The Behavior of Drammen Plastic Clay under Low Effective Stresses

College of Engineering, Trivntzdrltt~z-695016,Keralo State, Indin

Received January 21, 1974
Accepted August 19, 1974

Shear tests on undisturbed samples of clay at low normal effective stresses have proved to be
useful in order to understand the actual nature of cohesion. Drammen plastic clay was considered
to be a suitable material for this study as it is nonfissured and noncemented. Triaxial compression
and extension tests without membranes were performed on this clay in the low stress range. The
samples in compression failed along inclined planes, while those in extension failed nearly along a
horizontal plane. It was found that the shear resistance in the case of extension tests was
independent of the average effective normal stress in the low stress range. The magnitude of the
cohesion was nearly the same as the cohesion observed in compression tests. The reasons for
these differences are discussed in terms of a proposed model. The shear resistance in extension
tests is probably a structural cohesion and no friction seems to be mobilized under these
conditions. When the samples were reconsolidated to in situ stresses, the shear parameters in
extension tests were the same as in compression tests. It is, therefore, suggested that mobilization
of friction depends on the nature of the contacts which undergo modification when disturbance of
structure on account of reconsolidation takes place.
Des essais de cisaillement a faible contrainte normale effective sur des Cchantillons non
remanies d'argile se sont avCrCs utiles pour comprendre la veritable nature de la cohesion.
L'argile plastique de Drammen a Cte considCrCe comme un mattriau valable pour une telle Ctude
car elle est non-figurCe et noncimentke. Des essais triaxiaux en compression et en extension, sans
membranes, ont ete rCalisCs sur cette argile dans le domaine des faibles pressions. Les
Cchantillons en compression se sont ruptures suivant des plans inclines, les Cchantillons en
extension suivant des plans quasi-horizontaux. On a Btabli que la resistance au cisaillement en
extension etait indkpendante de la contrainte effective moyenne dans le domaine des faibles
contraintes. La valeur de la cohCsion Ctait pratiquement la meme que celle observCe dans les
essais en compression. Les causes de ces phtnomknes sont discutees en fonction d'un modkle
propose. La risistance au cisaillement dans des essais en extension est probablement due B une
cohision structurale, aucun frottement n'etant mobilisk dans ces conditions. Quand des
Cchantillons sont reconsolidCs sous 1'Ctat de contrainte in sitit, les paramktres de cisaillement en
extension et en compression sont identiques. En constquence, il est suggCrC que la mobilisation
de frottement depend de la nature des contacts qui subit des modifications lors du remaniement de
[Traduit par la Revue]
la structure reliC B la reconsolidation.

Introduction
Effective stress analysis of stability of slopes
on the basis that the entire cohesion and friction
can be mobilized on the failure surface has
been found to have limitations in the case of
Norwegian marine clays (Bjerrum 1969). This
is on account of the small strain failure when
only part of (the shear components) cohesion
and friction are mobilized and a proper understanding of the mechanism of shear resistance
development in clays is thus needed. A particularly significant gap in this field lies in the very
low stress range and also when the normal
effective stresses decrease during shear. The
latter problem arises in the stability analysis of
excavations on clays for floating foundations
Eor control of settlement.
Can. Geotech. J., 12,70(1975)

Studies on clays with low effective stresses

at failure have been few, due mostly to experimental difficulties. Bishop and Garga (1969)
presented a new technique to perform tension
tests by making use of samples with reduced
cross section at the center and convoluted
rubber membranes. Using this technique,
drained tensile tests (strain controlled) on undisturbed London clay were performed. The tensile stress at failure ranged between 0.25 and
0.33 kg/cm3 irrespective of the range of the
major principal stress of 0.20-0.70 kg/cm2.
The mode of failure was brittle fracture perpendicular to the major principal stress. Jarret
( 1971 ) performed some drained extension tests
on Leda clay, on cross sections of similar shape.
Instead of convoluted rubber membranes, he

RAMANATHA IYER: DRAMMEN PLASTIC CLAY

71

used ordinary rubber membranes with special (as well as sands) are of ionic nature. The
care to ensure that continuous horizontal folds number of bonds and consequently the shear
were obtained during jacketing of the sample. strength of the soil are thus proportional to the
The results of these tests showed virtually no effective normal stress at failure. It will be postensile stresses at failure in this clay, which gave sible to isolate the strength of bonds in the clay
an almost linear envelope in the low stress formed as a result of stress history only if the
region. According to Mitchell (1970), the shear effective stresses at failure are kept very low.
envelope of Leda clay consists of three zones. Further experimental studies on natural clays
In the very low stress region, there is a fric- in extension and compression in this stress
tional component (+) presumably due to range are very desirable from this point of view.
microfissures. The intermediate stress region is
Drammen plastic clay is a natural clay ocdominated by cementation bonds (cohesive in curring at a depth of 6-9 m in Drammen, Nornature) and a high stress region exists with way which has been widely studied. Though it
hardening due to plastic flow ( c - 4). The is a normally consolidated clay it is unique in
fracture was of either a cup and cone type or the respect that it has a preconsolidation presa rough almost horizontal surface for vertical sure p, determined from oedometer tests,
samples. But for samples, trimmed from hori- greater than the overburden stress p,,, the ratio
zontal direction (turned through 90" ) the p,/p, .= 1.4-1.5 at all depths. This significant
failure stresses were the same, except that the finding is believed to be due to the reserve
failure planes were inclined at 65-73' with the resistance of the clay on account of delayed
.
nature of
original horizontal direction. It is significant consolidation (Bjerrum 1 9 6 7 ~ )The
that in the absence of tensile stress, the frac- bonds in this clay is therefore of particular
ture was similar to tension tests. Similar results interest unlike those which have cementation
were reported on other Canadian clays (natur- bonds. It is fclt that such a clay is eminently
ally cemented soils) subjected to compressive suitable for this study.
tests (Sangrey 1972). Lo and Morin (1972)
Test Program
conducted drained and undrained triaxial tests
The
study
was
confined to drained triaxial
on specimens trimmed at various angles from
the vertical direction on Quebec clay. The compression and extension tests on undisturbed
results of this study which included Brazilian samples of Drammen plastic clay. Low effective
tests showed that the effective stress versus stresses were applied in these tests. The details
shear strength envelopes were pronouncedly of the test program are given in Table 1. The
nonlinear and strongly anisotropic. The value fracture patterns in the various tests were studied
of the drained tensile strength for fracture in relation to the failure envelope. The samples
across stratification was about three times that were collected from Konrudgaten, Drammen.
along stratification.
The significant properties of the clay are given
A study of the data available does not pro- in Table 2.
vide any comparison between extension and
Since the study was devoted to the behavior
compression tests at low normal stresses espe- of clay under low effective stress, it was necescially in undisturbed soils. The results pre- sary to adopt a technique suitable for imposing
sented by Parry (1960) on remolded clay tensile stresses on the sample by a deviator
showed that the shear stress envelope is the stress caused by lowering the axial stress on the
same in extension and compression tests. But sample while keeping the lateral pressure conthe stress range examined was not low nor did stant. Samples with reduced central cross secit involve clays with natural bonds. A study of tion were adopted in conformity with the earlier
the mechanism of mobilization of shear com- studies of Bishop and Garga (1969). To overponents under such conditions is likely to be come the inherent difficulties involved in using
very valuable to know the nature of bonding the rubber membrane, several tests were conmechanisms in clays. If the recent concepts of ducted without using rubber membrane by
Mitchell et al. (1969) and Andersland and using liquid paraffin as the cell fluid. This techDouglas (1970) are indications of soil be- nique has been developed at the Norwegian
havior, the bonds between particles in clays Geotechnical Institute, Oslo (Iversen and

72

CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 12, 1975

TABLE
I. Test program
Effective stress at start
of test
Test
no.

Overburden
pressure ( p , ) Type
(kg/cm2) of test1

01,

(kg/cm2)

oyf

(kg/cm2)

Important features

Remarks

Stress controlled

Without membrane
(Salt water in cell)
Without membrane (Paraffin)
Without membrane (Paraffin)
Without membrane (Paraffin)
With membrane

Stress controlled
Stress controlled
Stress controlled
Vertical sample
stress controlled
Vertical sample
stress controlled
Vertical sample
stress controlled
Vertical sample
stress controlled
Vertical sample
stress controlled
Vertical sample
stress controlled
Vertical sample
stress controlled
Vertical sample
stress controlled
Horizontal sample
stress controlled
Horizontal sample
stress controlled
Horizontal sample
stress controlled
Vertical sample
preconsolidated
to 2 kg/cm2 stress
controlled
Vertical sample
preconsolidated
to 2 kg/cni2 stress
controlled
Vertical sample
strain controlled
Vertical sample
strain controlled
Vertical sample
strain controlled
Horizontal sample,
stress controlled
Lateral stress
decreased
' C = compression; E

Without membrane (Paraffin)

Without membrane (Paraffin)
Without membrane (Paraffin)
Without membrane (Paraffin)
With membrane
With membrane
With membrane
Without membrane
Without membrane
(Salt water in cell)
Without membrane (Paraffin)
With menibrane

With menibrane

With membrane
With membrane
With niembrane
Without membrane (Paraffin)

extension.

Moum 1973). Necessary modifications to this

method to suit extension tests have been made
and details are given elsewhere (Ramanatha
Iyer 1973). Different sizes of samples were
used. The larger samples were circular in section
of area 50 cm2 at the ends and 25 cm2 at the
center. The smaller samples were of 20 cm-ion

area at the ends and 10 cm2 at the center. The

trimming of the samples was done by using a
trimming frame having the profile of the specimen and in stages, taking care to remove only
a very small quantity of the soil at each stage.
The same sample types were used for compresas well as extension. Some of the samples

RAMANATHA IYER: DRAMMEN PLASTIC CLAY

TABLE
2. Properties of Drammen
plastic clay
Liquid limit (wL)
Plastic limit (w,)
Water content (w,)
Salt content
In situ vane
Strength (s,)
Sensitivity ( S 3

5466%
30-35%
48-56%
26 4 1
2-3 t/m2
8-10

were cut horizontally from the sampling tube

to test for anisotropy. As the diameter of the
sampling tube was 95 mm, these samples could
not be larger than 8 cm in length and the cross
section was 20 cm2 throughout the length.
The cell pressures used ranged between 0
and 0.50 kg/cm? In cases where the cell pressure at the start of the shearing stage exceeded
0.10 kg/cm2, reconsolidation of the sample was
carried out in increments of cell pressure to
avoid disturbance. Since low effective stresses
were eventually desired during shear, no attempt was made to impose k, conditions
initially as it was feared that structural disturbance may result in the loading and unloading stages. It may be observed that due to the
weight of the top loading cap and piston, dial
gauge arm and other acccssories, a small shear
stress will be present on the sample at the end
of the rcconsolidation stage. The value of this
strcss was of the order of 0.015 kg/cm?n most
of the tests. An equilibrium time of 24 h was
allowed at the final consolidation pressure before shear testing. In compression tcsts the
samples were loaded in increments of 0.02
kg/cm2/day, while in extcnsion tests, the loading rate was kept lower than 0.01 kg/cm2/day.
T o study the cffect of reserve resistance on
account of delayed compression, samples were
reconsolidated to a pressure of 2 kg/cm%uch
1.00 kg/cm2 and then algreater than p,
lowed to swell to lower stresses in stages. The
use of higher reconsolidation pressures led to
a modification of technique for extension tests
since there was considerable reduction in diameter and the sealing became ineffective. For
this purpose, samples with rubber membrane
with continuous horizontal folds in accordance
with the procedure described by Jarret (1971)
were used. Cylindrical samples of 95 mm diamstages
eter were consolidated to 2 kg/cm"n
and then trimmed to the shape of the specimen

73

and mounted with the rubber membrane folded

as above. The samples were then allowed to
swell to the required all round stress in stages,
before shear.
Most of the samples were tested under stress
control, while strain controlled tests were also
carried out on three samples. Another type of
triaxial compression test in which the vertical
strcss was kept constant and lateral stress reduced in decrements was also carried out
(R-34). For strain controlled tests, a stiff transducer 0-25 kg capacity (Geonor-vibrating wirc
type) was used, not to cause undue release of
energy past the peak stress. The rate of testing
was 2000 min for 1 mm deformation for two
tests and 1000 min for 1 mm deformation for
one test. These rates were considered satisfactory in the light of the earlier tests on this clay.
The measurement of deformation was carried out by dial gauge at the top of the cell. For
computing strains, the whole deformation was
considered to take place uniformly in the reduced cross section. All the tests were conducted at the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute
(Ramanatha Iycr 1972). No corrections were
applied for the value of (ul' - u:~')on account
of membram resistance since many of the tests
wcre without mcrnbrane and for thc others,
folded membranes were used which wcri: presumed not to give any restraint.
Test Results
The details of the sample and conditions at
failure are given in Table 3.

Cotnpression Tests
Typical stress-strain curves for compression
tests arc shown in Fig. 1. The failure envclope
' (r3')/2)
is shown in Fig. 6. The values of ( ( u ~ u3')/2) at the commencement and
and ((crlr
end of shearing for each test are also given in
the same figure. The results of these tests gave
c' = 0.04 kg/cm%nd 4' = 30". (Earlier triaxial compression tests on cylindrical samples
of Drammen plastic clay gave c' = 0.036
kg/cm" 4 = 31.4" without corrections for
rubber membrane and c' = 0.012 kg/cm%d
4' = 31.7' with corrections for the membrane.)
The fracture patterns are shown in Fig. 7.

Extension Tests
( I ) Vertical Samples
Stress-strain curves for stress controlled tests

TABLE
3. Summary of data from triaxial tests

Test
no.

Test
type

1vi

wl

(%I

(%)

011

(kg/cmz)

'Could not be evaluated due to slaking and disintegration of samples.

ZNegative value indicates volume increase during shearing.
3Entrapping of air.
4Could not be determined due to technical difficulties.
Speak values.

03f

(kg/cm2)

PO

(kg/cm2)

( 0 1 ' - 03')~
2
(kg/cm2)

(01' f 03')r
2
(kg/cnl2)

hV,
V

Duration
days

RAMANATHA IYER: DRAMMEN PLASTIC CLAY

COMPRESSION TESTS
CELL PRESSURE r iKQ/&(~MTIAL)

EXTENSION TESTS

AXIAL STRAIN. 61%

FIG. 1. Stress-strain curves in compression tests

(stress controlled).

are given in Fig. 2 while those for strain controlled tests are shown in Fig. 3. The failure
envelope is given in Fig. 6 and fracture pattern
in Fig. 7. It should be noted that the shear
resistance in strain controlled tests increases to
a maximum value and then decreases.
(2) Horizontal Samples
Stress-strain curves for the tests on samples
turned through 90' are given in Fig. 4 while
the shear envelope is given in Fig. 6. Fracture
patterns are shown in Fig. 7.
The results of the extension tests present an
interesting and unusual trend. Between the
effective stress regions of 0.05 and 0.15 kg/cm2,
the shear strength at failure is seen to be independent of the effective normal stress, showing
essentially a cohesive bchavior. But for tests
with major effective stress below 0.05 kg/cm2,
the shear strength envelope is seen to be frictional in character and above the stress of
0.15 kg/cm2, there is a gradual transition from
purely cohesive to partly cohesive and partly
frictional (c - 4 ) behavior. It appears from
the results that at larger stress levels, the envelope from extension tests may tend to become similar to that from compression tests. It
is also surprising that the results of extension
tests (Fig. 5 ) on samples R-21 and R-22 in
which the reserve resistance effect has broken
down because the reconsolidation pressure is

FIG.2. Stress-strain curves in extension tests on

vertical samples (stress controlled).

EXTENSION TESTS
CELL PEWRE
~ g f c m ' @mAL)

FIG.3 . Stress-strain curves in extension tests on

vertical samples (strain controlled).

2.0 kg/cm2, plot in the same line as the shear

envelope having almost the same components
as the c - 4 line obtained from compression
tests.
The fracture patterns obtained in compres-

76

CAN.

GEOTECH. J.

VOL. 12, 1975

EXTENSION TESTS
CELL PRESSURE-{ K ~ / C ~ ~ O N I T I A L )

FIG. 4. Stress-strain curves in extension tests on

horizontal samples (stress controlled).
0 OATA FROM
BERRE 1970 [uNoRAINEO]

B BERRE 1969 [ORAINE~

OVER CONSOCIDATEO

x
'.

l.,.lb*

FIG. 6. Stress paths and failure envelope.

EXTENSfON TESTS
KQJC~(INIT~AL)
CELL PRESSURE

Q;

R.21
R.22

FIG. 5. Stress-strain curves in extension tests on

vertical samples overconsolidated to 2 kg/cm2 (stress
controlled).

sion tests were different from those obtained

in extension tests.

Analysis of Test Data

1. Evaluation of Extension Tests
Before attempting to explain the differences
in fracture pattern and mobilization of shear
components in the various tests, it is necessary
to ensure that the failure stresses are not affected by the procedural factors of the tests.

One of the possibilities in this regard is the

hydraulic fracture and separation of fractured
surfaces by intrusion of paraffin from the cell.
Test results on samples with and without membranes showed that both the type of fracture
and shear strength were nearly the same.
Another factor to be considered is the possibility of undrained failure due to the high overconsolidation ratio, caused by the low effective
stresses. According to Blight ( l964), significant
errors in the estimation of effective stresses will
occur if a higher degree of equalization of pore
pressure is not allowed in undrained tests on
heavily overconsolidated clays than normally
consolidated clays. Consequently a higher degree of dissipation is required for the former in
the case of drained tests. The reasons for this
difference are nonuniform generation of pore
pressures due to the brittle nature of overconsolidated samples, localized failure zones and
low pore pressure gradients.
Test results of various samples-larger and
smaller samples-(with different times of failure, some of very short duration practically
undrained) showed essentially the same failure
stresses. This suggests that differences in degree
of dissipation of pore pressures do not affect the
failure envelope. Pore pressure measurements

RAMANATHA IYER: DRAMMEN PLASTIC CLAY

77

is compressive. It can also be noted that in the

case of extension tests with greater effective
stress before shear, thc inclination of the failure
plane becomes greater. However, in all compression tests including the test R-34 performed
on horizontal sample with radial stress reduced
and vertical stress constant, failure planes in+'/2) were observed. Though
clined at (45
the actual mechanisms may be complicated,
the following explanation fits in with the observed behavior.
In all the tests, compression and extension,
the application of deviator stress gives rise
immediately to pore pressure changes. Consequently local cracking may take place before
dissipation of this excess pressure takes place
in drained tests. Figure 8 shows a schematic
picture of these changes for various tests. In
the case of cxtension tests, immediately on the
application of stress change, the effective stress
decreases involving local cracks perpendicular
to the minor principal stress. Subsequent shearing is likely to take the form of sliding along
the cracked surfacc. This can be seen by the
sudden rcduction irl the value of shear resistance after the peak value is reached, but
subsequent increase in the later stages until failure is rcached in the case of strain controlled
tests (Fig. 3). On the other hand, in all compression tests in the low stsess region including
test R-34 with decreasing radial stress, no decrease of cffectivc vormal stress takes place
immediately on application of strecs increment
so that brittle fracture and local senaration do
not take place. The failure therefore takes place
by slippage along inclined planes of failure.

-CRACKS

----- OR161NAL HORRONTAL OIRECTION.

FIG. 7. Fracture patterns in typical tests.

in undrained extension tests on Drammen plastic clay with decreasing vertical stress showed
lower pore pressure generation in extension
than for compression tests, even though these
results are for samples reconsolidated to in situ
stresses (Berre 1970). However, the magnitude
of pore pressure generation during shear (prior
to dissipation) in drained tests seems to be a
governing factor in the formation of fracture
surfaces.
2 . Failure Planes in Coinpression and
Extension Tests
A comparative study of the failure planes
can be obtained from Fig. 7. Though it was
not possible to measure the inclination of
failure planes in all the tests accurately, the
following general trends could be noted. It was
observed that in all extension tests with low
effective stresses before shear (heavily overconsolidated), decrease of axial stress results
in cracks which are nearly perpendicular1 to
the minor principal stress even when the stress
'It is possible that although the overall surface is
horizontal failure might have been along inclined
surfaces merging in echelon into a nearly horizontal
crack.

3. Mcchcrnism of Shecrr Fcrilure anel Mobilizati017 o f Cohesion anel Friction

A mechanistic picture of mobilization of the
components of shear resistance can now be
thought of in terms of the concepts enunciated
by Bjerrum (1971). According to this view,
all contact in clays can be divided into frictional and cohesional contacts. Frictional resistance at the former contacts is derived by
sliding between grains at junctions. Calladine
(1971 ) has discussed in clctail the mechanism
of failure in such junctions (called asperities)
for normally consolidated and overconsolidated
clays. Cohesion on the other hand is derivcd
throutrh the ruDture of contacts at the absorbed

CAN. GEOTECH. J . VOL. 12, 1975

RAMANATHA IYER: DRAMMEN PLASTIC CLAY

RfGlD COHESIVE

DETAILS OF CONTACTS.
(CONCEPT MOOlFlEO AFTER BJERRUM. 1971)

COMPRESSION TESTS.
(NORMAL STRESS AND SHEAR STRESS INCREASING)
COHESION-FRICTION TRANSFER

FIG. 9.

A mechanistic picture of various types of contacts during shear.

water phase. In a clay deposit which has been

subjected to a certain pressure for a long period,
the effective stresses will be transferred gradually from cohesional contacts to frictional contacts and recoverable strain energy will be
stored in the latter. Gradually the cohesional
contacts will become rigid and lose their flowing
nature. These contacts may approximate the
behavior of ice. A schematic picture of the
different components of such a model is given
in Fig. 9.
When this system is subjected to low effective normal stresses caused by sampling and
swelling, the complex network is loaded due
to internal stresses. On the application of shear
stress no friction can be mobilized till the cohesive contacts have been broken and changes
i;l the effective normal stress are imposed on
the frictional contacts. This behavior is experienced in all soils where cohesion is mobilized first, followed by gradual friction developme?t (Schmertmann and Osterberg 1960). In
the cases where the cohesional contacts are not
rigid but flowing, the response is gradual and
cohesion to friction transfer is smooth. But
where the cohesional contacts are brittle and
rigid as for example in cemented soils, the
transfer may be abrupt. In the case of quick

clavs. even under drained conditiom. the transfer'is sudden because of the britt~dnature of
bonds and until the full cohesion is mobilized,
no transfer of normal stress takes place through
frictional contacts. This may resuli in low strain
failure with very little mobilization of friction
on account of structural breakdown (Bjerrum
and Kenney 1967). Such an abrupt cohesionfriction transfer has also been shown in the case
of Drammen plastic clay in terms of a yield
stress connected with breakdown of the structure causing a drained test to pass through an
undrained stage (Bjerrum 197 1) .
The most important factor governing the
shear resistance of the clay is thus the nature
of the contacts and their behavior under the
imposed stresses. The cohesional contacts may
harden as a result of sustained stress during"
delayed consolidation as in Drammen plastic
clay. When the effective stresses are lowered,
the frictional contacts are subjected to a state
of tensile stress, but they are held from responding to this change by the cohesive contacts. If
such a junction is subjected to increase in normal stress, these cohesive contacts can yield
and flow (similar to melting of ice under pressure). Such a flow enables transfer of compressive stress to new frictional contacts even

80

CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 12. 1975

while the old frictional contacts are in tension

(Fig. 9 ) . A gradual cohesion to friction transfer of shear resistance thus takes place even
before thc cohesional contacts fail completely.
But if the same junction is subjected to decreasing normal stress under shear as in an
extension test, thcre is no possibility of new
frictional contacts being made. When the cohesive contacts fail by fracture as a result of
the pore pressure generated during shear, the
whole load is thrown on the frictional contacts
which break by yielding of the junctions (asperities) in tension. (The friction developed is very
small since there is no junction growth.) Hence
essentially a cohesive behavior results.
This mcehanism can also be invoked to explain thc clevclopmcnt of full friction in the
case of conipressior! test R-34 whcre dccreasc
of cffcctive stress takcs place during shear. As
cxplainecl in the carlicr section, in this tcst,
immediately on reclueing thc ceil pressure,
thcre is a31incrcasc of cffectivc stress (Fig. 8)
leading to the formation of new contacts iv
friction. This ensuscs a gradual development
of friction cven though the effective stress decreases finally u-idcr each increment. The increased strength thus cumulatively leads to full
mobilization of friction. This is confirmed by
the different fracturc pattcrn of this tcst.
4. lnfl~rei?ce
o f Normil Stress

O H Shew
Coinyonents
The above mechanisms are all based on
brittle cohcsive contacts bro~ightabout by delayed consolidation. An examination of the
behavior of these contacts under different stress
ranges may now bc made. Whcn the effective
stresscs are very low at the end of reconsolidation, the soil mass gets broken down on account
of the many fissures. The shear strength is
governed not only by the friction, but also by
the dilatancy due to the angularities in the
surface. It is easier for sliding to take place
over these fissures than for shearing these
angularities when the normal stress is low.
Thus the shear envelope in this region can show
a higher friction angle relative to thc reigon of
higher stress, as in the case of rocks (Ladanyi
and Archambault 1969).
At higher effective stresses, the friction developed depends on the breakdown of the
bonds. The amount of disturbance to the sample

as seen by the water content changes during the

test gives an indication of such disturbance. It
appears that if the in situ stresses are reimposed
on the sample, the Mohr-Coulomb-Hvorslev
critcrion is followed in extension tests as well.
In earlier studies, two types of tests were conducted on Drammen plastic clay. The former
were drained extension where radial pressures
were increased keeping axial stress constant.
These were on samples of clay preconsolidated
to 2.5 p(, (Berre 1969). The latter were undrained extension tests on samples reconsolidated to in situ stresses (Berre 1970). In all
these cases, the samples were reconsolidated
to in situ stresses before commencement of
shear.
The test results reported herein show very
clcarly that there is a range of effective normal
stress at which very little friction is mobilized
and the strength developed is cohesive in nature
presumably due to structural effect, provided
the sample has not been subjected to disturbance. It is seen that this strength is nearly the
same value as the cohesion obtained from
compression tests. However, it is likely that
due to progressive action, the value of shear
resistance rccorded is lower than the cohesion
obtained from compression tests. As the compression tests necessarily involve higher effective stresses at failure, the cohesion has to be
extrapolated to the origin. But the extension
tcst under low effective stresses (without dist ~ ~ r b a n cofe reconsolidation) does not involvc
extrapolation to the same degree and can therefore give a better measure of the cohcsion due
to structural effect. It is also seen that this
cohesion is affected by strain rate effects (R-27,
R-30, and R-33).
When the prcconsolidation effect is removed
by reconsolidating the sample to a high pressure
exceeding p, (tests R-2 1 and R-22), the shear
resistance on the failure plane increases due to
thc full mobilization of friction. Consequently
the failure envelope for extension tests nearly
becomes identical to that obtained in compression. The nature of contacts changes and
sliding of particles becomes possible. The compression-swelling curve of thc soil at a particular stress range can thus be taken as an
indication of the state of the contacts and the
~nobilizationof the components of shear rcsistance (Fig. 10). Schmertmann ( 1969) defined

CLAY WITH STRUCTURAL BONDS.

CLAY WITH OlAGENOIC BONDS.

VIRGIN CONSOLIDATION FOR REMOULDED CLAY

VERTICAL EFFECTIVE PRESSURE.

SWELLING CURVE AFTER VIRGIN COMPRESSION-STEEP SLOPE-NEW

CONTACTS,FRKIXm
F W Y MOOILISED.
WELLING CURVE AFTER DEUYED COMPRESStON- FLAT SLOPGOLD
CONTACTS, COHESIVE BEHAVIOUR.
RECOMPRESSION CURVE AFTER SAMPLING.
SWELLING CURVE AFTER RECONSXIOATION TO IN SlTU STRESSES
STEEP. SLOPE-CONTACTS MODIFIEWRICTIOW MOOILISED.
SWELLING CURVE FOR UNWEATHERED CLAY-FLAT SLOPE-OLD
CONTACTL-COHESIVE BEHAVIOUR

SWELLING CURVE FOR FULLY WEATHERED CLAY-STEEP SLOPECONTACTS MOOlFllIFFRlCTlON MOLWLISED.

VERTICAL PRESSURE IN LOCARITHMK: SCALE

MODIFIED AFTER BJERRUM 1967 b

FIG. 10. Con~pression-swelling curves in clays and their relation to shear resistance.

82

CAN. GEOTECH. J . VOL.

this as swell sensitivity. The locked-in-stresses

due to delayed compression in normally consolidated clays like the diagenetic bonds in
overconsolidated clays (Bjerrum 1967b) can
thus be thought of as giving a structural cementation, similar to origin cohesion. It is not
necessary to presuppose that once structural
breakdown occurs, the cohesive component
should become zero. The cohesive contribution
at failure in a sample subjected to such breakdown will be the sum of the origin cohesion
and the Hvorslev component of cohesion for
further changes in water content.
Conclusions
A study of the behavior of Drammen plastic
clay has shown the importance of extension
tests for the determination of cohesion due to
reserve resistance. Very low effective stresses
have to be applied during testing if disturbance
due to the reconsolidation to it7 situ stresses on
the mobilization of shear components are not
to affect the bchavior. The shear resistance at
failure in the soil is found to be dependent on
the magnitude of the effectivc stress at failure,
the nature of bonds and disturbance to soil
structure. Delayed compression is shown to
causc change in the nature of bonding resulting
in the bchavior of the clay as a purely cohesive
material under extension tests. Differences in
failure mechanism have been explained in
terms of a model for the varied shear envelopes
in the case of the Drammen plastic clay under
compression and cxtension tests. The results
also show that in the case of clays with delayed
compression, friction can be mobilized only
after rupture of cohesional contacts so that
sliding can take place.
Acknowledgments
The study was carried out at the Norwcgian
Geotcchnical Institute, Oslo, and the author is
indebted to the late Dr. Laurits Bjerrum, Director of the Institute for guidance, encouragemcnt, and facilities extended. Toralv Berre
offered constructive suggestions and the author
benefited much from his criticisms in the preparation of the manuscript. Knut Iversen and
Knut Schjetne extended considerable help to
the author in the program of the work. Thanks
are due to Corneliu Athanasiu, Research Fellow from I.C.B. Institute of Civil Engineering,

12. 1975

Bucharest, and Jacob Rosenkrantz of N.G.I.

for all help received in the conduct of the tests.
The author is grateful to NORAD for offering
financial assistance in the form of a post-doctoral fellowship.
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0. B., and DOUGLAS,
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RAMANATHA IYER: DRAMMEN PLASTIC CLAY

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Appendix List of Symbols

A - Skempton's pore pressure parameter
B - Skempton's pore pressure parameter
V - Volume of sample
AV, - Volume change of sample due to shear at
failure

c
c'

k,
p,

p,
u

wi
w,
a
a,'
a,'

u,,'
a,,'
a,'
a..'
T

#
#'

- Cohesion

83

(total stress parameter)

Cohesion (effective stress parameter)
- Coefficient of earth pressure at rest
- Preconsolidation pressure (from consolidation tests)
- Overburden pressure in field
- Pore water pressure
-Water content (initial)
-Water content (final)
- Axial strain
- Normal stress
- Major principal stress (effective)
- Minor principal stress (effective)
- Major principal stress at failure
(effective)
- Minor principal stress at failure
(effective)
- ~ b r i z o n t a stress
l
(effective)
- Vertical stress (effective)
- Shear stress
-Angle of internal friction (total stress
parameters)
- Angle of internal friction (effective stress
parameter)
-