2/1/2015

CompetitiveExams:MahatmaGandhiandFreedomMovementExamrace

InJanuary1915,MohandasKaramchandGandhireturnedtohishomelandaftertwodecadesofresidenceabroad.Theseyearshadbeen
spentforthemostpartinSouthAfrica,wherehewentasalawyer,andintimebecamealeaderoftheIndiancommunityinthat
territory.AsthehistorianChandranDevanesanhasremarked,SouthAfricawasthemakingoftheMahatma.ItwasinSouthAfricathat
MahatmaGandhifirstforgedthedistinctivetechniquesofnonviolentprotestknownassatyagraha,firstpromotedharmonybetween
religions,andfirstalerteduppercasteIndianstotheirdiscriminatorytreatmentoflowcastesandwomen.TheIndiathatMahatma
Gandhicamebacktoin1915wasratherdifferentfromtheonethathehadleftin1893.AlthoughstillacolonyoftheBritish,itwasfar
moreactiveinapoliticalsense.TheIndianNationalCongressnowhadbranchesinmostmajorcitiesandtowns.ThroughtheSwadeshi
movementof190507ithadgreatlybroadeneditsappealamongthemiddleclasses.Thatmovementhadthrownupsometowering
leadersamongthemBalGangadharTilakofMaharashtra,BipinChandraPalofBengal,andLalaLajpatRaiofPunjab.Thethreewere
knownasLal,BalandPal,thealliterationconveyingtheallIndiacharacteroftheirstruggle,sincetheirnativeprovinceswerevery
distantfromoneanother.Wheretheseleadersadvocatedmilitantoppositiontocolonialrule,therewasagroupofModerateswho
preferredamoregradualandpersuasiveapproach.AmongtheseModerateswasGandhiji'sacknowledgedpoliticalmentor,Gopal
KrishnaGokhale,aswellasMohammadAliJinnah,who,likeGandhiji,wasalawyerofGujaratiextractiontrainedinLondon.On
Gokhale'sadvice,GandhijispentayeartravellingaroundBritishIndia,gettingtoknowthelandanditspeoples.Hisfirstmajorpublic
appearancewasattheopeningoftheBanarasHinduUniversity(BHU)inFebruary1916.Amongtheinviteestothiseventwerethe
princesandphilanthropistswhosedonationshadcontributedtothefoundingoftheBHU.Alsopresentwereimportantleadersofthe
Congress,suchasAnnieBesant.Comparedtothesedignitaries,Gandhijiwasrelativelyunknown.Hehadbeeninvitedonaccountofhis
workinSouthAfrica,ratherthanhisstatuswithinIndia.
Whenhisturncametospeak,GandhijichargedtheIndianelitewithalackofconcernforthelabouringpoor.TheopeningoftheBHU,
hesaid,wascertainlyamostgorgeousshow.Butheworriedaboutthecontrastbetweentherichlybedeckednoblemenpresentand
millionsofthepoorIndianswhowereabsent.GandhijitoldtheprivilegedinviteesthatthereisnosalvationforIndiaunlessyoustrip
yourselfofthisjewelleryandholditintrustforyourcountrymeninIndia.Therecanbenospiritofselfgovernmentaboutus,hewent
on,ifwetakeawayorallowotherstotakeawayfromthepeasantsalmostthewholeoftheresultsoftheirlabour.Oursalvationcanonly
comethroughthefarmer.Neitherthelawyers,northedoctors,northerichlandlordsaregoingtosecureit.
TheopeningoftheBHUwasanoccasionforcelebration,markingasitdidtheopeningofanationalistuniversity,sustainedbyIndian
moneyandIndianinitiative.Butratherthanadoptatoneofselfcongratulation,Gandhijichoseinsteadtoremindthosepresentofthe
peasantsandworkerswhoconstitutedamajorityoftheIndianpopulation,yetwereunrepresentedintheaudience.
Gandhiji'sspeechatBanarasinFebruary1916was,atonelevel,merelyastatementoffactnamely,thatIndiannationalismwasan
elitephenomenon,acreationoflawyersanddoctorsandlandlords.But,atanotherlevel,itwasalsoastatementofintentthefirst
publicannouncementofGandhiji'sowndesiretomakeIndiannationalismmoreproperlyrepresentativeoftheIndianpeopleasawhole.
Inthelastmonthofthatyear,Gandhijiwaspresentedwithanopportunitytoputhispreceptsintopractice.AttheannualCongress,
heldinLucknowinDecember1916,hewasapproachedbyapeasantfromChamparaninBihar,whotoldhimabouttheharsh
treatmentofpeasantsbyBritishindigoplanters.

TheMakingandUnmakingofNoncooperation
MahatmaGandhiwastospendmuchof1917inChamparan,seekingtoobtainforthepeasantssecurityoftenureaswellasthe
freedomtocultivatethecropsoftheirchoice.Thefollowingyear,1918,Gandhijiwasinvolvedintwocampaignsinhishomestateof
Gujarat.First,heintervenedinalabourdisputeinAhmedabad,demandingbetterworkingconditionsforthetextilemillworkers.Then
hejoinedpeasantsinKhedainaskingthestatefortheremissionoftaxesfollowingthefailureoftheirharvest.
TheseinitiativesinChamparan,AhmedabadandKhedamarkedGandhijioutasanationalistwithadeepsympathyforthepoor.Atthe
sametime,thesewerealllocalisedstruggles.Then,in1919,thecolonialrulersdeliveredintoGandhiji'slapanissuefromwhichhe
couldconstructamuchwidermovement.DuringtheGreatWarof191418,theBritishhadinstitutedcensorshipofthepressand
permitteddetentionwithouttrial.Now,ontherecommendationofacommitteechairedbySirSidneyRowlatt,thesetoughmeasures
werecontinued.Inresponse,GandhijicalledforacountrywidecampaignagainsttheRowlattAct.IntownsacrossNorthandWestIndia,
lifecametoastandstill,asshopsshutdownandschoolsclosedinresponsetothebandhcall.Theprotestswereparticularlyintensein
thePunjab,wheremanymenhadservedontheBritishsideintheWarexpectingtoberewardedfortheirservice.Insteadtheywere
giventheRowlattAct.GandhijiwasdetainedwhileproceedingtothePunjab,evenasprominentlocalCongressmenwerearrested.The
situationintheprovincegrewprogressivelymoretense,reachingabloodyclimaxinAmritsarinApril1919,whenaBritishBrigadier
orderedhistroopstoopenfireonanationalistmeeting.MorethanfourhundredpeoplewerekilledinwhatisknownastheJallianwala
Baghmassacre.ItwastheRowlattsatyagrahathatmadeGandhijiatrulynationalleader.Emboldenedbyitssuccess,Gandhijicalledfor
acampaignofnoncooperationwithBritishrule.Indianswhowishedcolonialismtoendwereaskedtostopattendingschools,colleges
andlawcourts,andnotpaytaxes.Insum,theywereaskedtoadheretoarenunciationof(all)voluntaryassociationwiththe(British)
Government.Ifnoncooperationwaseffectivelycarriedout,saidGandhiji,Indiawouldwinswarajwithinayear.Tofurtherbroadenthe
strugglehehadjoinedhandswiththeKhilafatMovementthatsoughttorestoretheCaliphate,asymbolofPanIslamismwhichhad
recentlybeenabolishedbytheTurkishrulerKemalAttaturk.
Knittingapopularmovement
GandhijihopedthatbycouplingnoncooperationwithKhilafat,India'stwomajorreligiouscommunities,HindusandMuslims,could
collectivelybringanendtocolonialrule.Thesemovementscertainlyunleashedasurgeofpopularactionthatwasaltogether
unprecedentedincolonialIndia.Studentsstoppedgoingtoschoolsandcollegesrunbythegovernment.Lawyersrefusedtoattend
court.Theworkingclasswentonstrikeinmanytownsandcities:Accordingtoofficialfigures,therewere396strikesin1921,involving
600,000workersandalossofsevenmillionworkdays.Thecountrysidewasseethingwithdiscontenttoo.HilltribesinnorthernAndhra
violatedtheforestlaws.FarmersinAwadhdidnotpaytaxes.PeasantsinKumaunrefusedtocarryloadsforcolonialofficials.These
protestmovementsweresometimescarriedoutindefianceofthelocalnationalistleadership.Peasants,workers,andothersinterpreted
andacteduponthecalltononcooperatewithcolonialruleinwaysthatbestsuitedtheirinterests,ratherthanconformtothedictates
laiddownfromabove.Noncooperation,wroteMahatmaGandhi'sAmericanbiographerLouisFischer,becamethenameofanepochin
thelifeofIndiaandofGandhiji.Noncooperationwasnegativeenoughtobepeacefulbutpositiveenoughtobeeffective.Itentailed
denial,renunciation,andselfdiscipline.Itwastrainingforselfrule.AsaconsequenceoftheNonCooperationMovementtheBritishRaj
wasshakentoitsfoundationsforthefirsttimesincetheRevoltof1857.Then,inFebruary1922,agroupofpeasantsattackedand
torchedapolicestationinthehamletofChauriChaura,intheUnitedProvinces(now,UttarPradeshandUttaranchal).Several
data:text/htmlcharset=utf8,%3Cp%20style%3D%22margin%3A%205px%200px%200px%3B%20padding%3A%200px%3B%20verticalalign%3A%20baseline%3B%20fontsize%3A%2014px%3B%20lineheight%3A%2020px%3

1/5

2/1/2015

CompetitiveExams:MahatmaGandhiandFreedomMovementExamrace

constablesperishedintheconflagration.ThisactofviolencepromptedGandhijitocalloffthemovementaltogether.Noprovocation,he
insisted,canpossiblyjustify(the)brutalmurderofmenwhohadbeenrendereddefencelessandwhohadvirtuallythrownthemselves
onthemercyofthemob.
DuringtheNonCooperationMovementthousandsofIndianswereputinjail.GandhijihimselfwasarrestedinMarch1922,andcharged
withsedition.Thejudgewhopresidedoverhistrial,JusticeC.N.Broomfield,madearemarkablespeechwhilepronouncinghis
sentence.Itwouldbeimpossibletoignorethefact,remarkedthejudge,thatyouareinadifferentcategoryfromanypersonIhave
evertriedoramlikelytotry.Itwouldbeimpossibletoignorethefactthat,intheeyesofmillionsofyourcountrymen,youareagreat
patriotandaleader.Eventhosewhodifferfromyouinpoliticslookuponyouasamanofhighidealsandofevensaintlylife.Since
GandhijihadviolatedthelawitwasobligatoryfortheBenchtosentencehimtosixyears'imprisonment,but,saidJudgeBroomfield,If
thecourseofeventsinIndiashouldmakeitpossiblefortheGovernmenttoreducetheperiodandreleaseyou,noonewillbebetter
pleasedthanI.

Apeople'sleader
By1922,GandhijihadtransformedIndiannationalism,therebyredeemingthepromisehemadeinhisBHUspeechofFebruary1916.It
wasnolongeramovementofprofessionalsandintellectualsnow,hundredsofthousandsofpeasants,workersandartisansalso
participatedinit.ManyofthemveneratedGandhiji,referringtohimastheirMahatma.Theyappreciatedthefactthathedressedlike
them,livedlikethem,andspoketheirlanguage.Unlikeotherleadershedidnotstandapartfromthecommonfolk,butempathisedand
evenidentifiedwiththem.
Thisidentificationwasstrikinglyreflectedinhisdress:Whileothernationalistleadersdressedformally,wearingaWesternsuitoran
Indianbandgala,Gandhijiwentamongthepeopleinasimpledhotiorloincloth.Meanwhile,hespentpartofeachdayworkingonthe
charkha(spinningwheel),andencouragedothernationaliststodolikewise.TheactofspinningallowedGandhijitobreaktheboundaries
thatprevailedwithinthetraditionalcastesystem,betweenmentallabourandmanuallabour.Inafascinatingstudy,thehistorian
ShahidAminhastracedtheimageofMahatmaGandhiamongthepeasantsofeasternUttarPradesh,asconveyedbyreportsand
rumoursinthelocalpress.WhenhetravelledthroughtheregioninFebruary1921,Gandhijiwasreceivedbyadoringcrowds
everywhere.
WhereverGandhijiwent,rumoursspreadofhismiraculouspowers.InsomeplacesitwassaidthathehadbeensentbytheKingto
redressthegrievancesofthefarmers,andthathehadthepowertooverrulealllocalofficials.Inotherplacesitwasclaimedthat
Gandhiji'spowerwassuperiortothatoftheEnglishmonarch,andthatwithhisarrivalthecolonialrulerswouldfleethedistrict.There
werealsostoriesreportingdireconsequencesforthosewhoopposedhimrumoursspreadofhowvillagerswhocriticisedGandhijifound
theirhousesmysteriouslyfallingapartortheircropsfailing.KnownvariouslyasGandhibaba,GandhiMaharaj,orsimplyasMahatma,
GandhijiappearedtotheIndianpeasantasasaviour,whowouldrescuethemfromhightaxesandoppressiveofficialsandrestore
dignityandautonomytotheirlives.Gandhiji'sappealamongthepoor,andpeasantsinparticular,wasenhancedbyhisasceticlifestyle,
andbyhisshrewduseofsymbolssuchasthedhotiandthecharkha.MahatmaGandhiwasbycasteamerchant,andbyprofessiona
lawyerbuthissimplelifestyleandloveofworkingwithhishandsallowedhimtoempathisemorefullywiththelabouringpoorandfor
them,inturn,toempathisewithhim.Wheremostotherpoliticianstalkeddowntothem,Gandhijiappearednotjusttolooklikethem,
buttounderstandthemandrelatetotheirlives.
WhileMahatmaGandhi'smassappealwasundoubtedlygenuineandinthecontextofIndianpolitics,withoutprecedentitmustalsobe
stressedthathissuccessinbroadeningthebasisofnationalismwasbasedoncarefulorganisation.NewbranchesoftheCongresswere
setupinvariouspartsofIndia.AseriesofPrajaMandalswereestablishedtopromotethenationalistcreedintheprincelystates.
Gandhijiencouragedthecommunicationofthenationalistmessageinthemothertongue,ratherthaninthelanguageoftherulers,
English.ThustheprovincialcommitteesoftheCongresswerebasedonlinguisticregions,ratherthanontheartificialboundariesof
BritishIndia.Inthesedifferentwaysnationalismwastakentothefarthestcornersofthecountryandembracedbysocialgroups
previouslyuntouchedbyit.Bynow,amongthesupportersoftheCongressweresomeveryprosperousbusinessmenandindustrialists.
Indianentrepreneurswerequicktorecognisethat,inafreeIndia,thefavoursenjoyedbytheirBritishcompetitorswouldcometoan
end.Someoftheseentrepreneurs,suchasGDBirla,supportedthenationalmovementopenlyothersdidsotacitly.Thus,among
Gandhiji'sadmirerswerebothpoorpeasantsandrichindustrialists,althoughthereasonswhypeasantsfollowedGandhijiwere
somewhatdifferentfrom,andperhapsopposedto,thereasonsoftheindustrialists.
WhileMahatmaGandhi'sownrolewasvital,thegrowthofwhatwemightcallGandhiannationalismalsodependedtoaverysubstantial
extentonhisfollowers.Between1917and1922,agroupofhighlytalentedIndiansattachedthemselvestoGandhiji.Theyincluded
MahadevDesai,VallabhBhaiPatel,JBKripalani,SubhasChandraBose,AbulKalamAzad,JawaharlalNehru,SarojiniNaidu,Govind
BallabhPantandCRajagopalachari.Notably,thesecloseassociatesofGandhijicamefromdifferentregionsaswellasdifferentreligious
traditions.Inturn,theyinspiredcountlessotherIndianstojointheCongressandworkforit.
MahatmaGandhiwasreleasedfromprisoninFebruary1924,andnowchosetodevotehisattentiontothepromotionofhomespun
cloth(khadi),andtheabolitionofuntouchability.For,Gandhijiwasasmuchasocialreformerashewasapolitician.Hebelievedthatin
ordertobeworthyoffreedom,Indianshadtogetridofsocialevilssuchaschildmarriageanduntouchability.Indiansofonefaithhad
alsotocultivateagenuinetoleranceforIndiansofanotherhencehisemphasisonHinduMuslimharmony.Meanwhile,ontheeconomic
frontIndianshadtolearntobecomeselfrelianthencehisstressonthesignificanceofwearingkhadiratherthanmillmadecloth
importedfromoverseas.

TheSaltSatyagraha
ForseveralyearsaftertheNoncooperationMovementended,MahatmaGandhifocusedonhissocialreformwork.In1928,however,he
begantothinkofreenteringpolitics.ThatyeartherewasanallIndiacampaigninoppositiontotheallWhiteSimonCommission,sent
fromEnglandtoenquireintoconditionsinthecolony.Gandhijididnothimselfparticipateinthismovement,althoughhegaveithis
blessings,ashealsodidtoapeasantsatyagrahainBardoliinthesameyear.IntheendofDecember1929,theCongressheldits
annualsessioninthecityofLahore.Themeetingwassignificantfortwothings:TheelectionofJawaharlalNehruasPresident,signifying
thepassingofthebatonofleadershiptotheyoungergenerationandtheproclamationofcommitmenttoPurnaSwaraj,orcomplete
independence.Nowthepaceofpoliticspickeduponcemore.On26January1930,IndependenceDaywasobserved,withthenational
flagbeinghoistedindifferentvenues,andpatrioticsongsbeingsung.Gandhijihimselfissuedpreciseinstructionsastohowtheday
shouldbeobserved.Itwouldbegood,hesaid,ifthedeclaration[ofIndependence]ismadebywholevillages,wholecitiesevenIt
data:text/htmlcharset=utf8,%3Cp%20style%3D%22margin%3A%205px%200px%200px%3B%20padding%3A%200px%3B%20verticalalign%3A%20baseline%3B%20fontsize%3A%2014px%3B%20lineheight%3A%2020px%3

2/5

2/1/2015

CompetitiveExams:MahatmaGandhiandFreedomMovementExamrace

wouldbewellifallthemeetingswereheldattheidenticalminuteinalltheplaces.
Gandhijisuggestedthatthetimeofthemeetingbeadvertisedinthetraditionalway,bythebeatingofdrums.Thecelebrationswould
beginwiththehoistingofthenationalflag.Therestofthedaywouldbespentindoingsomeconstructivework,whetheritisspinning,
orserviceofuntouchablesorreunionofHindusandMussalmans,orprohibitionwork,orevenallthese?together,whichisnot
impossible.ParticipantswouldtakeapledgeaffirmingthatitwastheinalienablerightoftheIndianpeople,asofanyotherpeople,to
havefreedomandtoenjoythefruitsoftheirtoil,andthatifanygovernmentdeprivesapeopleoftheserightsandoppressesthem,the
peoplehaveafurtherrighttoalteritorabolishit.

Dandi
SoonaftertheobservanceofthisIndependenceDay,MahatmaGandhiannouncedthathewouldleadamarchtobreakoneofthemost
widelydislikedlawsinBritishIndia,whichgavethestateamonopolyinthemanufactureandsaleofsalt.Hispickingonthesalt
monopolywasanotherillustrationofGandhiji'stacticalwisdom.ForineveryIndianhousehold,saltwasindispensableyetpeoplewere
forbiddenfrommakingsaltevenfordomesticuse,compellingthemtobuyitfromshopsatahighprice.Thestatemonopolyoversalt
wasdeeplyunpopularbymakingithistarget,GandhijihopedtomobiliseawiderdiscontentagainstBritishrule.
WheremostIndiansunderstoodthesignificanceofGandhiji'schallenge,theBritishRajapparentlydidnot.AlthoughGandhijihadgiven
advancenoticeofhisSaltMarchtotheViceroyLordIrwin,Irwinfailedtograspthesignificanceoftheaction.On12March1930,
GandhijibeganwalkingfromhisashramatSabarmatitowardstheocean.Hereachedhisdestinationthreeweekslater,makingafistful
ofsaltashedidandtherebymakinghimselfacriminalintheeyesofthelaw.Meanwhile,parallelsaltmarcheswerebeingconductedin
otherpartsofthecountry.
AswithNoncooperation,apartfromtheofficiallysanctionednationalistcampaign,therewerenumerousotherstreamsofprotest.
AcrosslargepartsofIndia,peasantsbreachedthehatedcolonialforestlawsthatkeptthemandtheircattleoutofthewoodsinwhich
theyhadonceroamedfreely.Insometowns,factoryworkerswentonstrikewhilelawyersboycottedBritishcourtsandstudentsrefused
toattendgovernmentruneducationalinstitutions.Asin192022,nowtooGandhiji'scallhadencouragedIndiansofallclassesto
makemanifesttheirowndiscontentwithcolonialrule.Therulersrespondedbydetainingthedissenters.InthewakeoftheSaltMarch,
nearly60,000Indianswerearrested,amongthem,ofcourse,Gandhijihimself.
TheprogressofGandhiji'smarchtotheseashorecanbetracedfromthesecretreportsfiledbythepoliceofficialsdeputedtomonitor
hismovements.Thesereproducethespeecheshegaveatthevillagesenroute,inwhichhecalleduponlocalofficialstorenounce
governmentemploymentandjointhefreedomstruggle.Inonevillage,Wasna,Gandhijitoldtheuppercastesthatifyouareoutfor
Swarajyoumustserveuntouchables.Youwon'tgetSwarajmerelybytherepealofthesalttaxesorothertaxes.ForSwarajyoumust
makeamendsforthewrongswhichyoudidtotheuntouchables.ForSwaraj,Hindus,Muslims,ParsisandSikhswillhavetounite.These
arethestepstowardsSwaraj.ThepolicespiesreportedthatGandhiji'smeetingswereverywellattended,byvillagersofallcastes,and
bywomenaswellasmen.Theyobservedthatthousandsofvolunteerswereflockingtothenationalistcause.Amongthemweremany
officials,whohadresignedfromtheirpostswiththecolonialgovernment.Writingtothegovernment,theDistrictSuperintendentof
Policeremarked,MrGandhiappearedcalmandcollected.Heisgatheringmorestrengthasheproceeds.TheprogressoftheSaltMarch
canalsobetracedfromanothersource:TheAmericannewsmagazine,Time.This,tobeginwith,scornedatGandhiji'slooks,writing
withdisdainofhisspindlyframeandhisspideryloins.Thusinitsfirstreportonthemarch,TimewasdeeplyscepticaloftheSaltMarch
reachingitsdestination.ItclaimedthatGandhijisanktothegroundattheendofthesecondday'swalkingthemagazinedidnot
believethattheemaciatedsaintwouldbephysicallyabletogomuchfurther.Butwithinaweekithadchangeditsmind.Themassive
popularfollowingthatthemarchhadgarnered,wroteTime,hadmadetheBritishrulersdesperatelyanxious.Gandhijihimselftheynow
salutedasaSaintandStatesman,whowasusingChristianactsasaweaponagainstmenwithChristianbeliefs.
Dialogues
TheSaltMarchwasnotableforatleastthreereasons.First,itwasthiseventthatfirstbroughtMahatmaGandhitoworldattention.The
marchwaswidelycoveredbytheEuropeanandAmericanpress.Second,itwasthefirstnationalistactivityinwhichwomenparticipated
inlargenumbers.ThesocialistactivistKamaladeviChattopadhyayhadpersuadedGandhijinottorestricttheproteststomenalone.
Kamaladeviwasherselfoneofnumerouswomenwhocourtedarrestbybreakingthesaltorliquorlaws.Third,andperhapsmost
significant,itwastheSaltMarchwhichforcedupontheBritishtherealisationthattheirRajwouldnotlastforever,andthattheywould
havetodevolvesomepowertotheIndians.
Tothatend,theBritishgovernmentconvenedaseriesofRoundTableConferencesinLondon.ThefirstmeetingwasheldinNovember
1930,butwithoutthepreeminentpoliticalleaderinIndia,thusrenderingitanexerciseinfutility.Gandhijiwasreleasedfromjailin
January1931andthefollowingmonthhadseverallongmeetingswiththeViceroy.TheseculminatedinwhatwascalledtheGandhi
IrwinPact,bythetermsofwhichcivildisobediencewouldbecalledoff,allprisonersreleased,andsaltmanufactureallowedalongthe
coast.Thepactwascriticisedbyradicalnationalists,forGandhijiwasunabletoobtainfromtheViceroyacommitmenttopolitical
independenceforIndianshecouldobtainmerelyanassuranceoftalkstowardsthatpossibleend.AsecondRoundTableConference
washeldinLondoninthelatterpartof1931.Here,GandhijirepresentedtheCongress.However,hisclaimsthathispartyrepresented
allofIndiacameunderchallengefromthreeparties:FromtheMuslimLeague,whichclaimedtostandfortheinterestsoftheMuslim
minorityfromthePrinces,whoclaimedthattheCongresshadnostakeintheirterritoriesandfromthebrilliantlawyerandthinkerB
RAmbedkar,whoarguedthatGandhijiandtheCongressdidnotreallyrepresentthelowestcastes.
TheConferenceinLondonwasinconclusive,soGandhijireturnedtoIndiaandresumedcivildisobedience.ThenewViceroy,Lord
Willingdon,wasdeeplyunsympathetictotheIndianleader.Inaprivatelettertohissister,Willingdonwrote:It'sabeautifulworldifit
wasn'tforGandhiAtthebottomofeverymovehemakeswhichhealwayssaysisinspiredbyGod,onediscoversthepolitical
manouevre.IseetheAmericanPressissayingwhatawonderfulmanheisButthefactisthatweliveinthemidstofvery
unpractical,mystical,andsuperstitiousfolkwholookuponGandhiassomethingholy,
In1935,however,anewGovernmentofIndiaActpromisedsomeformofrepresentativegovernment.Twoyearslater,inanelection
heldonthebasisofarestrictedfranchise,theCongresswonacomprehensivevictory.Noweightoutof11provinceshadaCongress
PrimeMinister,workingunderthesupervisionofaBritishGovernor.
InSeptember1939,twoyearsaftertheCongressministriesassumedoffice,theSecondWorldWarbrokeout.MahatmaGandhiand
JawaharlalNehruhadbothbeenstronglycriticalofHitlerandtheNazis.Accordingly,theypromisedCongresssupporttothewareffortif
theBritish,inreturn,promisedtograntIndiaindependenceoncehostilitiesended.Theofferwasrefused.Inprotest,theCongress
data:text/htmlcharset=utf8,%3Cp%20style%3D%22margin%3A%205px%200px%200px%3B%20padding%3A%200px%3B%20verticalalign%3A%20baseline%3B%20fontsize%3A%2014px%3B%20lineheight%3A%2020px%3

3/5

2/1/2015

CompetitiveExams:MahatmaGandhiandFreedomMovementExamrace

ministriesresignedinOctober1939.Through1940and1941,theCongressorganisedaseriesofindividualsatyagrahastopressurethe
rulerstopromisefreedomoncethewarhadended.
Meanwhile,inMarch1940,theMuslimLeaguepassedaresolutioncommittingitselftothecreationofaseparatenationcalledPakistan.
Thepoliticallandscapewasnowcomplicated:ItwasnolongerIndiansversustheBritishrather,ithadbecomeathreewaystruggle
betweentheCongress,theMuslimLeague,andtheBritish.AtthistimeBritainhadanallpartygovernment,whoseLabourmembers
weresympathetictoIndianaspirations,butwhoseConservativePrimeMinister,WinstonChurchill,wasadiehardimperialistwho
insistedthathehadnotbeenappointedtheKing'sFirstMinisterinordertopresideovertheliquidationoftheBritishEmpire.Inthe
springof1942,Churchillwaspersuadedtosendoneofhisministers,SirStaffordCripps,toIndiatotryandforgeacompromisewith
GandhijiandtheCongress.Talksbrokedown,however,aftertheCongressinsistedthatifitwastohelptheBritishdefendIndiafrom
theAxispowers,thentheViceroyhadfirsttoappointanIndianastheDefenceMemberofhisExecutiveCouncil.

QuitIndia
AfterthefailureoftheCrippsMission,MahatmaGandhidecidedtolaunchhisthirdmajormovementagainstBritishrule.Thiswasthe
QuitIndiacampaign,whichbeganinAugust1942.AlthoughGandhijiwasjailedatonce,youngeractivistsorganisedstrikesandactsof
sabotagealloverthecountry.ParticularlyactiveintheundergroundresistanceweresocialistmembersoftheCongress,suchas
JayaprakashNarayan.Inseveraldistricts,suchasSatarainthewestandMedinipurintheeast,independentgovernmentswere
proclaimed.TheBritishrespondedwithmuchforce,yetittookmorethanayeartosuppresstherebellion.
QuitIndiawasgenuinelyamassmovement,bringingintoitsambithundredsofthousandsofordinaryIndians.Itespeciallyenergised
theyoungwho,inverylargenumbers,lefttheircollegestogotojail.However,whiletheCongressleaderslanguishedinjail,Jinnahand
hiscolleaguesintheMuslimLeagueworkedpatientlyatexpandingtheirinfluence.ItwasintheseyearsthattheLeaguebegantomake
amarkinthePunjabandSind,provinceswhereithadpreviouslyhadscarcelyanypresence.InJune1944,withtheendofthewarin
sight,Gandhijiwasreleasedfromprison.LaterthatyearheheldaseriesofmeetingswithJinnah,seekingtobridgethegapbetween
theCongressandtheLeague.In1945,aLabourgovernmentcametopowerinBritainandcommitteditselftograntingindependence
toIndia.Meanwhile,backinIndia,theViceroy,LordWavell,broughttheCongressandtheLeaguetogetherforaseriesoftalks.Earlyin
1946freshelectionswereheldtotheprovinciallegislatures.TheCongressswepttheGeneralcategory,butintheseatsspecifically
reservedforMuslimstheLeaguewonanoverwhelmingmajority.Thepoliticalpolarisationwascomplete.ACabinetMissionsentinthe
summerof1946failedtogettheCongressandtheLeaguetoagreeonafederalsystemthatwouldkeepIndiatogetherwhileallowing
theprovincesadegreeofautonomy.Afterthetalksbrokedown,JinnahcalledforaDirectActionDaytopresstheLeague'sdemandfor
Pakistan.Onthedesignatedday,16August1946,bloodyriotsbrokeoutinCalcutta.TheviolencespreadtoruralBengal,thentoBihar,
andthenacrossthecountrytotheUnitedProvincesandthePunjab.Insomeplaces,Muslimswerethemainsufferers,inotherplaces,
Hindus.InFebruary1947,WavellwasreplacedasViceroybyLordMountbatten.Mountbattencalledonelastroundoftalks,butwhen
thesetooprovedinconclusiveheannouncedthatBritishIndiawouldbefreed,butalsodivided.Theformaltransferofpowerwasfixed
for15August.Whenthatdaycame,itwascelebratedwithgustoindifferentpartsofIndia.InDelhi,therewasprolongedapplause
whenthePresidentoftheConstituentAssemblybeganthemeetingbyinvokingtheFatheroftheNationMohandasKaramchand
Gandhi.OutsidetheAssembly,thecrowdsshoutedMahatmaGandhikijai.

TheLastHeroicDays
Asithappened,MahatmaGandhiwasnotpresentatthefestivitiesinthecapitalon15August1947.HewasinCalcutta,buthedidnot
attendanyfunctionorhoistaflagthereeither.Gandhijimarkedthedaywitha24hourfast.Thefreedomhehadstruggledsolongfor
hadcomeatanunacceptableprice,withanationdividedandHindusandMuslimsateachother'sthroats.ThroughSeptemberand
October,writeshisbiographerD.G.Tendulkar,Gandhijiwentroundhospitalsandrefugeecampsgivingconsolationtodistressed
people.HeappealedtotheSikhs,theHindusandtheMuslimstoforgetthepastandnottodwellontheirsufferingsbuttoextendthe
righthandoffellowshiptoeachother,andtodeterminetoliveinpeace
AttheinitiativeofGandhijiandNehru,theCongressnowpassedaresolutionontherightsofminorities.Thepartyhadneveraccepted
thetwonationtheory:ForcedagainstitswilltoacceptPartition,itstillbelievedthatIndiaisalandofmanyreligionsandmanyraces,
andmustremainso.WhateverbethesituationinPakistan,IndiawouldbeademocraticsecularStatewhereallcitizensenjoyfullrights
andareequallyentitledtotheprotectionoftheState,irrespectiveofthereligiontowhichtheybelong.TheCongresswishedtoassure
theminoritiesinIndiathatitwillcontinuetoprotect,tothebestofitsability,theircitizenrightsagainstaggression.
ManyscholarshavewrittenofthemonthsafterIndependenceasbeingGandhiji'sfinesthour.AfterworkingtobringpeacetoBengal,
GandhijinowshiftedtoDelhi,fromwherehehopedtomoveontotheriottorndistrictsofPunjab.Whileinthecapital,hismeetings
weredisruptedbyrefugeeswhoobjectedtoreadingsfromtheKoran,orshoutedslogansaskingwhyhedidnotspeakofthesufferings
ofthoseHindusandSikhsstilllivinginPakistan.Infact,asD.G.Tendulkarwrites,Gandhijiwasequallyconcernedwiththesufferings
oftheminoritycommunityinPakistan.Hewouldhavelikedtobeabletogototheirsuccour.Butwithwhatfacecouldhenowgothere,
whenhecouldnotguaranteefullredresstotheMuslimsinDelhi?TherewasanattemptonGandhiji'slifeon20January1948,buthe
carriedonundaunted.On26January,hespokeathisprayermeetingofhowthatdayhadbeencelebratedinthepastasIndependence
Day.Nowfreedomhadcome,butitsfirstfewmonthshadbeendeeplydisillusioning.However,hetrustedthattheworstisover,that
Indianswouldhenceforthworkcollectivelyfortheequalityofallclassesandcreeds,neverthedominationandsuperiorityofthemajor
communityoveraminor,howeverinsignificantitmaybeinnumbersorinfluence.Healsopermittedhimselfthehopethatthough
geographicallyandpoliticallyIndiaisdividedintotwo,atheartweshalleverbefriendsandbrothershelpingandrespectingoneanother
andbeonefortheoutsideworld.GandhijihadfoughtalifelongbattleforafreeandunitedIndiaandyet,whenthecountrywas
divided,heurgedthatthetwopartsrespectandbefriendoneanother.
OtherIndianswerelessforgiving.Athisdailyprayermeetingontheeveningof30January,Gandhijiwasshotdeadbyayoungman.
Theassassin,whosurrenderedafterwards,wasaBrahminfromPunenamedNathuramGodse,theeditorofanextremistHindu
newspaperwhohaddenouncedGandhijiasanappeaserofMuslims.Gandhiji'sdeathledtoanextraordinaryoutpouringofgrief,with
richtributesbeingpaidtohimfromacrossthepoliticalspectruminIndia,andmovingappreciationscomingfromsuchinternational
figuresasGeorgeOrwellandAlbertEinstein.Timemagazine,whichhadoncemockedGandhiji'sphysicalsizeandseeminglynon
rationalideas,nowcomparedhismartyrdomtothatofAbrahamLincoln:ItwasabigotedAmericanwhohadkilledLincolnforbelieving
thathumanbeingswereequalregardlessoftheirraceorskincolouranditwasabigotedHinduwhohadkilledGandhijiforbelieving
thatfriendshipwaspossible,indeednecessary,betweenIndiansofdifferentfaiths.Inthisrespect,asTimewrote,Theworldknewthat
ithad,inasensetoodeep,toosimplefortheworldtounderstand,connivedathis(Gandhiji's)deathasithadconnivedatLincoln's.
data:text/htmlcharset=utf8,%3Cp%20style%3D%22margin%3A%205px%200px%200px%3B%20padding%3A%200px%3B%20verticalalign%3A%20baseline%3B%20fontsize%3A%2014px%3B%20lineheight%3A%2020px%3

4/5

2/1/2015

CompetitiveExams:MahatmaGandhiandFreedomMovementExamrace

KnowingGandhi
TherearemanydifferentkindsofsourcesfromwhichwecanreconstructthepoliticalcareerofGandhijiandthehistoryofthe
nationalistmovement.

Publicvoiceandprivatescripts
OneimportantsourceisthewritingsandspeechesofMahatmaGandhiandhiscontemporaries,includingbothhisassociatesandhis
politicaladversaries.Withinthesewritingsweneedtodistinguishbetweenthosethatweremeantforthepublicandthosethatwere
not.Speeches,forinstance,allowustohearthepublicvoiceofanindividual,whileprivatelettersgiveusaglimpseofhisorherprivate
thoughts.Inlettersweseepeopleexpressingtheirangerandpain,theirdismayandanxiety,theirhopesandfrustrationsinwaysin
whichtheymaynotexpressthemselvesinpublicstatements.Butwemustrememberthatthisprivatepublicdistinctionoftenbreaks
down.Manylettersarewrittentoindividuals,andarethereforepersonal,buttheyarealsomeantforthepublic.Thelanguageofthe
lettersisoftenshapedbytheawarenessthattheymayonedaybepublished.Conversely,thefearthatalettermaygetintoprintoften
preventspeoplefromexpressingtheiropinionfreelyinpersonalletters.MahatmaGandhiregularlypublishedinhisjournal,Harijan,
lettersthatotherswrotetohim.NehrueditedacollectionofletterswrittentohimduringthenationalmovementandpublishedA
BunchofOldLetters.

Framingapicture
Autobiographiessimilarlygiveusanaccountofthepastthatisoftenrichinhumandetail.Buthereagainwehavetobecarefulofthe
waywereadandinterpretautobiographies.Weneedtorememberthattheyareretrospectiveaccountswrittenveryoftenfrom
memory.Theytelluswhattheauthorcouldrecollect,whatheorshesawasimportant,orwaskeenonrecounting,orhowaperson
wantedhisorherlifetobeviewedbyothers.Writinganautobiographyisawayofframingapictureofyourself.Soinreadingthese
accountswehavetotryandseewhattheauthordoesnottellusweneedtounderstandthereasonsforthatsilencethosewilfulor
unwittingactsofforgetting.

Throughpoliceeyes
Anothervitalsourceisgovernmentrecords,forthecolonialrulerskeptclosetabsonthosetheyregardedascriticalofthegovernment.
Thelettersandreportswrittenbypolicemenandotherofficialsweresecretatthetimebutnowcanbeaccessedinarchives.Letuslook
atonesuchsource:ThefortnightlyreportsthatwerepreparedbytheHomeDepartmentfromtheearlytwentiethcentury.These
reportswerebasedonpoliceinformationfromthelocalities,butoftenexpressedwhatthehigherofficialssaw,orwantedtobelieve.
Whilenoticingthepossibilityofseditionandrebellion,theylikedtoassurethemselvesthatthesefearswereunwarranted.Ifyouseethe
FortnightlyReportsfortheperiodoftheSaltMarchyouwillnoticethattheHomeDepartmentwasunwillingtoacceptthatMahatma
Gandhi'sactionshadevokedanyenthusiasticresponsefromthemasses.Themarchwasseenasadrama,anantic,adesperateeffortto
mobilisepeoplewhowereunwillingtoriseagainsttheBritishandwerebusywiththeirdailyschedules,happyundertheRaj.

Fromnewspapers
Onemoreimportantsourceiscontemporarynewspapers,publishedinEnglishaswellasinthedifferentIndianlanguages,which
trackedMahatmaGandhi'smovementsandreportedonhisactivities,andalsorepresentedwhatordinaryIndiansthoughtofhim.
Newspaperaccounts,however,shouldnotbeseenasunprejudiced.Theywerepublishedbypeoplewhohadtheirownpoliticalopinions
andworldviews.Theseideasshapedwhatwaspublishedandthewayeventswerereported.Theaccountsthatwerepublishedina
LondonnewspaperwouldbedifferentfromthereportinanIndiannationalistpaper.
Weneedtolookatthesereportsbutshouldbecarefulwhileinterpretingthem.Everystatementmadeinthesecannotbeaccepted
literallyasrepresentingwhatwashappeningontheground.Theyoftenreflectthefearsandanxietiesofofficialswhowereunableto
controlamovementandwereanxiousaboutitsspread.TheydidnotknowwhethertoarrestMahatmaGandhiorwhatanarrestwould
mean.Themorethecolonialstatekeptawatchonthepublicanditsactivities,themoreitworriedaboutthebasisofitsrule.

Timeline
1915MahatmaGandhireturnsfromSouthAfrica
1917Champaranmovement
1918PeasantmovementsinKheda(Gujarat),andworkers'movementinAhmedabad
1919RowlattSatyagraha(MarchApril)
1919JallianwalaBaghmassacre(April)
1921NoncooperationandKhilafatMovements
1928PeasantmovementinBardoli
1929PurnaSwarajacceptedasCongressgoalattheLahoreCongress(December)
1930CivilDisobedienceMovementbeginsDandiMarch(MarchApril)
1931GandhiIrwinPact(March)SecondRoundTableConference(December)
1935GovernmentofIndiaActpromisessomeformofrepresentativegovernment
1939Congressministriesresign
1942QuitIndiaMovementbegins(August)
1946MahatmaGandhivisitsNoakhaliandotherriottornareastostopcommunalviolence

data:text/htmlcharset=utf8,%3Cp%20style%3D%22margin%3A%205px%200px%200px%3B%20padding%3A%200px%3B%20verticalalign%3A%20baseline%3B%20fontsize%3A%2014px%3B%20lineheight%3A%2020px%3

5/5