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Aerodynamic Drag
Induced drag
Compressibility effects
" %'C D0
&
1 2
1
!V S " C D0 + # C L2 !V 2 S
2
2
2 1
+ # C Lo + C L$ $ (* !V 2 S
)2
Drag = C D
Drag
P-51 example
Newtonian Flow
Pitching Moment
Copyright 2010 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html
Induced Drag
Induced Drag
Spitfire
Induced Drag
(
" C L0 + C L! ! ! i # $ C L2
#
C 2 (1 + & )
C L2
= L
% eAR
% AR
where
e = Oswald efficiency factor = 1
TR = taper ratio, !
C L2! D (y)c(y)
C L3! D c
C L2 (1 + ! )
" AR
Lower AR
P-51 Mustang
Oswald Efficiency Factor
Approximation for e (Pamadi, p. 390)
C Di =
e!
C L2
! eAR
1.1C L"
RC L" + (1 # R)$ AR
where
R = 0.0004% 3 # 0.008% 2 + 0.05% + 0.86
AR &
%=
cos ' LE
! = 0.5
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-51_Mustang
" AR
2
)
# AR & ,
.
+1 + 1 + %
(
$ 2 ' .
+*
e = 0.947
/ = 0.0557
0 = 0.0576
C Di = ! C L2 =
C 2 (1 + # )
C L2
= L
" eAR
" AR
Drag Due to
Pressure Differential
Shock Waves in
Supersonic Flow
Sbase
2 # Sbase &
%
(
" M2 $ S '
S ! 0.29
Sbase
C friction Swet
( M < 1) [ Hoerner ]
Prandtl factor
C Dwave !
C Dincompressible
!
!
1" M 2
C Dcompressible
M2 "1
C DM ! 2
M "1
2
Lockheed P-38
( M < 1)
( M > 1)
( M > 1)
Effect of Chord
Thickness on Wing
Pressure Drag
Transonic flow
Supersonic flow
Local airspeed is greater than
sonic virtually everywhere
Lockheed F-104
M critswept =
M critunswept
cos !
Air Compressibility
Effect
Sonic Booms
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gWGLAAYdbbc
Transonic
Supersonic
Subsonic
Incompressible
Supercritical
Wing
Airbus A320
()
(+)
Pressure Distribution on
Supercritical Airfoil
Newtonian Flow
No circulation
Cookie-cutter
flow
Equal pressure
across bottom of
the flat plate
Newtonian Flow
Normal Force =
! Mass flow rate $
#" Unit area &% ( Change in velocity ) ( Projected Area ) ( Angle between plate and velocity )
( )(
)
#1
= ( 2 sin " ) % !V
$2
= !V 2 S sin 2 "
2
Normal Force =
! Mass flow rate $
#" Unit area &% ( Change in velocity ) ( Projected Area ) ( Angle between plate and velocity )
&
(' S
#1
&
) C N % !V 2 ( S = C N qS
$2
'
Lift = N cos !
C L = 2 sin 2 ! cos !
Drag = N sin !
C D = 2 sin 3 !
Space Shuttle in
Supersonic Flow
High-Angle-ofAttack Research
Vehicle (F-18)
Low-AR wing has less drag than high-AR wing, but less lift as well
High-AR wing has the best overall L/D
Pitching Moment
L CL q S CL
=
=
D CD q S CD
Pitching Moment
Pitching Moment
## ( "p
+ "sz ) x dx dy +
surface
## ( "p
+ "sx ) "px z dy dz
surface
i=1
i=1
Pure Couple
Net force = 0
Net moment " 0
Rockets
xcpnet
Fuselage
! x C
cp n
="
wing
+ xcpCn
fuselage
C Ntotal
+ xcpCn
tail
+ ...#
$
Static Margin
Static Margin
Static Margin = SM =
), %
Static Margin = SM =
), %
Pitch-Moment Coefficient
Sensitivity to Angle of Attack
M B = Cm q Sc ! $%Cmo " C N# hcm " hcpnet # &' q Sc ! $%Cmo " C L# hcm " hcpnet # &' q Sc
( Cm ,
)
! + C mo +
# . q Sc = Cmo + Cm# # q Sc
*
(# -
Pitch-Moment Coefficient
Sensitivity to Angle of Attack
Cm! " #C N!net hcm # hcpnet " #C L!net hcm # hcpnet = #C L!net
$ lwing '
$ lht '
&% c )( # C L!ht &% c )(
= Cm!wing + Cm!ht
= #C L!total
,
) !C
.
+#% L &(
= C L"ht
horizontail .
+$ !" ' tail
aircraft
- reference
*
( )
aircraft
( )
Upwash effect on a
canard (i.e., forward)
surface
Cm!ht
ht
Vtail :
Airspeed at the horizontal tail [Flow over body (), Scrubbing (), Propeller slipstream(+)]
!:
Downwash angle due to wing lift at the horizontal tail
"! "# : Sensitivity of downwash angle to angle of attack
$elas :
#V & #
!0 &
# Sht &
= % tail ( % 1 /
( 1elas %$ (' C L"ht
!" '
S
$ VN ' $
( )
#V & #
)* &
#S &
= " % tail ( % 1 "
+elas % ht ( C L!ht
(
$ S '
)! '
$ VN ' $
# lht &
% (
ht $ c '
Zero crossing
determines trim angle
of attack
Negative slope
required for static
stability
Slope, ! Cm/! #, varies
with static margin
Control deflection
affects Cmo and trim
angle of attack
Pitch Up and
Deep Stall
Possibility of 2
stable equilibrium
(trim) points with
same control
setting
High-angle trim is
called deep stall
Next Time:
Aircraft Performance
Low #
High #
Low lift
High drag
Large control
moment required
to regain lowangle trim