From the literature study, we know that carboxyl groups in polymers could be effective
anchors onto the ceramic particle surface in nonaqueous media. And since decane is used
as the dispersion medium, long hydrocarbon chains could be good moieties and extend
outward into decane. Thus a polymer which contains both the carboxyl group and the
long hydrocarbon chain could be a suitable steric stabilizer in this case.
Fatty acids satisfy this requirement and contain both the carboxyl groups and the long
hydrocarbon chains. However, there is only one carboxyl group in each molecule which
can acts as anchor, so the polymer is easy to desorb from the particle surface and cause
aggregation. Poly(acrylate)s [A.11] and Poly(methacrylate)s [A.20] contain a carboxyl
22
group for each repeated unit so that they can strongly adsorb to the particle surface. The
long hydrocarbon chain connecting to the carboxyl group can extend into decane and act
as stabilizing moieties.
Polyester is also a good candidate here. The ester groups are supposed to attach to the
particle surfaces by hydrogen bonding and the hydrocarbon chains extend into the decane
as the mioeties to stabilize the nanoparticles. Also, polyesters include one ester group in
each repeated unit so that the polymer will strongly attach to the particles surface with
many anchors. Poly(alkyl methacrylate)s are commonly used to stabilize particles in
nonaquous media. They contain one ester group for each repeated units and the long
hydrocarbon chains connecting to the ester group can extend into decane and act as
stabilizing moieties. Poly(octadecyl methacrylate) [A.18] has (CH2 )17 CH3 connected with
the ester group in each repeated unit and is used as stabilizer in our study. Experimental
results show that the stabilization effect of PODMA is good in our case and it can form
dispersions of nanoparticles in decane which are stable for several years. Other poly(alkyl
methacrylate)s with longer hydrocarbon chain may also be considered. The longer the
chains, the thicker the stabilizing layer outside the particle, possibly resulting in better
stabilization. However, we must also keep in mind that longer chains may lead to
bridging flocculation and increase the effective particle diameter which may lead to
decreased packing densities.
As mentioned before, copolymers are usually more effective steric stabilizers than
homopolymers. So we can also try some copolymers with a carboxyl group or ester group
in one repeated unit and a long hydrocarbon chain in the other repeated unit. For
example, poly(methylmethacrylate-styrene) block polymers, poly(methylmethacrylatebutadiene) block polymers on poly(vinyl acetate-styrene) block polymers. However,
copolymers are much more expensive than homopolymer. And the selection of the
copolymers will also depend on their availability.
In the study of Segar [28], various polymers were tested as a dispersant for ZnO in
decane and also for their effect on emulsion stability. Most technically applied
dispersants were found to be insoluble in decane and to destabilize the w/o emulsion.
Only PODMA forms dispersions of ZnO in decane which are stable for several days and
can be added to the emulsion before the extraction of water. The experimental results also
show that the addition of PODMA drastically reduces particle aggregation.
Steric stabilization in preparing nanoparticles via modified emulsion precipitation
5.3
23
The role of PODMA
To better understand the role of PODMA in

the steric stabilization of the nanoparticles in
modified emulsion precipitation, it is
necessary to understand the roles of other
additives used in the entire preparation
process and the interactions, if any, between
these surfactants and PODMA. In the
present study, nonionic surfactant Arkopal
40 [A.31] is used to prepare w/o emulsions
at the initial stage of the process. In
addition, the ionic surfactant DiDAB [A.32]
is used as co-surfactant to reduce the total Figure 5.1 : Assumed
model
for
the
concentration of surfactant required to stabilization of the oxide particles in decane.
prepare the emulsion. PODMA is added just
before azeotropic distillation so that it can stabilize the nanoparticles after the water
removal. According to Sager [28] and Woudenberg [29], the particles in decane are
stabilized by a comb ined layer of PODMA and DiDAB, as schematically represented in
figureFigure 5.1. In this model, the particles are covered with PODMA and surrounded
by a bilayer of DiDAB. In the outer layer the hydrophobic tail of the DiDAB molecules
point outward, which makes the particles dispersable in the oil phase. It is suggested that
the PODMA/DiDAB layer is formed during water removal.
In this model, both PODMA and DiDAB can be regard as steric stabilizers because it is
the combined layer of PODMA and DiDAB which prevents the aggregation. Emulsion
precipitation without PODMA also leads to a stable dispersion in decane. The yield is,
however, small. It may be possible that DiDAB adsorbs with its polar head directly onto
the particle surface and stabilize the particle in decane. But the monolayer formed by
DiDAB is so thin that the particles are aggregate easier. Emulsion precipitation without
DiDAB even can not lead to a stable emulsion since DiDAB is necessary in preparing
w/o emulsions. After mixing with Ultra-Turrex, the emulsions become two layers during
the process of decomposing HMTA.
More experiments and studies are still needed to find out the exact stabilization
mechanism.
24
References
1. Irja Piirma, polymeric surfactants. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1992.
2. Tatsul Sato and Richard Ruch, stabilization of colloidal dispersion by polymer
adsorption. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1980.
3. D.H. Napper, Polymeric Stabilization of Colloidal Dispersions. Academic Press,
London, 1983.
4. J.K. Stille, Introduction to polymer chemistry. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York,
1962.
5. S. Ellerstein and R. Ullman, The adsorption of polymethyl methacrylate from
solution, J. Polym. Sci., 55 123-35 (1961).
6. G.H. Armstrong, L. Johnson and A.A. Parker, Effect of polymeric steric stabilizers
on the settling of alumina, Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 52 997-1004 (1994).
7. J.R. Fox, P.C. Kokoropoulos, G.H. Wiseman and H.K. Bowen, Steric stabilization of
stober silica dispersions using organosilanes, J. Mat. Sci., 22 4528-31 (1987).
8. R. Laible and K. Hamann, Formation of chemically bound polymer layers on oxide
surfaces and their role in colloidal stability, Adv. Colloid Interface Sci., 13 [1-2] 6599 (1980).
9. R. Perkel and R. Ullman, The adsorption of polyd imethylsilocanes from solution, J.
Polym. Sci., 54 127-48 (1961).
10. H.H.G. Jellinek and H.L. Northey, Adsorption of high polymers from solution onto
solids. II. Adsorption of polystyrene on charcoal, J. Polym. Sci., 14 583-87 (1954).
11. M. van der Waarden, J. Colloid Interfac. Sci., 5 317-326 (1950).
12. M.J. Rosen, surfactants and interfacial phenomena. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New
York, 1978.
13. R.J. Pugh and L. Bergstrom, Surface and colloid chemistry in advanced ceramics
processing. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1994.
14. H. Koelmans and J.Th.G. Overbeek, Stability and electrophoretic deposition of
suspensions in nonaquesous media, Discuss. Farad. Soc., 18 52-63 (1954).
15. A. Doroszkowski and R. Lambourne, Effects of Molecular Architecture of fatty
acids on dispersion properties of titanium dioxide, Chem. Soc. Faraday Disc., 65
252-63 (1978).
16. P.D. Calvert, E.S. Tormey and R.L. Pober, Fish oil and triglycerides as dispersants
for alumina, Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull., 65 [4] 669-72 (1986).
17. E.M. DeLiso and A. Blier, Colloid al stability of oxidized silicon particles in
ethanolic and aqueous media; pp. 171-86 in: Interfacial Phen. in BioTech. and Mat.
Processing. Edited by Y.A. Attia, B.M. Mougdil and S. Chander. Elsevier Science
Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1988. Proceedings of the International
Symposium on Interfacial Phenomena in Biotechnology and Materials Processing,
August 3-7, 1987, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
18. K.R. Mikeska and W.R. Cannon, Non-aqueous dispersion properties of pure barium
titanate for tape casting, Colloids Surfaces, 29 [3] 305-21 (1988).
19. L.A. Romo, Stability of non-aqueous dispersions, J. Phys. Chem., 67 386-89
(1963).
20. T. Sato, Adsorption of polyamides and the stability of dispersion, J. Appl. Polym.
Sci., 15 1053-67 (1971).
References
25
21. V.T. Crowl and M.A. Malati, Adsorption of polymers and the stability of pigment
dispersions, Discuss. Faraday Soc., 42 301-12 (1966).
22. J.R. Joppien and K. Hamann, The structure of layers of adsorbed polymers at
pigment/solution interfaces and their influence on the dispersion stability of pigments
in paints, J. Oil Color Chem. Ass., 60 [10] 412-33 (1977).
23. T.K. Yin, I.A. Aksay and B.E. Eichinger, Lubricating polymers for powder
compaction, Ceram. Powder Sci., 1 654-62 (1988).
24. K.E. Howard, C.D.E. Lakeman and D.A. Payne, Surface Chemistry of Various
poly(vinyl butyral) polymers adsorbed onto alumina, J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 73 [8]
2543-46 (1990).
25. G.J. Howard and C.C. Ma, Steric stabilization of surface-coated titanium dioxide
pigments by adsorbed methyl methacrylate copolymers, J. Coat. Techn., 51 [651]
47-60 (1979).
26. C. Thies, Adsorption of styrene/butadiene copolymers and stabilization of silica
dispersed in perchloroethylene, J. Colloid Interfac. Sci., 54 [1] 13-21 (1976).
27. A.A. Parker, G.H. Armstrong and D.P. Hedrick, NMR and sedimentation studies of
a polymeric steric stabilizer for alumina, J. Appl. Polymer Sci., 47 1999-003 (1993).
28. W. Sager, H.F. Eicke and W. Sun, Precipitation of nanometer-sized uniform ceramic
particles in emulsions, Colloid and Surface A, 79, 199-216 (1993).
29. F.C.M. Woudenberg, Nanostructured oxide coatings via emulsion precipitation.
Thesis, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands, 2001.
26
A.1
poly(dimethyl siloxane)
CA Index Name:
Poly[oxy(dimethylsilylene)] (8CI, 9CI)
Other Names:
Di-Me polysiloxane; Di-Me silicone; Di-Me siloxane; DiMe siloxane, SRU; Dimethyl silicone; Dimethyl siloxane;
Dimethyl siloxane, sru; Dimethylpolysiloxane;
Dimethylpolysiloxanes; Dimethylsilanediol homopolymer,
SRU; Dimethylsilanediol polymer, sru; Dimethylsiloxane
homopolymer, SRU; Hexamethylcyclotrisiloxane
homopolymer, SRU; Hexamethylcyclotrisiloxane polymer,
SRU; Octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane homopolymer, SRU;
Octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane polymer, SRU; OHEB 1000;
Poly(dimethylsilanediol), SRU; Poly(dimethylsiloxane);
Poly(dimethylsiloxane), SRU;
Poly(octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane), SRU;
Polydimethylsiloxane; Releasil 8; Rhodorsil 426R;
Rhodorsil 454; Rhodorsil 47 V; Rhodorsil 47V; Rhodorsil
47V100000; Rhodorsil 47V200000; Rhodorsil
47V2500000; Rhodorsil 47V500000; Rhodorsil CAF 3B;
Rhodorsil H 224; Rhodorsil HP 1055U; Rhodorsil RH 414;
Rhodorsil Water Resistant 68
Formula:
(C 2 H6 OSi)n
Class Identifier:
Polymer
Polymer Class Term:
Polyother, Polyother only

CH3
Si
O
n
CH3
A.2
Polyamides
CA Index Name:
Polyamides
Other Names:
Acids, polyamides; Amide resins; Azelaic acidhexamethylenediamine polyamides; Carboxylic acids,

polyamides; Lactams, polyamides; Nylon; Nylon
oligomers; Oligamides; Oligomers polyamides; PA;
Plastics, polyamides; Poly(alkyleneterephthalamides)
polyamides; Poly(phenyleneisophthalamide) polyamides;
Poly[(alkylpentame thylene)terephthalamides] polyamides
27
Formula:
Class Identifier:
Unspecified
Polymer
Polymer Class Term:
Manual registration
A.3
PMMA
CA Index Name:
2-Propenoic acid, 2- methyl-, methyl ester, homopolymer

(9CI)
Other Names:
Methacrylic acid methyl ester, polymers (8CI); 1000L;

1000L (methacrylic polymer); Methyl methacrylate
homopolymer; Methyl methacrylate polymer; Methyl
methacrylate resin; Poly(methyl methacrylate); Polybase IJ;
Polycast; Polycast (acrylic polymer); Pontalite
Formula:
(C 5 H8 O2 )n
Class Identifier:
Polymer
Polymer Class Term:
Polyacrylic
Component Registry #:
80-62-6
CH3
CH2
n
CH3
A.4
Dioxane
CA Index Name:
1,4-Dioxane (9CI)
Other Names:
p-Dioxane
(8CI);
1,4-Diethylene
dioxide;
1,4Dioxacyclohexane; 1,4-Dioxan; 1,4-Dioxin, tetrahydro-;
Diethylene dioxide; Diethylene ether; Diethylene oxide;
Dioxan; Dioxane; Dioxyethylene ether; NE 220; p-Dioxan
Formula:
C4 H8O2
Class Identifier:
Ring Parent
O
O
28
A.5
Organomethoxysilanes [ C18H37Si(OCH 3) 3]
CA Index Name:
Silane, trimethoxyoctadecyl- (7CI, 8CI, 9CI)
Other Names:
LSX 6817; n-Octadecyltrimethoxysilane;

Octadecyltrimethoxysilane; Stearyltrimethoxysilane;
Trimethoxyoctadecylsilane; TSL 8185; TSL 8186
Formula:
C21 H46O3 Si
OCH3
H3CO
Si
(CH2 )17
CH3
OCH3
A.6
Organomethoxysilanes [C 18H37(CH3)2Si(OCH3)]
CA Index Name:
Silane, methoxydimethyloctadecyl- (9CI)
Other Names:
Dimethyl(methoxy)octadecylsilane;
Dimethyl(octadecyl)methoxysilane;
Methoxydimethyloctadecylsilane;
Octadecyldimethylmethoxysilane
C21 H46OSi
Formula:
OCH3
H 3C
Si
(CH2 )17
CH3
CH3
A.7
Styrene
CA Index Name:
Benzene, ethenyl- (9CI)
Other Names:
Styrene (8CI); Cinnamene; Ethenylbenzene; Phenethylene;

Phenylethene; Phenylethylene; Styrol; Styrole; Styrolene;
Styropol SO; Vinylbenzene; Vinylbenzol
Formula:
C8 H8
H 2C
A.8
CH
Methyl ethyl ketone
CA Index Name:
2-Butanone (8CI, 9CI)
29
Other Names:
3-Butanone; Butanone; Ethyl methyl ketone; MEK; Methyl

ethyl ketone
Formula:
C4 H8O
O
H 3C
A.9
CH 2
CH3
Alkyl poly(oxyethylene)
CA Index Name:
Quaternary ammonium compounds,

bis(hydroxyethyl)methyltallow alkyl, ethoxylated,
chlorides
Other Names:
Bis(hydroxyethyl)methyltallow alkylammonium chlorides,

ethoxylated; Ethoquad T 20; Ethoquad T 25; Ethoxylated
bis(hydroxyethyl)methyltallowalkylammonium chlorides;
Quaternary ammonium compounds,
methylbis(polyoxyethylene)tallow alkyl, chlorides;
Tetraalkylammonium compounds,
bis(hydroxyethyl)methyltallow alkyl, ethoxylated,
chlorides
Formula:
Unspecified
Class Identifier:
Polymer
Polymer Class Term:
Manual registration
A.10 Ethylene oxide

CA Index Name:
Other Names:
Oxirane (9CI)
Ethylene oxide (8CI); Ethyleneoxy (6CI); 1,2Epoxyethane; 12/88; Ciba-Geigy 9138; Dihydrooxirene;
Dimethylene oxide; Epoxyethane; Ethene oxide; ETO;
Mirror Ox; Oxacyclopropane; Oxane; Oxidoethane;
Oxirene, dihydro-; Oxyfume; Oxyfume 12; T-Gas
Formula:
C2 H4O
Class Identifier:
Ring Parent
O
A.11 Polyacrylate
CA Index Name:
2-Propenoic acid, ion(1-), homopolymer (9CI)
Other Names:
Polyacrylate homopolymer
Formula:
(C 3 H3 O2 ?)n
30
Class Identifier:
Polymer
Polymer Class Term:
Polyacrylic
10344-93-1
CH
CH2
n
A.12 Oleic acid

CA Index Name:
Other Names:
9-Octadecenoic acid (9Z)- (9CI)

9-Octadecenoic acid (Z)-; Oleic acid (8CI); 9-cisOctadecenoic acid; 9-cis-Oleic acid; 9-cis-Octadecenoic
acid; 9-Octadecenoic acid, (Z)-; cis-9-Octadecenoic acid;
cis-9-Octadecenoic acid; cis-Oleic acid; D 100; D 100
(fatty acid); Edenor ATiO5; Edenor FTiO5; Emersol 205;
Emersol 211; Emersol 213NF; Emersol 214NF; Emersol
233; Emersol 6313NF; Extra Oleic 80R; Extra Oleic 90;
Extra Oleic 99; Extra Olein 80; Extra Olein 90R;
Extraolein 90; Industrene 105; Lunac O-CA; Lunac O-LL;
Lunac O-P; Lunac OA; NAA 35; Neo-Fat 92-04; Oleine
7503; Pamolyn 100; Priolene 6906; Priolene 6907; Priolene
6928; Priolene 6930; Priolene 6933; Vopcolene 27;
Wecoline OO; Z-9-Octadecenoic acid
Formula:
C18 H34O2
O
H 3C
(CH2)7
CH
CH
(CH2 )7
OH
A.13 glycerol trioleate

CA Index Name:
Other Names:
9-Octadecenoic acid (9Z)-, 1,2,3-propanetriyl ester (9CI)

9-Octadecenoic acid (Z)-, 1,2,3-propanetriyl ester; Olein,
tri- (8CI); Actor LO 1; Aldo TO; Emerest 2423; Emery
2423; Emery oleic acid ester 2230; Estol 1433; Glycerin
trioleate; Glycerol trioleate; Glycerol triolein; Glyceryl
trioleate; Glyceryl-1,2,3-trioleate; Kemester 1000; Oleic
acid triglyceride; Oleic triglyceride; Oleyl triglyceride;
Raoline; sn-Glyceryl trioleate; Triglyceride OOO; Triolein;
Trioleoylglyceride; Trioleoylglycerol
Formula:
31
C57 H104O6
O
H 3C
(CH2)7
CH
CH
(CH2)7
CH2
CH
CH2
H 3C
(CH2 )7
CH
CH
(CH2)7
C
O
H 3C
(CH2 )7
CH
CH
(CH2)7
A.14 KD-2
CA Index Name:
Alanine, N-[2-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)ethyl]-N[(trifluoromethyl)sulfonyl]- (9CI)
Other Names:
KD 2
Formula:
C14 H18F3NO6 S
O
CH2
CH2
CF 3
CH
OH
CH3
H3CO
OCH3
A.15 melamine/linseed oil

CA Index Name:
Fatty acids, dehydrated castor-oil, polymers with benzoic

acid,
2-ethylhexyl
acrylate,
glycerol,
hexakis(methoxymethyl)
melamine,
hydroxyethyl
methacrylate, iso-Bu methacrylate, linseed oil, methacrylic
acid, pentaerythritol, phthalic anhydride and styrene
Other Names:
Linseed oil, polymer with benzoic acid, dehydrated castoroil fatty acids, 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, glycerol,
hexakis(methoxymethyl)melamine,
hydroxyethyl
methacrylate, iso-Bu methacrylate, methacrylic acid,
pentaerythritol, phthalic anhydride and styrene
32
Formula:
(C 15 H30N6O6 . C11 H20 O2 . C8 H14 O2 . C8 H8 . C8 H4O3 . C7 H6 O2 .

C6 H10 O3 . C5 H12O4 . C4 H6O2 . C3 H8O3 . Unspecified.
Unspecified)n
Class Identifier:
Polymer
Polymer Class Term:
Manual registration
61789-44-4
Formula: Unspecified
No Structure
Diagram Available
8001-26-1
Formula: Unspecified
No Structure
Diagram Available
3089-11-0
Formula: C15 H30 N6 O6
CH3
CH2
N
CH3
CH3
CH2
CH2
CH 2
CH 2
CH 2
CH2
CH3
CH3
CH 2
115-77-5
Formula: C5 H12 O4
CH 2
HO
CH3
868-77-9
Formula: C6 H10 O3
H 3C
N
N
CH2
CH2
103-11-7
Formula: C11 H20 O2
OH
CH 2
OH
OH
CH 2
OH
33
CH2
H 3C
CH
CH2
(CH2) 3
H 3C
CH3
CH
97-86-9
Formula: C8 H14 O2
(CH2) 3
CH2
85-44-9
Formula: C8 H4 O3
O
O
O
79-41-4
Formula: C4 H6 O2
H 3C
CH 2
OH
65-85-0
Formula: C7 H6 O2
O
CH2
CH
100-42-5
Formula: C8 H8
H 2C
56-81-5
Formula: C3 H8 O3
OH
CH3
34
OH
CH 2
HO
CH 2
CH
OH
A.16 Adipic acid

CA Index Name:
Hexanedioic acid (9CI)
Other Names:
Adipic acid (8CI); 1,4-Butanedicarboxylic acid; 1,6Hexanedioic acid; Acifloctin; Acinetten; Adilactetten;
Asapic; Inipol DS
Formula:
C6 H10 O4
O
HO
(CH2)4
OH
A.17 Neopentyl glycol

CA Index Name:
1,3-Propanediol, 2,2-dimethyl- (6CI, 7CI, 8CI, 9CI)
Other Names:
1,3-Dihydroxy-2,2-dimethylpropane;
2,2Bis(hydroxymethyl)propane;
2,2-Dimethyl-1,3dihydroxypropane; 2,2-Dimethyl-1,3-propanediol; 2,2Dimethylpropan-1,3-diol; 2,2-Dimethyltrimethylene glycol;
Dimethylolpropane;
Hydroxypivalyl
alcohol;
Neopentanediol; Neopentyl glycol; Neopentylene glycol;
Nexcoat 600
Formula:
C5 H12 O2
CH3
HO
CH2
CH2
OH
CH3
A.18 Poly(octadecyl methacrylate)

CA Index Name:
Other Names:
2-Propenoic acid, 2- methyl-, octadecyl ester, homopolymer

(9CI)
Methacrylic acid, octadecyl ester, polymers (8CI);
Octadecyl methacrylate graft homopolymer; Octadecyl
methacrylate homopolymer; Octadecyl methacrylate
polymer; Poly(n-octadecyl methacrylate); Poly(octadecyl
methacrylate);
Poly(stearyl
methacrylate);
Stearyl
methacrylate homopolymer
35
Formula:
(C 22 H42O2 )n
Class Identifier:
Polymer
Polymer Class Term:
Polyacrylic
32360-05-7
CH 3
CH2
(CH 2) 17
CH 3
A.19 Poly(vinyl butyral) (PVB)

CA Index Name:
Butane, 1,1-bis(ethenyloxy)-, homopolymer (9CI)
Other Names:
Butyraldehyde, divinyl acetal, polymers (8CI); Poly(divinyl

butyral)
Formula:
(C 8 H14O2 )n
Class Identifier:
Polymer
Polymer Class Term:
Polyvinyl
102-68-1
CH
C
CH2
n
O
C
CH3
(CH2 )2
CH
CH
CH2
A.20 Methacrylate
CA Index Name:
2-Propenoic acid, 2- methyl-, ion(1-) (9CI)
Other Names:
Methacrylic
acid,
ion(1-)
(8CI);
Methacrylate;
Methacrylate ion; Methacrylate(1-); Methacrylic acid anion
Formula:
C4 H5O2
H 3C
CH 2
36
A.21 Methacrylic acid

CA Index Name:
2-Propenoic acid, 2- methyl- (9CI)
Other Names:
Methacrylic acid (8CI); -Methacrylic acid; Methylacrylic acid; 2-Methyl-2-propenoic acid; 2Methylacrylic acid; GE 110; Loctite 3298; Methylacrylic
acid
Formula:
C4 H6O2
H 3C
A.22
CH2
OH
Acrylamide
CA Index Name:
2-Propenamide (9CI)
Other Names:
Acrylamide (8CI); Acrylic amide; Ethylenecarboxamide;

Propenamide; Vinyl amide
Formula:
C3 H5NO
O
H 2N
A.23
CH
CH2
Pyridyl
CA Index Name:
Pyridine (6CI, 7CI, 8CI, 9CI)
Other Names:
Azabenzene; Azine; CP 32
Formula:
C5 H5N
Class Identifier:
Ring Parent
N
A.24
Perchlorethylene
CA Index Name:
Other Names:
Ethene, tetrachloro- (9CI)

Ethylene, tetrachloro- (8CI); 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethene;
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethylene; Ankilostin; Antisal 1;
Didakene; Dilatin PT; Ethylene tetrachloride; F 1110; F
1110 (halocarbon); Fedal- Un; Freon 1110; Nema; PCE;
PCE (chlorohydrocarbon); Perchlorethylene;
Perchloroethene; Perchloroethylene; Perclene; Perklone;
PerSec; R 1110; Tetlen; Tetracap; Tetrachlorethylene;
37
Tetrachloroethene; Tetrachloroethylene; Tetraguer;

Tetraleno; Tetropil
Formula:
C2 Cl4
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
A.25 Butadiene
CA Index Name:
1,3-Butadiene (8CI, 9CI)
Other Names:
,-Butadiene; Biethylene; Bivinyl; Butadiene; Butadiene1,3; Divinyl; Erythrene; Vinylethylene
Formula:
C4 H6
H 2C
CH
CH
CH2
A.26 Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)

CA Index Name:
Other Names:
2-Pyrrolidinone, 1-ethenyl-, homopolymer (9CI)

2-Pyrrolidinone, 1- vinyl-, polymers (8CI); 1-Vinyl-2pyrrolidinone polymer; 1-Vinyl-2-pyrrolidone
homopolymer; 1-Vinyl-2-pyrrolidone polymer; 143RP; K
115; K 115 (vinyl polymer); K 120; K 120 (vinyl polymer);
K 15; K 15 (polymer); K 17; K 25; K 25 (surfactant); K 30;
K 60; K 60 (polymer); N-Vinyl-2-pyrrolidinone
homopolymer; N-Vinyl-2-pyrrolidone homopolymer; NVinyl-2-pyrrolidone polymer; N-Vinylbutyrolactam
polymer; N-Vinylpyrrolidinone polymer; NVinylpyrrolidone homopolymer; N-Vinylpyrrolidone
polymer; Neocompensan; NP-K 30; NPK 15; Poly(1-vinyl2-pyrrolidinone); Poly(1-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone); Poly(1vinylpyrrolidinone); Poly(N-vinyl--butyrolactam);
Poly(N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidinone); Poly(N-vinyl-2pyrrolidone); Poly(N-vinylbutyrolactam); Poly(Nvinylpyrrolidinone); Poly(N-vinylpyrrolidone);
Poly(vinylpyrrolidinone); Poly(vinylpyrrolidone); Polyclar
AT; Polyclar H; Polyclar L; Polyplasdone; Polyplasdone
INF 10; Polyplasdone XL; Polyplasdone XL 10;
Polyvidon; Polyvidone; Polyvinylpyrrolidon XL;
Polyvinylpyrrolidone; Poviderm SK 3; Povidone; Povidone
K 25; Povidone K 29-32; Povidone K 2932; Povidone K
30; Povidone K 90; Protagent; PV 03; PV 03 (vinyl
pyrrolidone polymer); PV 05; PVP; PVP 10; PVP 1230;
PVP 25; PVP 40; PVP 50; PVP-K; PVP-K 120; PVP-K 15;
PVP-K 17; PVP-K 25; PVP-K 26/28; PVP-K 3; PVP-K 30;
PVP-K 40; PVP-K 60; PVP-K 70; PVP-K 80; PVP-K 90;
38
PVPP; SD 13; SD 13 (polymer); Vinylpyrrolidinone

polymer; Vinylpyrrolidone homopolymer;
Vinylpyrrolidone polymer
Formula:
(C 6 H9 NO)n
Class Identifier:
Polymer
Polymer Class Term:
Polyvinyl
88-12-0
CH
A.27
CH2
Poly (vinyl acetate) (PVA)
CA Index Name:
Acetic acid ethenyl ester, homopolymer (9CI)
Other Names:
Acetic acid vinyl ester, polymers (8CI); 40A (vinyl

polymer); Atactic poly(vinyl acetate); E 304 (vinyl
polymer); Poly(acetoxyethene); Poly(vinyl acetate)
Formula:
(C 4 H6 O2 )n
Class Identifier:
Polymer
Polymer Class Term:
Polyvinyl
108-05-4
CH
CH2
n
O
C
CH3
A.28 IPA, isopropylalcohol

CA Index Name:
Other Names:
2-Propanol (9CI)
Isopropyl alcohol (8CI); 1-Methylethanol; 1-Methylethyl
alcohol; 2-Hydroxypropane; 2-Propyl alcohol; Alcojel;
Alcosolve 2; Autosept; Avantin; Avantine; Combi-Schutz;
Dimethylcarbinol; Hartosol; Imsol A; IPA; IPS 1; IPS 1
39
(alcohol); iso-Propanol; iso-Propyl alcohol; Isohol;

Isopropanol; Lutosol; n-Propan-2-ol; Petrohol; PRO;
Propol; sec-Propanol; sec-Propyl alcohol; Sterisol Hand
Disinfectant; Takineocol; Virahol
Formula:
C3 H8O
OH
H 3C
CH
CH3
A.29 L-7500
(silwet
surfactants;
polypropylene oxide; 3000 D)
CA Index Name:
Other Names:
butoxy
terminated
Poly[oxy(methyl-1,2-ethanediyl)],
-butyl--hydroxy(9CI)
B 01/10; B 01/20; B 01/40; B 01/80; Butoxypolypropylene
glycol; Desmophen 3500; Fluid AP; L 7500; MOM 810-2;
Nasfroth 301; Newpol LB 1715; Newpol LB 1800X;
Newpol LB 285; Newpol LB 3000; Newpol LB 385;
Newpol LB 65; Nissan Unilube MB 11; Nissan Unilube
MB 14; Nissan Unilube MB 19; Nissan Unilube MB 22;
Nissan Unilube MB 7; Nissan Unilube MB 700; OPSB;
Poly(oxypropylene) butyl ether; Poly(propylene oxide)
monobutyl ether; Poly-G WI 165; Polyglycol B 01/20;
Polyglycol L 1150; Polyglycol L 910; Polyoxypropylene
ether with 1-butanol; Polyoxypropylene glycol butyl
monoether;
Polyoxypropylene
monobutyl
ether;
Polypropylene glycol butyl ether; Polypropylene glycol
monobutyl ether; Poypropylene glycol monobutyl ether;
PPG-14 Butyl Ether; PPG-16 Butyl Ether; PPG-33 Butyl
Ether; Synalox 100-150B; Synalox PB 285; Ucon Fluid
AP; Ucon LB 1145; Ucon LB 165; Ucon LB 1715; Ucon
LB 250; Ucon LB 285; Ucon LB 3000; Ucon LB 525;
Ucon LB 625; Unilube MB 11; Unilube MB 14; Unilube
MB 19; Unilube MB 22; Unilube MB 7; Unilube MB 700
Formula:
(C 3 H6 O)n C4 H10 O
Class Identifier:
Incompletely Defined Substance
Polymer Class Term:
Polyether
HO
(CH 2)3
O
n
(CH 2) 3
CH3
40
A.30
L-7604 (hydroxyl terminated polyethyleneoxide; 4000MW)
CA Index Name:
Other Names:
Siloxanes and Silicones, di-Me, hydroxypropyl Me, ethers

with polyoxyalkylene glycol mono-C1-3-alkyl ether
Polysiloxanes, di-Me, hydroxypropyl Me, ethers with
polyoxyalkylene glycol mono-C1-3-alkyl ether; L 7604;
Silwet L 7604
Formula:
Unspecified
Class Identifier:
Manual Registration, Concept
A.31 Arkopal 40 (Nonylphenol tetraethyleneglycol ether)

CA Index Name:
Other Names:
Poly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl),
-(nonylphenyl)--hydroxy(9CI)
Glycols, polyethylene, mono(nonylphenyl) ether (8CI);
(Nonylphenoxy)polyethylene oxide; -(Nonylphenyl)-hydroxypoly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl);
-(Nonylphenyl)-hydroxypolyoxyethylene;
-Hydroxy-(nonylphenyl)poly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl); Arkopal 130;
Arkopal 160; Arkopal 40; Arkopal 60; Arkopal 80; Arkopal
9; Arkopal N; Arkopal N 040; Arkopal N 060; Arkopal N
080; Arkopal N 090; Arkopal N 100; Arkopal N 110;
Arkopal N 130; Arkopal N 150; Arkopal N 230; Arkopal N
300; Arkopal N 308; Arkopal N 50; NP; NP (nonionic
surfactant); NP 10; NP 100; NP 1000; NP 1000
(polyoxyalkylene); NP 1018; NP 13; NP 14; NP 15; NP 15
(defoamer); NP 17; NP 20; NP 30; NP 40; NP 50; NP 6;
NP 660; NP 695; NP 7; NP 7.5; NP 700; NP 8; NP 80; NP
85; NP 9; NP 936; NPEO10; NPEO20; NPEO30; NPEO40;
NS 202; NS 204.5; NS 2045; NS 205.5; NS 206; NS 208.5;
NS 215; NS 220; NS 230; NS 240; NS 270; ON 10; OP 2;
Oxyethylated nonylphenol; Oxyethylene nonylphenyl
ether; PBI Spreader; Penerol NP 10; Penerol NP 16;
Penerol NP 7; Penetrax; Phenoxol 9/18; Phenoxol 9/20;
Pionin D 414; Poly(ethylene oxide) nonylphenyl ether;
Poly(oxyethylene) nonylphenol ether; Poly(oxyethylene)
nonylphenyl ether; Poly- Tergent B; Poly-Tergent B 150;
Poly-Tergent B 200; Poly-Tergent B 300; Poly- Tergent B
350; Polyethoxylated nonylphenol; Polyethylene glycol
mono(nonylphenol)
ether;
Polyethylene
glycol
mono(nonylphenyl) ether; Polyethylene glycol nonylphenol
ether; Polyethylene glycol nonylphenyl ether; Polyethylene
glycol
nonylphenyl
monoether; Polyethyleneoxide
mono(nonylphenyl) ether; Polyoxyethylated nonylphenol;
Polyoxyethylene (15) nonyl phenyl ether; Polyoxyethylene
(20) nonyl phenyl ether; Polyoxyethylene glycol
nonylphenyl ether; Polyoxyethylene monononylphenyl
41
Formula:
ether; Polystep F 10NP40; Polystep F 3; Polystep F 4;

Polystep F 5; Polystep F 6; Polystep F 8; Polystep F
8NP20; Polystep F 9; Tergitol NP; Tergitol NP 10; Tergitol
NP 101; Tergitol NP 12; Tergitol NP 13; Tergitol NP 14;
Tergitol NP 15; Tergitol NP 27; Tergitol NP 33; Tergitol
NP 35; Tergitol NP 4; Tergitol NP 40; Tergitol NP 6;
Tergitol NP 7; Tergitol NP 70; Tergitol NP 8; Tergitol NP
9; Tergitol NPX; Tergitol TH; Tergitol TNP 10; Tergitol
TP 9
(C 2 H4 O)n C15 H24 O
Class Identifier:
Incompletely Defined Substance
Polymer Class Term:
Polyether
HO
CH2
CH2
(CH2 )8
CH3
A.32 DiDAB (Didodecyldimethylammonium)

CA Index Name:
1-Dodecanaminium, N-dodecyl-N,N-dimethyl- (9CI)
Other Names:
Ammonium, didodecyldimethyl- (8CI);

Didodecyldimethylammonium;
Dimethyldidodecylammonium
Formula:
C26 H56N
CH3
CH3
(CH 2)1 1
CH3
(CH 2) 11
Br
CH3
42
Symbols
VDWL
CFPT
PMMA
PODMA
PVB
PVP
PVA
IPA
Arkopal40
DiDAB
van der Waals-London

critical flocculation point
Poly(methyl methacrylate)
poly(octadecyl methacrylate)
Poly(vinyl butyral)
polyvinylpyrrolidone
poly (vinyl acetate)
isopropylalcohol
Nonylphenol tetraethyleneglycol ether
Didodecyldimethylammonium
43
Distribution list
Dr. S.A. Akbar
Dr. H. Verweij
Ohio State University
Department of Materials Science & Engineering
2041 College Road, Watts Hall 291
USA
Dr. P.K. Dutta
Department of Chemistry
100 W 18th Ave, Newman-Wolfrom Laboratory 1118
USA
Members CISM IAB 2001-2002.

LR - Steric Stablization by Polimers

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Center for Industrial Sensors and Measurements

Department Materials Science & Engineering

August 29, 2002

Application of steric stabilization in dispersing ceramic particles in

Steric stabilization in preparing nanoparticles via modified emulsion

Organic component data

Methyl ethyl ketone

Methods for stabilizing colloids

An effective way to counterbalance the VDWL attraction between colloidal particles in

Schematics of steric stabilization

Schematics of depletion stabilization

Polymer: a polymer molecule is defined as a molecule of relatively high molecular

Copolymer: Copolymer refers to a polymer having two different monomers incorporated

Structure of random, block or graft copolymer.

The best steric stabilizers

It is found that the best steric stabilizers

Figure 2.2 : Examples of (a) block copolymers and

Figure 2.3 : Schematic representation of the steric

Steric stabilization mechanism

Stability of the colloidal particles in steric stabilization

The critical flocculation point (CFPT)

Factors affecting CFPT

Adsorption of polymers from solution

Type A flocculation occurs when:

Application of steric stabilization in dispersing

In nowadays ceramic processing, less expensive homopolymers are almost universally

presence of melamine/linseed oil [A.15]. Sato[20] studied the stability of dispersions of

Application of steric stabilization in dispersing ceramic particles in nonaqueous media

Steric stabilization in preparing nanoparticles via

In the modified emulsion precipitation method for preparation of ceramic nanoparticles,

The structure of PODMA

Molecular Formula: (-CH2 C(CH3 )[CO2 (CH2 )17 CH3 ]-)n

The selection of PODMA as steric stabilizer

Steric stabilization in preparing nanoparticles via modified emulsion precipitation

The role of PODMA

To better understand the role of PODMA in

Organic component data

Poly[oxy(dimethylsilylene)] (8CI, 9CI)

Polymer Class Term:

Polyother, Polyother only

Acids, polyamides; Amide resins; Azelaic acidhexamethylenediamine polyamides; Carboxylic acids,

Organic component data

Polymer Class Term:

2-Propenoic acid, 2- methyl-, methyl ester, homopolymer

Methacrylic acid methyl ester, polymers (8CI); 1000L;

Polymer Class Term:

Silane, trimethoxyoctadecyl- (7CI, 8CI, 9CI)

LSX 6817; n-Octadecyltrimethoxysilane;

Silane, methoxydimethyloctadecyl- (9CI)

Benzene, ethenyl- (9CI)

Styrene (8CI); Cinnamene; Ethenylbenzene; Phenethylene;

Methyl ethyl ketone

2-Butanone (8CI, 9CI)

Organic component data

3-Butanone; Butanone; Ethyl methyl ketone; MEK; Methyl

Quaternary ammonium compounds,

Bis(hydroxyethyl)methyltallow alkylammonium chlorides,

Polymer Class Term:

A.10 Ethylene oxide

2-Propenoic acid, ion(1-), homopolymer (9CI)

Polymer Class Term:

A.12 Oleic acid

9-Octadecenoic acid (9Z)- (9CI)