SAMPLE NOTES FOR SOCIOLOGY

EMILE DURKHEIM
Perspective: his perspective is called Social Realism because he assigned
reality to group & not to individuals. Keeping in view that every science is distinct (19 th century
thinking); he got this idea from Emile Boutroux.
Reality exists at multiple levels. Each level of reality is emergent in character.
When parts join in a certain relationship, they produce a new level of reality & each level is
studied by a different science.
Social reality is sui-generis: It cannot be reduced into its component parts. It cannot be
adequately understood in terms of causes & consequences alone. Social Reality calls for a new
science, i.e. sociology. Social reality pertains to group life. Once a group results, a new level of
reality results; i.e. social reality which is beyond and outside individuals have its own
independent existence. Anything with independent existence is observable. So this reality can
be based on positive science. Social reality is unified whole made of interdependent & inter
connected parts Organismic analogy.
Subject Matter: Aspects of this new level of reality are Social facts. Facts, because they
have independent existence; Social because they pertain to group. Social facts are those
ways of acting, thinking and feeling which are capable of exerting external constraints on
individual members, which are diffused throughout a given society & which exist in their own
life- independent of individual manifestations. Ultimate social fact is conscience
collective. Other social facts are subsets of conscience collective.

Conscience collective: Totality of beliefs and sentiments common to an average member of

society which forms a determinate system and has a life of its own. It is also called as
totality of social resemblances. It has its own distinctive properties, conditions of existence
and mode of development. It has a life of its own. Beliefs and sentiments comprising
conscience collective are both moral and cognitive. They act as an agency to regulate
behaviour as well as act as means of knowing the world. It is a psychic type of society.

Durkheim

argued

that

state

derives

its authority from

conscience

collective and becomes its directive organ and symbol. In a democratic polity, there exists
a high degree of communication between state and conscience collective, which
renders the latter more deliberative, reflective and critical.
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Conscience collective varies in extent and force from society to society. It

is reflective of the degree of cohesion, integration or solidarity of a society. It is distributed
throughout the society. It has specific features which make it a distinct reality. It is
independent of particular conditions in which individuals are placed. It is spread out over
the whole of the territory of a society. It is common to all occupations or professions etc. It
links successive generations to one another. It governs the existence of individuals. The
stronger the conscience collective of the society, the greater is the indignation against crime or
against any other violation of the social imperative.
Representations Collective: Durkheim abandons conscience collective later on, as it was
too all embracing and too static; it failed to discriminate between cognitive, moral and
religious beliefs and sentiments. Durkheim used the concept of Representation Collective for
the first time in his study of suicide, when he wrote that life is essentially made up of
Representations Collectives.
Representations Collectives are the states of Conscience Collective which are
different in nature from the states of the individual conscience. They express the way in which
the group conceives itself in its relationships with objects which affects it.
Representations

Collective

refers

both

to

the

mode

of

thinking

and

conceiving what is perceived. Representations Collectives are collective in the sense that
its origin determines its mode and form in its reference to object. They are collective also in
that Representations collectives are socially generated and they refer in some sense to
society. By using the analogy of the individuals mental states which are intimately related to
their substratum brain cells, from whose activity they result. Durkheim argued that
representations collectives result from the substratum of associated individuals. They cannot
be reduced to & wholly explained by features of individuals; they have sui-generis
characteristics.
Representations Collective is either a concept or thought held in a sufficiently
similar form by many persons to allow effective communications. These collective symbols
have force because they have been jointly created and developed e.g. flag is a political
representative and sacred texts are religious representations.
Durkheim wanted a separate branch of sociology to be devoted to the study of
representations collectives to be called as Sociology of Knowledge. This examines the social
origin, reference, social functions and forms of cognitive thoughts.
Rules of Social Method

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Durkheim was explicitly concerned with outlining the nature and scope of
sociology. Durkheim laid down the general conditions for the establishment of social science.
-

Science dealt with a specified area or a subject matter of its own, not with total
knowledge.

Science is concerned with things, objective realities.

Science describes types or classes of subject matter. Classification helps in arriving at

general rules & discovering regularities of behaviour.

The subject matter of science yields general principles or laws. If societies were not
subject to regularities, no social science would be possible.

There is continuity between the natural & social world, the sociology is as distinctive
& autonomous a sphere of subject matter, as either the biological or physical.

To discover the uniformities, types & laws of society, we need a method. The methods of
science applicable in the field of natural sciences are valid within the social field.

The social method: The social method rests firmly on the experience of biology, which had
emerged by then as a science of living beings. The rules of social method are: Observation,
Comparison & Classification, and Generalization.
Rules of Observation
-

Treat social facts as things;

Leave preconceived notions; observation of social facts should be restricted to observable

& verifiable aspects.

Voluntaristic aspects should not be perceived before hand; observation should be in their
collective manifestation.

Observation should be as definitive as possible.

Rules of Classification
Durkheim built a classificatory typology of social facts. For this each society should be studied
in its entirety & then compared- Classification distinguishing normal social facts from abnormal
social facts. Any social fact which leads to the improvement of society is normal & that
deteriorates the society is pathological.
Rules of Explanation
Social facts can be explained causally & functionally. The causes which give rise to social
facts must be identified separately from whatever social function it may fulfill. Although, cause
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& function have a separate character, this does not prevent a reciprocal relation between the
two & one can start either way.
The determining cause of a social fact should be sought among the social facts preceding it
and not among the states of individual consciousness or non social facts. The consequences or
functions should be seen in terms of our society as whole.
Social Facts: Characteristics:
Exteriority: External to and independent of individual members of the society. They develop
as a result of collective living and their origins cannot be traced to organismic or psychic
aspects of individual consciousness.
Generality: Social facts are diffused throughout the collectivity and are commonly shared by
most of the members.
Constraint: Social facts exercise a coercive power over individual members of the society by
which they shape and regulate their behavior. True human freedom lies in being properly
regulated by the social norms.
TYPES OF SOCIAL FACT: LIE ALONG A CONTINUUM
1. Structural/ morphological: it includes number and nature of element parts of which
society is composed.
2. Institutionalized social fact: it is general in nature and widely spread.
3. Non-institutionalized: it is not yet crystallized, have not obtained a total objective and
independent existence. they are also known as social currents.
4. Normal social facts
5. Pathological social facts
In the study of suicide that he had demonstrated his methodology best and the perspective of
social realism was also applied. Study of religion studied the functional consequences. Study of
suicide was the causal explanation and used the positive science approach. This was the best
study. In study of suicide, an attempt towards theory building was done.
Suicide:
There was a sudden increase in cases of suicide in industrial society, Therefore he was
interested in this study.
All cases of death resulting directly or indirectly, from positive or negative act of
victim himself which he knows will produce this effect is called suicide.
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He collected data of 26000 cases spread over a period of 30 years. Then, he went about
classifying those data. He discovered that in every society, there is remarkable consistency in
the rate of suicide. He was interested in collective manifestation, that is why he computed
social rates of suicide. In 1841, in France, there were recorded 2814 deaths and in 1842, 2866
deaths. In Germany, records read 290 and 316 deaths respectively. Therefore he said that
every society has an aptitude for the rate of suicide which more or less remains unchanged.
He said abandon all the preconceived notions. These are the notions prevalent at that time:1) In winter number of suicides was more than in summer.
2) Some racial groups have higher tendency of suicide than others.
3) Suicide is a result of hardship of life.
4) Alcoholism gives the cause.
5) It is due to psychic morbidity that the people commit suicide.
He said these must be tested in the light of empirical data. He said, the rate of
suicide in winter and spring are the same. Racial theories are also discarded because their
rates are different in different countries. Percentage of alcoholic who committed suicide is
not higher than the representatives of alcoholics in the general population.
As far as psychological factors are concerned, he conceded that psychic factors
too play a role. They are predisposing factors, but not the causal factors. There is a tendency
within the social structure driving them towards suicide. He said force is coming from society
i.e. social in origin. As long as society remains same, the rate of suicide remains same. This is
called suicido-genic currents. It is a social force which emanates from social structure
impelling from the society. So therefore, there is difference between social determinism and
individual predisposition. The social force here is causing suicide whose rate is constant, so it
is a social fact whose cause should also be a social fact.
Fashion is a social fact in making. It is basically a social current but when some
fashion gets established, it will become a social fact.
Social fact has 3 identifying features:- Exteriority, Generality, Constraining.
In all countries of Europe

Protestants had an invariably higher rate of suicide than catholics. It varies from society
to society from 13% to 300%.

Unmarried men have more rate of suicide than married men particularly in France.

Military Personnel has more rate of suicide than Civilians

Men have more rate of suicide than women.

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In times of war/revolution e.g. in 1851, when Louis Bonaparte led the revolution, the suicide
rate was less. Wartime suicide rate is less than peace time suicide rate. He said is the above
said cases; there is a lack of integration & cohesion. Therefore rate of suicide is more.
In Protestant church, hierarchy is not present but Catholics have well defined
hierarchy. In Britain, there is protestant ideology but no catholic organisation, therefore rate of
suicide is less in Britain.
Being unmarried, means loneliness and lack of cohesion. Those issueless
couples also tend to have more rate of suicide. Educated people are more prone to suicide
than uneducated. Because education increases individualism and decreases group solidarity.
Similarly, women act like group oriented; therefore, less suicide rate among
women. Women tend to be more conformist. Study conducted in India shows male rate of
suicide is 200 times more than the women. Therefore where identification with the group is
more, rate of suicide is less.
TYPES OF SUICIDE
Egoistic suicide: This is the situation where the individual conscience is in variance with the
Collective Conscience. Individual asserts himself or herself by committing suicide. He gains
superiority over Conscience Collective.
Rate of suicide is inversely proportional to degree of solidarity.
Altruistic suicide: In various societies, where the group norms demand suicide, the rate
tended to be high. In French army, officers rate of suicide is more than that of soldiers. The
reason was sense of nationalism, patriotism, is more in officers than in the civilians. Here in
words of Durkheim, individual is totally in tutelage of the group. Their life appears to be
hindrance to societal goals, therefore they commit suicide. There is no individual gratification,
but for the sake of group welfare suicide is committed. Sati is an example of this. This is the
suicide which is occurring because of high solidarity, total identification with the group. This is
what he called as altruistic suicide. Group is given priority over the self.
Types of Altruistic Suicide
1. Obligatory: Society imposes this e.g. LTTE. You must die for the group.
2. Optional: Where the group admires suicide, no compulsion e.g. Sati, Harakiri.
3. Acute Altruistic suicide: individual renounces his life for the actually felt joy of
sacrifice e.g. Religious suicide. kaivalya in Jains. They are the identification of higher
group solidarity where it demands.

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ANOMIC SUICIDE
He also found in the data, that there was sudden slump in the economy e.g. crop failure etc. if
then the rate of suicide increases, he calls it anomic suicide.
In Durkheim words:

True freedom lies in being regulated by the society. When this fails,

anomie results. When there is failure to put brake on human aspirations, anomie results. Its
never ending, no limit, never satisfying, no longer guided by traditional norms and new norms
are not there, so normlessness results. Anomic develops and normative order goes. Natural
values and beliefs are also gone. E.g Divorce ie breakdown of social regulation.
Suicide, while caught red handed while taking bribe is an anomic suicide.
Anomie is a situation where the normative society breaks down and anarchy is a consequence
of that.
Fatalistic Suicide:
He found that married women have more rate of suicide than married men in those parts of
Europe where divorce is not permitted. The cause is excessive regulation which leads to
suicide. Also this was the case with Roman and Greek slaves. This kind of suicide which is
called fatalistic suicide is due to over regulation.
He finds two suicid genic currents
1) Integration
2) Regulations.
Both are social facts.

CRITICAL EVALUATION:
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Gabriel Tardy has given thought on imitation as the cause of suicides. Durkheim rejected it.
He was contemporary of Durkheim.
Imitation is not a social fact. Durkheims study of suicide is regarded as landmark because
first time, the empirical research and theory building was done.
1. Relying on official data as the basis of its empirical data.
2. Phenomenon being considered as an aggregate form rather than individual acts and
motives e.g. crime rate, divorce rate.
3. Trying to arrive at generalisations.
Through this, he showed that by applying the methodology, the positive
science of society can be studied. Several studies enforce his study of suicide. e.g. In a
survey it is found that there was indeed significant variation in suicide rates. Surveys showed
that Hungary, Germany, Egypt have constant rate of suicide but rate is different in different
country. In India, Kerala had consistently high rate of suicide. One trend in India is, Larger
the city, more is suicide. In Kerala, high rate of education and sudden spurt of money from
NRIs are the causes. Infact, southern states have more rate of suicide than Northern states.
More cohesive the family, less will be the suicide.
In 80s in America, Breffault selected 216 counties from 50 states of U.S. He found that there
is consistency in rate of suicide in terms of family formulae.
Halbwachs also carried out the study of suicide with the same approach as Durkheim had
done. He arrived at Rate of suicide is directly proportional to degree of complexity of
the social structure.
Criticism
Durkheim was criticized both for his positivism and extreme social realism.
1. Positivistic stance criticized by questioning the basis of data he collected.Anti positivists
and phenomenologists like Atkinson questioned the authenticity of data that is it reliable.
Can we treat it as a factual order. He would say that in Europe, Coroner certifies the death
as suicide. He said it is coroner who decides on the basis of evidence found / circumstantial
evidence which is not conclusive. It is coroner who puts the label of suicide.
Thereby, raising a doubt that phenomenon like suicide can ever be studied like a
positive science. He said official data is not convincing.

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J.W.B. Douglas: He pointed out that there is built in basis in his study of
suicide. he said that in all religions in Europe, suicide is considered as sin. If it is reported,
then the stigma will be over the whole family. And in poorly integrated society, the suicide
will be higher. Because there will be more reporting than in the previous case.
2. Extreme Social Realism: Generally, it is accepted. But the social causes cannot be
considered sufficient. There may be contributive factors. There may be extra social factors
present which Durkheim rejected at large. Economic Social Factor also play a role.
Douglas pointed out that individual meanings should also be taken into account
so here

the meanings individual gives should be taken into account, so explanation

should not be given only in the social causes. Individual meaning must also be taken into
account. Existing theories are based on untested commonsense judgment and ignore
actual meaning for those involved.
Henry and Short: They pointed out that individual factors have to be taken
into account with the external factors. When there will be less external regulation and high
internal regulations, that man will commit suicide. It must be supplemented with internal
regulation as well.
In 1980s, an American Sociologist, Maris adopted a slightly modified
methodology, what he called psychological autopsy, who failed in life, failed in suicide also.
This is based on an extensive interview of those people who are the survivors of suicide
attempt. It was found that they had a suicide career. They had tried; it was since long in
their mind. Sometimes, it runs in family.
Sociobiology: It is a branch of sociology which claims that serotonin deficiency which causes
the person to commit suicide and in families running with suicide, may be deficiency of it is the
cause.
David Phillips questioned Durkheims claims that it cannot be explained in terms of
suggestibility. In early 70s, he found that in those weeks in U. S., when celebrities committing
suicide, those days rate of suicide becomes more. So imitation does play a role. Particularly, it
is strong among teenagers. He said fluctuation is by around 6%.

DIVISION OF LABOUR
The study of division of labour was his first major sociological work
published in 1893 even before he published his methodology. Those methodological aspects
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are only implicit in his study. This study of division of labour was speculative work. No
empirical research was carried out and his basic concern was to look into the nature of modern
industrial society. Peace and cohesions, stability and solidarity in industrial society.
Modern industrial society was seen as consequences of use of modern techniques of
production process, which in turn had changed division of labour in society. (He sees rise of
Modern Industrial Society as a result of progressive differentiation i.e. increase in division of
labour)
By division of labour he meant a social arrangement by which a complex task is
divided into simpler ones and allocated among different members of society. More the
complexity of skills, more the need for division of labour. Durkheim was not he first person to
address division of labour. This was done by Comte and Spencer.
More importantly, Classical economists Adam Smith & Ricardo for first time
studied

division of labour consequences. They saw them in terms of increased efficiency and

productivity. DOL resulted in Industrialisation.

Classical economists had already explored consequences of division of labour
and consequences resulted in economic progress and prosperity. More recently, neo classical
economists through their Principle of comparative advantage have extended the same
logic used by classical economists to International division of labour. This is highlighted in
context of globalization i.e. different countries should go for specialized production. This must
be completed with breaking of trade barriers and doing away with self sufficiency concept.
Free flow of goods will lead to prosperity and consumers will also be benefited by best quality
goods. Consequences of International Division of Labour are also being explored in terms of
economics consequences.
Principles of Comparative Advantage: India followed import substitution strategy. Japan
followed export led strategy of growth. They followed textile first approach. Instead of
producing everything, Japan started by alternative strategy. They had no raw material, but
good cotton, so they tried to better cotton growth and exported textiles. Then ventured into
ship building, electronics etc. So profits used in other branches of. Comparative advantage
principle says that country should produce those things which it is best suited for e.g. HolladCheese, Germany- Automobiles. Comparative Advantage principle is against self sufficiency.
Economists look at consequences of Division of Labour in economic terms alone.
Durkheim found this kind of explanation appropriate for economists but inadequate from
social point of view. He said it was too narrow approach because Division of labour is
phenomenon which encompasses society as a whole. There is nothing like economic Division of
Labour alone. There cannot be specialized Division of Labour in economic sphere
unless special skills and education are available.
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Special skills and education cannot be acquired by imitating family

members. It is the whole society that witnesses Division of Labour so as to have economic
Division of Labour. If Division of Labour permeates whole society, it is a Social fact, but did not
call it social fact. As he later on said, consequences of social fact must be seen for total
society. So, consequences of Division of Labour must be seen as encompassing whole society.
How to make industrial society as a livable place was his basic question. He wanted to acquire
scientifically valid knowledge in this concern. Idea of solidarity was his concern. He made a
critical evaluation of economists.
-

He suggested alternate questions like how is individual bonded to society and other
individuals?

Central issue for Durkheim was why individual while becoming more autonomous do,
depends more on society?

How can they be at once more individual and yet more solidarity? That is he was exploring
nexus between Division of Labour and solidarity.

Other subsidiary questions:

1. What causes the change in Division of Labour?
2. How is it, there is conflict and disorganization in industrial society? (There should be
solidarity)
3. How can this be remedied?
He did not try to seek answers on basis of empirical study. Using common sense
assumptions and deductive logic, he sought answers. He saw logical possibilities. He said two
kinds of polarities are there:
-

High Division of Labour

Low Division of Labour

By low Division of Labour, he meant Division of Labour is purely ascriptive (Gender and age
are always present as basis of Division of Labour)
Achievement based Division of Labour is an e.g of High Division of Labour.
He took them as two logical possibilities and not empirical situation. No real society would ever
resemble his model fully. They are actually typologies. Real societies fall in between them. So
his model was a classificatory typology.
Low Division of Labour: It means people of same gender and age performs similar tasks. It
is possible only if tasks and skills are simple and they dont call for special effort. Productivity
is low, size of the group is small. Such a group is characterized by likeness of parts. Each one
can replace the other.

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How does solidarity result in such a society? Answer: By only preserving the
sense of likeness. They feel united by saying that they are alike. Such a society by trying to
preserve the sense of likeness among the parts maintains solidarity.
The Social organisation is based on kinship bonds. They see each other as
member of same kin group. Hold of conscience collective is very strong. Conscience Collective
envelopes individual Conscience. No scope for individual autonomy. He analyses conscience
collective in terms of four parameters: Volume, Intensity, Determinateness, and Content.
Volume: Means it is spread. Conscience collective spreads throughout the society. All aspects
of social life are governed by conscience collective. Individual consciousness is enveloped by
conscience collective; so much is its volume.
Intensity: Force and seriousness which people attribute to conscience collective. Shared ways
of doing things are taken very seriously e.g. marrying in own caste is more important in
village than cities.
Determinateness: How clearly, specifically is conscience collective defined? E.g. in traditional
societies, will defined rules of dressing up otherwise, the issue is scandalized, But in city not
scandalized. Determinateness is less in cities.
Content: What is the kind of ideas which constitute conscience collective? In Low Division of
Labour societies, the primary concern is to prevent deviations so volume is very high and
intensity is also very high. Any deviation is met with resistance. Law tends to be repressive. All
deviations are taken as criminal deviations. The main concern of society is to prevent
recurrence and this is done by mobilizing societal force. E.g. in Saudi Arabia, on Friday after
Namaj, punishment is given like cutting hands publicly. Determinateness is high. Each detail is
worked out properly and one has to follow norms in all its details.
Content is predominately religious so divine sanctions follow in case of breach.
Social Relations are obligatory and authority is absolute. Only limit may be technology. He
called such society segmental society i.e. by juxtaposition of like segments and these
segments are mechanically juxtaposed and therefore he calls this solidarity as mechanical
solidarity i.e. solidarity based on likeness of mechanically juxtaposed parts. There is no
interdependence between parts.
How does Division of labour change?
According to Durkheim, increase in material volume and material density
which leads to higher dynamic or moral density, the problems created by higher
dynamic or moral density can be peacefully resolved through increase in Division of
Labour.

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Material Volume = Size of population

Material Density = Population Density

These results in increasing intensity of social interaction e.g. urban centres grow

rapidly resulting in people in lesser space leading to increasing contacts and increased
frequency and intensity of interaction. This is called as moral density.
As size and density of population increases, competitiveness for scarce
resources

increases.

The

conflict

can

be

resolved

by

diversification

and

exchange.

Specialization increases efficiency and gratifies everybodys need. When Division of Labour
become dependent on acquire special skills, parts tend to become more and more unlike and
therefore norms allow high degree of autonomy to individuals so that they can become unlike.
Unlike condition relate to each other through contractual and optional relations. Authority is
absolute. Volume of conscience collective shrinks. More and more aspects are left to individual
choice.
Intensity

of

conscience

collective

is

enfeebled

i.e

becomes

feeble

and

determinateness decreases. The conscience collective becomes generalized and abstract.

Content becomes secular.
In such a society, individual freedom is treated as venerated principle.
Contractual relationships are reconciliation of individual interests. Individual freedom and
interest also need conscience collective. Conscience collective becomes generalized but does
not disappear. Norms become specific and codified, the values become generalized. Laws
become restitutive i.e. to restore things to earlier stage i.e. status quo e.g. law of contract. It
has special organizations and institutions.
Religion cannot be the basis of social control because values are
generalized. It leads to democratization of authority. The norms are legitimized by a general
value which applies to a number of norms. (In simple society, values are less general and
norms are more general) The authority is delimited in a manner that it preserves autonomy.
It has new value system of social justice and equality of opportunity.
Every individual has right to nurture as society is based on merit. Each individuals role
becomes more specialized, partial, and dependent on others. New basis of solidarity develops
i.e. interdependence. There is unity among unlike parts because of their interdependence
-Organic solidarity. This kind of situation is obtained in high Division of Labour which should
be normal. In organic solidarity, solidarity is structured because no part can survive without
the other.
In contemporary Europe, there is pathologically high Division of Labor. Three
forms of pathologically high division of labour can be identified as:
1. Anomic type of high Division of Labour
2. Forced type of high Division of Labour

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3. High Division of Labour lacking coordination.

Anomic division of labour
He

develops

the

concept

of

anomie.

He

says

anomie

literally

means

normlessness. Though in actual practice, there is not any vacuum of norms. Anomie
manifests as breakdown of regulative pattern of society because in high Division of
Labour, conscience collective is generalized and enfeebled. Unlike Marx, Durkheim did not
think that sense of anomie felt by members is inevitable. Durkheim believed that it is only a
pathological stage that normative state has broken down.
So, anomie is manifested in industrial strife or in the violence, crime,
corruption, labour unrest etc. Solution to anomie lies in restoring normative regulation.
Human beings when left to themselves, tend to behave in arbitrary fashion. Nothing
biological or psychological puts limit on human desires. Society can put these restrictions on
human desires and make collective life sustainable. Earlier means of enforcing conscience
collective are not effective, so alternate mechanisms have to be created in a society based on
high division of labour. E.g. since in high division of labour different categories of individuals
are to be regulated by different set of norms.
Therefore through:
1) Professional Associations, moral regulation can be restored. Each association should
create ethical norms and regulate conduct of members in that field.
2) Similarly industrial activity should not be a mere contractual relationship between
employees and employers, but organization should serve as corporate and acquire community
like character.
3) Present industrial strife, because of unlimited greed on both sides. Trade unions are not the
solution as they replace individual greed with collective greed.
Solution: By arriving at mutually accepted norms which will put limits on
profit desires of employers as well as wage desires of workers. When such a consensus is
worked out, industrial strife would decline. In addition to fact that industrial organisation is
concerned with production; it should also be concerned with welfare of labour and acquire
character of community.
This

kind

of

reorganization

into

professional

Organizations

and

corporations would on one hand prevent excessive centralism of power in hands of State and
therefore preserve democratic character and prevent totalitarian state. On other hand,
popularistic mass democracies are also not healthy. It will also facilitate enactment of realistic
norms. Legislative bodies should contain members of these professional associations. They will
take into account interest of nation as a whole and special interest of corporations. Thus
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anomie can be mitigated. This will restore normative regulations. He wants to reorganize
power between civil society and State.
Mob of atomized individuals can easily be manipulated. It tends to degenerate
into populism. This is not rational and desirable so mass democracies are also not healthy. May
be these are based on wrong morale. There is a need for ethical regulation of moral life. Such
a society cannot grow into harmonious industrial society.
Forced Division of Labour
Forced Division of Labour is there because of unjust norms. Society
based on high Division of Labour should be meritocratic. So equality of opportunities should be
there. Economic disparities are unjust. It is not against unequal distribution of rewards, if
this is because of merit, it is just. Merit should not be denied. After death, wealth should be
devolved to State and redistributed. Let meritorious reap fruits of labour. Denial of
opportunities to the talented leads to conflict.
Steve Fenton: Solution is guild socialism. Guild like organism should regulate the conduct of
artisans. Guilds should be subordinate to State.
Lack of Coordination
If specialization of task is not accompanied by sufficient coordination, it will lead
to a situation of anomie where everything is wasted and individuals feel poorly integrated into
collective life. Proper coordination of special tasks has to be achieved. But he did not emphasis
much on it.
CRITICAL EVALUATION OF DURKHEIMS STUDY OF DIVISION OF LABOUR
One of the major achievements was for the first time that someone explored
the nexus between division of labour and solidarity. How nature of social bonds change
with changes in division of labour.
He systematically highlighted the role of population. How population affects
social organizations. New branch of sociology i.e. sociology of occupations/ professions
emerged. Among the later day researches inspired by study of Division of Labour, one famous
is that of Elton Mayo and Coworkers Hawthorne Study. In this study, they pointed out that
it is not only economic self interest that guides human behaviour but need of individual for
belongingness to group is important. Fredrick Taylor had viewed the role of economic interests
only. Behaviour of individual in organization must be understood in social context.
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Elton Mayos Work: Social problems of Industrial Civilization, in this there is

classification of Society into Established societies Vs Adaptive societies. (Similar to
mechanical/ organic solidarity)
Problems of Modern Industrial Society stems out of fact that adaptive
societies have failed to create an alternative basis of social cohesion. The basis provided by
established societies is incompatible with high division of labour. It is reflected in increasing
suicide, crime etc. Various other researches have also been inspired, particularly researches
that tried to explore, Division of Labour at work with social cohesion.
Herald Wilensky speaks of relationship between division of labour and social integration and
examines the variable degree to which work situations and experiences with labour force
encourage participation in, and integration into secondary social groups.
He found that those who had stable careers (e.g. 9 to 5 jobs) had a better
family life and were more integrated in community life. Unstable career results in poor
integration with community and family life. So sociology of occupation explores how
experience at work has bearing on overall social life of individuals. This dimension was first
highlighted by Dukhreim in study of Division of Labour. This is his lasting contribution.
Both American and British Sociology has relied on Durkheims study of Division of
Labour.
CRITICISMS
1. David Lockewood: Durkheim has failed to make distinction between two level of
integration i.e. system integration and social integration.
System Integration: Increasing interdependence of part of a system.
Social Integration: When members come to share common beliefs and values.
With high division of labour, society becomes solidary and yet, says, lack
solidarity. This apparent contradiction in terms of normal and pathological can be explained.
Normal is not achievable as it is ideal state.
As per Lockewood, high Division of Labour increases system integration and
decreases social integration. Durkheims solutions try to enhance social integration. Because of
increasing autonomy, social integration decreases and problems stem out of lack of social
integration. So anomie becomes a recurrent feature.
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2. Herbert Marcusae, Weber, Marx Conflict Theorists

According to Durkheim the problems of industrial society can be resolved only

by ensuring normative regulations. This was questioned by conflict theorists. Certain problems
are endemic to societies based on high division of labour. In his writings, Durkheim uses a
simpler mode to thinking. Small scale healthy and large scale economic organizations are bad
because in large Scale Organisations, social integration is poor and relationships are more
impersonal. It is built in logic of society with high division of labour that should increase in
scale.
In high division of labour, the problem of deskilling, fragmentation of work
cannot be dispensed with. By restoring normative regulations, deskilling cannot be avoided
e.g. Assembly line production. They cannot identify with manufactured product. Durkheim
appears to glorify high division of labour. Problems can be resolved by decreasing inequalities
and more effective regulations of conduct. But deskilling is not rooted in either of two and is
inherent to division of labour.
3.

Marxists: Durkheims use of concept of Conscience collective, does not recognize that

Modern Industrial Societies have different classes and different classes cannot share same
idea. So called Conscience Collective represents culture of dominant class which is forced
of lower classes by coercion or indoctrination.
4.

He seems to be over-emphasizing on role of repressive law in simple societies.

This criticism has been put forth on empirical basis. Durkheims study was speculative study.
In many simple societies, restitutive law also exists. He can be defended on ground, that he
was just constructing a typology rather than describing empirical situation. E.g Nuers of
Sudan(If someone commits murder, kin group of murderer can pardon him in lieu of certain
fine) and Trobianders.
Just as repressive laws exist in advanced industrial societies, so do restitutive laws
exists in simple societies

RELIGION
Published in 1912.His study Totemism-the elementary forms of religious
life. Durkheim demonstrated as to how a functional explanation can be made in sociology just
as in suicide, he demonstrated causal explanation
He also wanted to make positivistic study of religion .He argued that true nature
and origin of religious phenomenon can be understood by looking at religion in its simplest
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form. So,it is elementary form of religion which is universally present. By investigating

character of simplest religion we can understand character of great religion as well. In case of
complex religion, true nature of religion gets camouflaged because of complexities added by
priests and prophets. Religion without priests should be investigated to understand true nature
of religion. He evaluated existing explanations of theories of religion as was his methodology
that all pre conceived notions must be abandoned. Some of the authors titled religion as belief
in supernatural forces. Durkheim said such a definition of religion renders:
1) Religious phenomena incapable of being studied scientifically as realm of nature is realm of
mystery.
2) There is no way we can make distinction between natural and super-natural.
Primitive man does not make such dichotomy. It is of recent origin and has
developed in European thought. These dichotomies i.e. like rational or irrational, natural or
supernatural are characteristics of European society. In simple societies, whole universe
including man and supernatural forces are seen as part of single moral order. E.g. People in
tribal society believe in spirits. Spirit is also supposed to act in a way as human do.
So defining religion in this way is wrong as it will render it incapable of being
studied by positive scientific methods.
Tylor, prior to Durkheim had argued the animism is the earliest type of religion. That
animism has developed out of the existential conundrums of primitive man. He defined
animism as belief in spiritual beings.
Durkheim says, this definition is incomplete because religion is never a matter of
belief alone. It invariably has certain practice called Rituals.
Secondly, Tylors explanation of animism makes religion appear to be an illusion. Tylor has
tried to explain cause of religion in human curiosity and that is how humans invented notion of
soul and then worshipped it. Religion is only make belief as per Tylor. First create God and
then worship.
According to Durkheim, religion is a real force. It is a universal phenomenon
and no human society is devoid of it. It is such a powerful force that people live and die for it,
people find meaning of life in it. An illusory entity cannot be a universal phenomenon and
survive for so long and act as such a powerful force.
Max Mueller in his book, Comparative Mythology studied Vedic religion. He
said Naturism is the first religion. He tries to explain genesis of religion in what he called
sensuous experience- that in simple societies, forces of nature are so powerful that they
invoke fear of religion in human mind. Fear is origin of religion as per max Mueller. They
become more significant as man is dependent on these forces. So they are personified and
worshipped. e.g. in Rig Veda, worship of Sun, Wind. Durkheim rejected this argument also. He
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says this argument locates the source of religion in fear, that out of fear, forces of nature are
given human like forms and worshipped. This is hallucination. If animism was to be the
earliest religion, then, next stage would have been ancestor worship, but this is found only in
India and China.
He also rejects the popular view that religion involves worship or belief
in God. Many religions dont believe in God e.g. Jainism, Buddhism.
It is not necessary that religion should have notion of God so he did not find
these views as scientifically adequate. According to Durkheim, source of religion has to be
located in something real, permanent and transcending because religion is real, permanent
and transcending i.e. superior. Because religion involves attitude of surrender, so religion deals
with superior agency. Then, he developed his own theory of religion. Because of the nature of
life experience, human life experience is dualistic and because of duality there develop
thought categories which are also dual i.e. thought categories of sacred and profane.
Mans thought is consequence of social life experience. He further questions
Emanuel Kants idea that human mind has certain intrinsic thought categories like time,
space, cause. These thought categories were deemed to be intrinsic to human mind by Kant.
Durkheim rejects it and says social life experiences result in development of these categories.
Space is a sequential arrangement of objects. When objects are arranged in
sequence, they give a notion of space. Notion of space is fundamentally rooted in human
perception of objects in a sequential way. It is with respect from some point of reference. This
is how man starts thinking especially in terms of space.
According to Durkheim, when people started living in groups and some place
became their camp and from that they started viewing other objects in relationship to it and
that is how notion of space developed.
Time is a sequential arrangement of events. Some event is taken as a
frame of reference. You are bound to think sequentially. See rising of sun as an event and time
between two risings is quantified as a day. Even sequential thinking of events is a result of
social life experience that primitive man, as he lived in camps, must have assembled in group
for feasting etc., and they become significant events. They started relating other events to
these and they become frame of reference and thus developed notion of time.
These might have been linked to natural phenomenon like rain. So this is not
intrinsic but result of social experience. Similarly, when people assemble in groups and had
animated interaction, it created a sense of well being and effervescence. They started equating
it with desirable forces. They started thinking in terms of sacred and profane.
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Sacred: What is set apart and forbidden. They were segregated and separated.
It was treated with awe and respect. Sacred ideas were those which were to be treated
differentially and they were separate from profane because it was believed that profane defies
sacred. Access to sacred is strictly regulated and forbidden.

CRIME AND ANOMIE

Crime is a deviation from legal norms. When groups were structured, their
happiness in assemblies was referred to totem. So thought categories are product of social
life. Sacred demands special reverential treatment through certain rituals. On the basis of this
classification, he tried to develop his positivistic definition of religion. Profane defies the
sacred.
Religion is not only beliefs but also practices. Practices are means of
approaching sacred. Religion is a unified set of beliefs and practices related to sacred things
that are to say, things which are set apart and forbidden.
Unified means belief and practices are interrelated. Beliefs provide legitimization
of practices while practices provide concretization of beliefs.
Only these things are sacred which are set apart and forbidden. There is nothing
intrinsic about an object which makes it sacred. Sacredness is super imposed. Sacredness is
non-utilitarian, non-empirical, cannot be empirically validated, so sacredness is often defined
in ambiguous way that sacred can be benevolent and malevolent at same time. Sacred rarely
follows rationale. If a human being behaves wrong, he is held responsible but God never
considered responsible. Sacred is looked at in ambiguous ways. Society imputes superior
powers to the sacred and therefore is seen as strength giving, elicits respects, makes ethical
demands on the believers and reciprocates and fulfillness of those demand leads to
reciprocation.
The empirical data for study were provided by some of the ethnographic
accounts that were provided in descriptive accounts of way of life late 19 th and early 20th
century. Spencer and Gillan had published ethnographic account of Central Australian tribes
particularly Aruntas.
Benjamin Howitt: Native tribes of S.E. Australia described social structure and
religious practices. Durkheim went on to claim that totemism is the earliest religion and the
most elementary form because totemism is found in simplest of societies. It is not animism or
naturism, but totemism. Then, he goes on to observe totemic worship. He says all members of
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totem group refer to themselves by a tribal name or a common name, even though, they are
not blood relatives. Therefore, totem worship binds them as if they were family members.
Totem compels them to recognize duties and obligations towards each other like
reciprocal aid, particularly in common mourning, vengeance, obligation not to marry amongst
themselves. Totemic beliefs involve a system of prohibition and taboos which keep the totem
away from profane things. Totemic belief also consists of ideas which represent it as a causal
force. Totem was seen as possessed with real force. They are even material forces which
mechanically engender physical consequences.
Durkheim says it provides underlying basis of religion experience and its powers
compel individual to render pious duties. It creates moral obligation. It remains continuous
over time while individuals keep changing. Therefore the consequence of totem as sacred
object is:
to unify and bind totem group together.
- it creates a set of moral obligations towards sacred object and therefore it acts as emblem of
the society. So, source of religion should be real transcendental. Sacred is symbolization of
society and so sacred is not make belief, but religion is worship of society. The central thesis of
Durkheims theory of religion is that through history, men have never worshipped any other
reality, whatever the form of totem or God, than the collective social reality transfigured by
faith.
Religion- Definition: These beliefs and practices bind into a moral community called church,
all regulatory those who adhere to them. That is where, he provides final explanation of
religion.
1. It is explanatory force for all things.
2. It is unifying force.
3. It regulates their conduct.
Religion is nothing but indirect way of expressing individuals dependence on his society
through an emblem.
Believes in religion is not either a victim of illusion or hallucination. Rather,
believer is nothing but law abiding member of society because real God is society. So he says
society created God in its own image and therefore society based on high division of labour
cannot have traditional religion because common belief cannot regulate diversity. So
nationalism is new religion, may be humanism tomorrow.
Secular ideology can also perform same role as religion ideology does as
is to show mans dependence on collectivity. Durkheim believed that he had solved the religion
Moral dilemma of modern society. If religion is nothing Modern population need only express
their religion feelings directly towards sacred symboilsation of society but indirect worship of
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society. The source and object of religion- Durkheim pointed out are collective life. A secular
sociological definition of religion would say that the individual who tells dependent on some
extent moral powers is no a victim of hallucination, but a responsive member of society. The
substantial function of religion is the creation, reinforcement and maintenance of social
solidarity.

Religion is not only social creation, but social division. The deities which men
worship are only projections of the power of society. The disapproval of trade religion need not
herald the decision of society. All that is required of modern man is to realize their direct
dependence on society which earlier was recognized through medium of religion. On the most
general plane, religion as a social institution gives meaning to mans existential predicaments, by
trying the individual to that super-individual sphere of transcendent values which is ultimately
rooted in his own society. Thus, he advocated a new humanistic religion for the modern society.
CRITICAL EVALUATION
1. Total demystification of religion because religion is nothing but society divinised.
2. Secondly, it is in this study that he developed final explanation of social fact. And
therefore it had a profound effect on ideas and approaches that developed subsequent
particularly Radcliffe Brown, Malinowski, Parsons, Merton, K. Davis. So Durkheims
study laid the foundation of functionalism.
3. In French Anthropology, there developed another approach of structuralism by C. Levis
Strauss because of Durkheims influence. Durkheim therefore correspond between
thought Structuralism and social Structuralism. He went on to influence the rise of
Structuralist approach.
Structuralism: One of the way of understanding social Structure is to approach it through
thought Structuralism, in relationship to ideas as they are crystallized to society. By looking at
structure of these ideas, we can understand society. These ideas are in terms of binary ideas.
Based on analysis of thought Structuralism, we can believed social Structure and explain social
behaviour.
One of the disciples of Levi Strauss, Louis Dumont applied Structuralist approach
to understand caste system in book Homo-Hierarchious. Concept of purity and pollution.
This can be used for explaining Structure of caste system.
To analyses social phenomena in terms of ideas. Basis is ideas resemble reality.
There is correspondence between thought and social Structure. This idea was carried on
further by Levi Strauss.
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4. Durkheims view that sacred is symbolic representation of society has been tested
empirically by certain social anthopologists particularly, Mary Douglas.
He found correspondence between nature of distribution of power and religion.
Douglas also tested it empirically by making certain contribution like Group concept and
Grid concept. She meant how clear is demarcation between insiders and outsiders in the
society. Some societies are high group societies in which there is clear cut distinction. Low
group societies in which there is no clear cut distinction.
Grid: if a society has very distinct regulation of conduct
High Grid Strict Regulation
Low Grid Autonomy
Societies which are high group and high Grid have high ritualism.
Low group and low Grid lower ritualism

Criticism
1. He claims that by looking at character of religion in simplest pristine form, we can
understand the complex form. This assumption breaks down as modern industrial societies are
plural societies, while societies studied by Durkheim are simple societies. Religion divides
are also in plural societies. This aspect has been ignored. E.g. Indias partition.
2. Durkheims study displays extreme form of social realism i.e. he is looking at religion purely
from collectivitys point of view. It has consequences for the individual as per Malinowski.
The consequences are of different kinds because individual needs are different from collectivity
needs. At the level of individual, religion provides security, relieve anxiety. At societal level it
gives solidarity. He has adopted deterministic view point and subordinated individual to
collectivity.
3. Durkheim said that in advanced industrial societies, religion will disappear. Yet religion has
not disappeared because it continues to satisfy individual needs. It answers the unanswerable.
Fundamental limitation of science is that it cannot explain why but just how
& What. More the change of complexity of society, more the weakening of social bond and
society. More the uncertainty and anxiety, more the need for religion. Now, religion in
privatized and this has led to pluralism but has not disappeared.

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4. He made absolute distinction between sacred and profane. Edmund Leach pointed out that
in reality no absolute dichotomy it is more of a continuum and in between two exists
mundane neither sacred nor profane. So it is false at both empirical and conceptual level.
5. Religion exists to provide solidarity. Critique says instead of explaining what causes religion,
he is explaining what religion causes. At best, his explanation tells us that once having
emerged, what keeps religion going. But doesnt tell us what led to creation of religion in first
place. So it is illegitimate teleology. Teleology means explaining something for purpose.
6. Tautology : in his book, at places he says society exists because of religion and at other
places, vice versa. So it is circular reasoning.
7. Worstey has criticized Durkheims explanation of religion beliefs and rituals. The
explanation for actual religious system are not accounted for at all, but treated as if say the
choice of the sacred object or of the actual ritual prescription were arbitrary and unimportant.
This is especially regrettable in case of ritual since it has been argued that rituals infact always
contain important matter bases in agriculture technique of tribe or group which implies there.
Teleology is a way of explaining anything in terms of purpose.
Lestewards concept of Telesis is similar consequence can only be a cause if it
existed for a purpose. E.g. coming to class with previous purpose of learning sociologys
consequences.
On the most general plane, religion as a social institution serves to give meaning
to mans existential predicaments by tying the individual to that supra individual

sphere of

transcendent values which is ultimately rooted in his own society. Thus, he advocated a new
humanistic religion for the modern society.

POLITICAL PROCESSES

Working of democratic political system in a traditional societies

Totalitarian system in Russia is centralized democracy and totalitarian system, in
Iran is Islamic democracy. Democracy has become value.
Political system based on liberal ideology
Liberal democracy is seen as manifestation of political modernization. In west,
such kind of system evolved gradually as consequences of social and economic modernization.
It was preceded or accompanied by social and economic modernization e.g. universal adult
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suffrage, which was established in Britain by 1949. Till 1927, there was manhood suffrage. By
that time advanced capitalist society had emerged. Such political system developed as
evolutionary process.
In India, we have traditional form of society, social and economic modernization
had not taken place, when democratic political system was adopted. Even now, this democratic
political system is not fully through social and economic modernization. Still we are socially
and economically modernizing society and traditional structure are still persisting. Traditional
political system which developed in India had been feudal monarchical ties. Liberal democratic
system was adopted as result of contact with west, through elite preference. Not natural
evolutional

growth,

nor

result

of peoples preference. Western educated

elites who

spearheaded the freedom movement adopted liberal democratic political system. While
political superstructure has become modernize. Whereas, microstructure remained traditional
one, it has generated its own consequences.
Paul Brass
While modern political system in India tries to modernize traditional society. The
traditional society at the same time tries to traditionalize the political system.
Salient feature of liberal democratic system that we adopted from west, particularly
from Britain:
1. Egalitarianism: Manifested in rules like eg. Equality before law, equal protection of law,
equality of opportunity.
2. Individualism: liberal ideology is conceived in society as constituted by autonomous
individuals, individuals who enjoy certain inalienable rights eg. Fundamental Rights. Individual
is the end. State and society exist for the sake of individual. Only certain reasonable
restrictions make individual rights and freedoms compatible with human living.
3. Secularism: One of the fundamental features of liberal democracy (Hindutva/Islamic
democracy- antithetical to secularism). In plural societies, political system can not be religious
based democracy. Rise of liberal democracy in west followed secularization of social life. State
should not govern according to any religious principle. It should be seen on the basis of
rational humanistic principles, should not discriminate against any religion (Religious parties
can

exist

in

secular

state

but

it

is

private

matter).

4. Federalism: the feature of federalism is very important in liberal democratic system.

5. Representative and responsible government: Egalitarianism and individualism can be
made functional through representative and responsible government.
6. Universal adult suffrage.
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First instinct of politician is survival, so popular and not ration decision are taken. Poor were
gradually brought into suffrage. When they were educated, minimal equality had been
achieved. This is fundamental contradiction that political process includes poor and economic
process excludes. In Britain, they were able to avoid this contradiction, as only when this
contradiction disappeared, they allowed poor to vote.
In Germany- democracy form of govt. stable after world war-II. After world war-I, Weimer
constitution failed by 1930s and Nazi party came into power. In Italy, democracy is not stable
so far.
Pre-requisite for smooth functioning of liberal democracy:
1. Establishment of certralised nation state, which can effectively enforce the law and maintain
order. In Britain, sequences of events are like strong state led to Nation State and finally
reached at Democracy. Absolutist monarchy of 16 th century was first stage which repressed all
lawlessness. Centralised means single authority. In medieval times, multiple centres of
authority existed such as religious authority, political authority which was separated. Henry
VIII brought religion under control of king. If there are other centres of authority, they
function under delegated authority of centre.
2. Liberal democracy emerged with the break down of a social order based on institutionalized
ascriptive inequality. In England, blacks death in 14th century resulted in mass deaths. So,
hereditary relationship between serfs and lords broke. Wage-labour relationship started
developing. 100 years war between nobles sacked strength of feudal order. It drained finances.
Private armies paid in cash. Henry VII realized monarchy should be financially strong, militarily
strong. So, custom tax encouraged merchants. They heavy handedly suppressed nobles and
established rule of law. Inequality was based on achievement, meritocracy principle were
evolving. Germany and France took time to destroy feudal order, so democracy did not grow.
3. Liberation of individual from control of corporate groups based on primordial ties like caste,
lineage, ethnic ties etc. Groups based on contract relationships. Hindu votes, Muslim votes,
upper caste and lower caste votes- show existence of primordial ties. Imam of Jama Maszid
asked to issue statement before elections.
4. Secularisation of social life so that religion becomes a private affair and social life is
governed by rational humanistic principle. This can be facilitated by spread of secular
education which fosters rational outlook.
5. An effective welfare state which ensures that basic needs of all sections of population are
met because liberal democratic system operates on peoples consent. People will preserve
existing order, if their needs are met, otherwise questions legitimacy.
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6. A consensus regarding basic values: without consensus democracy cannot work. Within
consensus there can be disagreements.
7. Subsystem autonomy: Every sub-system should be able to function autonomously.
8. Differentiation of interests among diverse groups and articulation of interests of these
diverse groups through formation of interests groups.
9. Rise of special avenues for political participation i.e. political parties. They provide channel
for articulation of those interests and legitimate seeking of power.
To what extent do these pre-requisite exist:
In case of India, both the nation state and democracy emerged simultaneously unlike west
where nation state preceded democracy by more than 100 years. India still has numerous
sub-nation identities on the basis of religion, linguistic, regional etc. So India is still a nation in
the making. Therefore, compulsions of democracy i.e. need for political mobilization leads to
strengthening of these identities separatist tendencies exist eg. Kashmir, Punjab, NorthEastern states. It is generating centrifugal tendencies. Only virulent regionalism is antithetical
not regionalism as such. Democracy is respect for India surviving as a nation. Regionalism dies
out if democracy sustains eg. Issac Muivah came to negotiation table (Russia, Yugoslavia
broke down because of absence of democracy).
On economic front: democracy remains liability. No land reforms, agriculture remains
neglected. Democracy depends upon popular support. Redistribution of incomes is major
failure. Poverty could not be vanished. State failure led to reforms unable to take rational but
unpopular decision.
At political front: because of failure of development of institution of party system which gave
rise to vote bank politics. It has also resulted in criminalization because consensus has not
been developed.
In India, forged consensus has been developed among diverge segments to form nation. Basis
for consensus has to be worked out. Over a period of time, the consensus has broken down.
New consensus has to be worked out. But, consensus is being worked on petty methods like
regionalism, religion etc. Political fragmentation engenders unprincipled opportunistic alliance.
Primordial ties are being used. Even after 50 years literacy rate is less than 75%. In 1950,
China was far behind India but now has move ahead. Population control, anti poverty
programs have failed. This kind of liberal democratic system in west was consequences of
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economic modernization. In India it is vice versa. In traditional society, it will not in line with
rational elite. But it cannot act in unpopular manner.
Day to day matters of decision making is being decided by executives. Un-executive offices are
acting rationally e.g. Supreme Court, High Court etc. Judicial activism i.e. it is a distortion of
democracy. No accountability. So system is becoming dysfunctional because of lag between
democratic system and traditional system.

Political parties and their social base and social structural helps in origin of political
elites and their orientation:
It means that with social strata or with segment of society, the political elite are recruited from
and consequences how does it influence their orientation like political attitude, goals and
ideological orientation. Elite means those who excel in particular set of activities or a particular
set of values. There can be different types of elites such as business, artistic, sports, political
elites etc.
Political elite can be defined as group of high stratum decision maker in political structure,
which exercise political power, influences major policies and occupies position of political
command. In this context of present day India, political elite include those who are elected to
central and state legislative bodies and are recruited to executive/ministerial positions.
Secondly, those who occupy important positions in the political parties both at the National
and the State level and also those individuals who do not hold any formal position either in
government or in political parties but still exercise political influence eg. big Industrialists,
businessmen, journalists, intelligentsia etc.
Traditional Political Parties:
Traditionally political elites in India were feudal monarchical in character and they were
recruited from rather narrow social base i.e. Khatriayas and Brahmins. Kings were from
Kshatriyas and councilors, advisors and priests from Brahmins although, kshatriyas were not
closed category.
Pannikar: No such things as true kshatriyas. Any group which was able to capture political
power successfully at local level and sustain it long enough came to be reckoned as kshatriyas.
In principle, the rule continued to be ascriptive that their descendants occupied power as
kshatriyas eg. Marathas are from Kunbis (peasant) became mercenary soldiers then became
feudatories eg. Maurayas, Nandas were Sudras, Satvahanas were Brahmins, Guptas were
Vaishyas and Huns & Sakas (tribal people) were Rajputs. From time to time different sections
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of society were recruited into rank of kshatriyas. They were traditionally oriented and
therefore, mainly pre-occupied with preserving status quo and lacked of progressive
orientation.
After 12th Century
Composition of elites changed in most parts of India. Kshatriyas and Brahmins combination
lost power to Muslim leaders. Ashroff muslims became new elites, the traditional Indian elite
who were parochial in their outlook, mindset confined to local parochial, clannish loyalties,
lacked of pan-India outlook.
Unlike them, the Muslim elites tended to have Pan-India vision though this pan-India vision did
not lead to formation of National identity because their pre-occupation was political expansion
through military conquest than brining social-economic transformation which would facilitate
pan-India identity.
Economic and social hierarchy continued to be stagnant and rigid and therefore did not
produce

modernizing

consequences.

Though

created

innovation

like

new

system

of

administration, standing army to create pan-India empire. But tied to ascriptive principles,
authoritarianism etc. Failed to bring economic changes that could have facilitated economic
modernization because political centralization is pre-requisite of modern society, means of
transport and communication did not develop control was weak. They did not institutionalize
rational system. Everything depended on personality of emperor. So shortly after the death of
Aurengzeb, everything collapsed.
After 1857 with consolidation of British rule in India, the feudalistic monarchical elite witnessed
decline. In second half of 19 th century, new type of elite emerged. These elite were recruited
from urban middle classes and with a professional background, western education and western
outlook. Caste background remained continued as a dominant factor. Urban elites were from
upper class.
As a result of their exposure to western education, they were influenced by human, liberal
ideas, socio-religious reform movements eg. Debendra Nath Tagore, Brahmo Samaj, so they
were committed to Nationalist ideas, egalitarianism and humanism, freedom, industrialism and
therefore they became the agents of modernization in Indian society and part of
modernization. Anti-colonial struggle was modernizing change, so first they created idea of
nation. This was facilitated from their common cultural background belonging to pan-India
great tradition. Non-dvijas had localized and parochial identities. Ashroffs had common
Persian culture, access to western education. The elite became agent of modern economic and
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political growth and development. Well before independent, National Planning Committee
created by Congress in 1930s.
Social modernization looked at their society with western eyes and were able to identify social
evils. These elites were fundamentally different in terms of strong commitment to
transformation. Evident from various sacrifices revealed that they were against British rule.
Thus, they developed a charismatic personalities. They came to be identified with Nation
community. They represented nation consensus and aspirations. They came to be called as
modernizers. In provincial parliament of 1947, people of such professional background
constituted 85% of part. As late as 1962, they constituted 73% and just participation in
freedom movement not only fostered consensus among them but also fostered consensus on
nation good and democratic ethos. These elites were able modernize people by forging a
nation consensus and this consensus was represented in the various policies identified after
independent for nation buildings. These elites lasted till 1960s. By mid 1960s, situation
changed, new type of elite started rising. Charan Singh left Congress and became Chief
Minister of U.P. and leader of Bhartiya Kranti Dal. Change was result of policies implemented
by Congress itself. Rise of new elite from middle classes that started in mid 1960s and
established its dominance by early 1980s. These elites arose as a result of policies like
abolition of zamindari as kshatriyas witnessed low mobility and upper classes like jats had high
mobility and prolonged democracy led to their politicization. That is what Rajni Kothari
called as Ascendant castes. They challenged entrenched upper castes. This was last phase
of dominance of earlier elite when modernizing elite which led freedom movement continued
domination in Indian political system because of Green revolution, land reforms and
politicization of people because of functioning of modern political system, new elite from
middle class started emerging.
New elite lacked access to western education. They had risen by appealing to local, parochial
ethnic, regional (Shiv Sena) etc. Rather than trying to forge alternative consensus at pan-India
level which would have facilitate principled pursuit of political goals, they appealed to premodern ties to gain expediency based pursuit of political goals. Machevillian approach says
ends are more important than the means.
Over a period of time, such pursuit of political goals will lead to loss of legitimacy of state
itself. Even traditional upper class elite who were earlier committed to democratic ethos have
also expedience based pursuit. So unprincipled means for modern goals, resulting in
communalism, criminalization and riots.
Regionalism, Pluralism and Nation unity:
Regionalism:

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A region is a geographically contiguous area characterized by distinctive cultural identity, even

a distinctive social order, shared economic interests & problems and often also a shared
history, common language, religion, castes, kinship patterns, economic aspiration and
problems. Region comes close to a nation. Regional identity is sub-nation identity.
Robert Stern: Castism is least harmful problem, India has. Caste can not constitute nation,
region can be used for separation.
Regionalism is a manifestation of concern for the region. When people express social concern
for their region because of its distinct character, this process is called as regionalism. It can
have different forms or expressions like moderate and virulent regionalism.
Moderate: group identifies with regionalism but its interests specific to region are not
antithetical to nation interests. Though there is identification with region. People believe
regional interests can be acts within the framework of nation identity.
Virulent: regional interests seen as antithetical to nation interests eg. NSCN in Nagaland,
Hurriyat in Kashmir.

Causes for the prevalence of Regionalism:

Parties like Shiv Sena, Akalies, TDP are regional in nature, strongly identify with regional
identity. Demand for autonomy or separate statehood like Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Telangana,
vidharbha, Harit Pradesh, Khalistan. These are manifestation of regional aspiration. Violence in
Bihar and Assam is due to regionalism. It has both moderate and virulent expressions in India.
Factors
1. India is a plural society and never developed homogenous nation identity, historically.
Process of nation building strengthened regional identities rather than weakening. Linguistic
re-organisation of status is acceptance of so many regions. Regional identities are a fact.
Federal structure of Indian union must be preserved. It is healthy, otherwise result in
Balkanisation of India. India is surviving because of regionalism. Regional identities are
historically established identities. Regions became stronger as nation building was attempted.
2. Secondly, excessive centralization. Blatant use of Article 356.

Protest against tendencies

towards distortion of federalism.

3. After independence, economic development has been uneven. Some areas progressed more
than other areas, inspite of avowed balanced regional planning, North vs South, FDI go to
south and west. These conditions of disparity will contribute to regionalism because regional
disparities create conditions similar to colonial equation. So regionalism grows as a process
against uneven growth eg. Telangana is still backward, Coastal A.P. is prosperous.
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4. Regionalism is also a result of rise of new groups who have aspirations for political power.
Regionalism is populist stance they adopt to stop entrenched political parties. Other grievances
when they overlap with aspiration of emergent classes for politial power their appeals are
accepted eg. Dravid Nadu was ploy to dislodge Congress from T.N., so it is clearly an attempt
to gain political power, so it is populism.
5. Regionalism is another short cut method of political mobilization. Over a period of time,
consensus forged during freedom movement has broken down, this resulted in fragmentation.
Caste based parties can only be king makers. Horizontal mobilization gives support of any
primordial group, should be vertical mobilization which is based on consensus among different
strata. But politic lack vision, so appeal to region as regionalism glosses over caste divisions
eg. Khalistan: Sikhs in Punjab marginal majority because Akalis had support of Jats alone.
Appealing to regionalism, they wanted to bring all Sikhs together. Regionalism is a case of
vertical mobility because of fragmentation, voting public ends up being faction.
6.

Changes that have taken place in India because of which needs of different sections have

become divergent from formed consensus.

Moderate regionalism is not antithetical to nation unity and must be respected. Regional
aspirations should be accommodated to maintain Indian entity. Federal structure must be
preserved.
Decentralization of Power: Panchayti Raj and Nagar Palikas:
Decentralization of power has been considered as crucial for bringing about social
development. Though the constitutional assembly debated role of local self government
institutions, but did not consider it so vital for future India. Local self government were only
included in DPSPs in Article 40 which leaves it to the states to take steps to organize village
panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable
them to function as units of self government. DPSPs are non-justiciable, lack of commitment in
constitution itself. It was a state subject. Different states may think differently. Only two ties:
federal and state. High degree of centralization of power is in the hands of bureaucracy at
the local level. Although leaders like M.N. Roy and even Gandhi talked about Gram Swaraj and
autonomy for village communities i.e. not only administration decentralization but also
devolution of powers. Most of leaders who were members of constitutional assembly did not
feel need for grass root democracy. After independence, we thought in terms of rural
development and therefore community development programs launched in 1952 during first
five year plan. Numerous studies including those conducted by local government found largely
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a failure. Its benefits accrued to relatively better sections of rural society. Whole program was
envisaged to function on principle of active community participation. But no such participation
took place, lack of institutional structure led to this. Bureaucracy was ill-suited for mobilizing
community, suspicion and distrust of community. Some members of constitutional assembly
including Ambedkar were opposed to any attempt at devolution of power because they
suspected legitimization of land owning upper class and exploitation. Though bureaucracy
would act in unbiased manner and deliver benefit for all. Numerous studies have shown this.
Bureaucracy tends to identify with vested interests. This is what happened to community
development programs, worked for entrenched upper classes.
Balwant Rai Mehta Committee:
This

committee

was

appointed

by government

to

review functioning

of community

development programs. It strongly recommended that community participation can only take
place if there is an institutional framework to facilitate such participation by the people.
Therefore, the need for grass root democracy was emphasized. Various other studies in other
countries like Brazil, Jordan, South Africa, Botswana and States like Kerala, W.B, M.P.,
Karnataka etc. have clearly shown the various advantages of decentralization.

Advantages:
1. Faster response to local needs. First hand knowledge of real problems of local people.
Administrative delays, when decision making is centralized and correct identification of
peoples need.
2. Greater transparency and accountability. If decision making is easily accessible to people,
transparency and efficiency increases. Most of primary schools in villages had improved
attendance of primary school teachers.
3. Better information flow: Decentralisation provides administration with early warning of
potential disasters.
4. Decentralisation makes planning more realistic and development projects become more
sustainable as local people get actively involved in design, execution and monitoring the
projects. There is participation budgeting and accounting.
5. Peoples motivation increases as they are stakeholders.
6. Local self government act as nurseries of political leadership, provide opportunities for
participation. Nurseries of training future political leaders.
7. It acts as safety valve to terrorism, secessionism and other kinds of protest.
Decentralization of power is essential for speedy and effective development of national unity,
law & order. This was realized after Balwant Rai Mehta Committee report.
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Recommendations
1. Establishment of a three tier Panchayati Raj Sytem i.e. Gram Panchayat at village level,
Panchayat Samiti at Block level and Zila Parishad at District level.
2. They should be linked through indirect elections. Village panchayats should have direct
elections, whereas Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad should have indirect elections.
3. All planning and developmental activities should be entrusted to these bodies.
4. Panchayat Samiti should be an executive body while Zila Parishad should be advisory
and supervisory body.
5. Power and responsibility should be transferred to these bodies and adequate resources
must be provided to enable them to discharge functions.
6. District Collector should be chairman of Zila Parishad.
7. System must be evolved for progressive devolution of powers and responsible in future.
Developmental programs should be instituted and planned at local level. As a result of this, on
2nd Oct., 1959, first Panchayat was inaugurated by Nehru in Nagaur, Rajasthan, followed by
another on at Shadnagar near Hyderabad.
It was left states to design the structure of local self govt. and timing of their elections. By
mid, 1960s almost all parts of India established Panchayti Raj System. Many of them showed
encouraging result eg. AVARD in 1962: people felt that they had sufficient powers to mould
their futures. Privileges earlier enjoyed by Block Development Officers have come under their
control. Attendance of primary school teachers improved in these areas. People were freely
able to voice their grievances to pradhans and also had remedies implemented.
Planning Commission conducted all India level study: 114 villages as sample:
Significant change in nature of rural bodies. Younger and more educated leaders were
emerging as village Sarpanch. It also contribute to cooperation among groups which were
earlier hostile to each other.
Yogendra Singh conducted studies in six villages in U.P.
Although, Local Self Government continued to be in hands of land owning dominant castes but
they lost normative basis of right to rule.

Now, they rule by winning elections, appease

numerical dominance. However, because it was a state subject more than dozen committees
were appease in different states to implement recommendation of Balwant Rai Mehta
committee. These changes were not appreciated by political elite at state level. They would
not like their monopoly over political power to be shared.

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In T.N., sixteen times elections were postponed and reasons which were sighted for
postponing elections were equally true for state assembly election, but they were not
postponed.

Where elections were held, there was no power or resources. First general

panchayats proved to be a case of failure.

Even central government showed cynicism to panchayati raj institutions. In mid 1960s, idea of
community development disappeared. Intensive area development programs were launched
instead of Community Development Programs.
In 1967, loss of power of congress in most states (DMK, BKD, Communist party in Bengal)
because of three successive rain failures. Indira Gandhi resorted to this by populist politics
Garibi Hatao. Bangladesh war won, lot of anti poverty programs, rural development
programs, centrally sponsored schemes, bureaucratic administration.
In 1977, Janta party tried to many populist things. Ashok Mehta Committee was appointed.
This committee gave its report in 1978 and its recommendations were:
1. Two tier system should be there where population is between 15,000 to 20,000 i.e. Zila
Parishad at District level and Mandal Panchayat at group level.
2. Zila Parishad was to consist of elected representatives with elected chairman.
3. Panchayat elections to be fought on party level.
4. Panchayats should be given the right to raise their own resources by taxation.
5. In case of supercession of any panchayats elections must be held in six months.
6. Judicial decentralization i.e. Nayay Panchayat should be established.
7. Developmental functions at village level should be inferred to zila parishad.
8. Every state should have ministry for Panchayti Raj Insititution.
9. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes must have representation at both levels in
proportion to their population.
In 1977, in Bengal CPM government came to power. It went on massive drive for
establishment base at grass root level. Shortly afterwards, in early 1980s, in Karnataka and
A.P. also non-Congress governments came to power. W.B. followed by A.P. and Karnataka
where Ashok Mehta Committee recommendations were adopted. In Karnataka, genuine
attempts were made for infer of resources to panch. Again debate surfaced for need of
Panchayti Raj Insitution. Because became obvious that tip heavy structure with centralization
will collapse. Development delivery through bureaucracy controlled institutions became very
insignificant.
In later 1980s, debate surfaced again. In 1985, at AICC session in Bombay, Rajiv Gandhi
pointed out how poor are being exploited by power brokers. Bureaucratic administration
developmental programs can not succeed. Political compulsions of elections in 1989, he gave
employment to 20,000 dalits in govt. services in two months though no services needed. By
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the President orders, declared funds would be given to village Sarpanch directly and Panchayti
Raj institution would be revived. So in 1989, it was realized constitutional support is must.
Third generation panchayat with 73rd and 74th amendment bills, Narsimhan Rao passed 73 rd
and 74th amendment.
73rd and 74th amendments:
Articles 243 to 243 (O), contain the provisions regarding panchayti raj system. In 1996,
according to Bhuria Committee, these provisions were amended to extend them to tribal
dominate states. Now, uniform system of Panchayti Raj institutions has been established.
Provisions:
This constitutional amendment is not automatically binding. It envisages that every state will
pass conformity Act, whereby it will provide formation of Panchayti Raj system in that state. It
was 5000 elected representative in democracy. Now, elected representatives are upto 30 lacs.
Democracy penetrated to grass root level. It will go a long way in ensuring gender justice.
Women will develop awareness of community problems.
Cases where women have proved more competent than men: Sudha Patel, Gujrat, Blind but
eminent Sarpanch , Fatima Bee in Kurnool district, Ram Rati Bai in Sidhi District of M.P., Buri
Hambrum of W.B.: How panchayat local self is successfully able to fight against alcoholism.
When her husband, got to know of it, he thrashed her. Accommodated by few more women,
went and destroy wine shop. When police came to arrest, all women joined her. As a result all
wine shops closed.
Although, there have been numerous reports of how men folk tried to manipulation these
women, but this is a beginning in traditional patriarchal society. This has led to mobilization of
women at local level for water conservation, environmental degradation and local problems
which are never reported in media.
In Goa, panchayats have fought MNCs like DuPont-Nylon factory, had to give up its plans. It
posed a serious threat to environment.
Kerala High Court directed Coca Cola Company to find alternative source of water for its
bottling plant in Palachimade village.
Limitation and problems:
1.

Reluctance on part of political elites to encourage Panchayti Raj Institutions. Except for

Kerala, Bengal, Tripura and Bihar, all other conform acts deal in panchayat as administration
organ.

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2. Procedural bye laws have not been passed to make them functional in spirit. There is
nothing in legislation like time frame, resources to be given. Centralizing tendency is still
persisting. Judicial and law & order decentralization has not taken place.
3. WB elections showed electoral violence at panchayat level.
4. No commensurate social and economic equality. Any attempt at assertion of their rights by
middle class and lower classes is confronted with conflict. Mere reservation has not solved this
problem.
Criminal-politician nexus becomes more pronounced at Panchayi Raj level.
Decentralization of corruption:
Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathon, Rajasthan:

has brought out rampant corruption on

Bhim panchayat samiti. In Punjab, Sarpanches have embezzled lot of money. In Bihar, MP,
Rajasthan, Gujrat see large scale violence against women. In Gujrat (Porbandar), Lakhi Ben
was beaten up by BJP workers.
Social and economic equality is not being created. Education has not spread enough. Officials
remain largely uncooperative, when officials are given to work under Panchayti Raj Institution,
they go for stay orders in courts. Recent studies, which are survey of Panchayats working in
19 states conducted by National institute of Rural development, Hyderabad in 2002.
Panchayats largely remain toothless, inspite of the fact that they are constitutional mandated
bodies. Reasons:
1. Absence of national consensus across party lines on what should be the status of
Panchayti Raj Institutions. Political initiatives and Will is lacking. Only in those pockets,
where there has been thrust from below, they can function.
2. Political elites at national and state level are unwilling to give up contribution over
financial and developmental schemes.
3. Bureaucratic control over Panchayti Raj Institutions continues.
4. Functional and financial autonomy has not been granted to Panchayti Raj Institutions.
Except in Kerala and WB Panchayti Raj Institutions are seen as low level agencies of
government rather than units of self government.
So, Panchayti Raj Institutions implement country and state level. Gram Sabha has not been
given clear identity, functions are not defined. State governments do not give technical staff to
Panchayti Raj Institutions. Thus, higher level elites are sabotaging the Panchayti Raj
Institutions.
Panchayati Raj System: M.N. Roy

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Decentralisation of democracy will prevent centralization of power and the function of the state
will be reduced to coordination of the activities of the other autonomous social institutions.
According to M.N. Roy peoples committees must be the basis units of an
origanised democracy. He is strongly against concentration of power. He advocated partyless
democracy. Ambedkar considered rigidity and legalism were two serious weaknesses of
federalism. Articles 249, 250, 252, 352 and 356 have been used by the union to enchance the
powers of the centres, thus acting against the federal principle.
The serious flaw of the Indian Constitution was that it did not give primacy to
the local governments- the panchayats and municipalities. The federal structure has only two
tiers: the Union and the States; and the local bodies did not have any role-neither
developmental nor governmental. It was left to the states to take steps to organize Village
Panchayats and endow them powers and authority to function as units of self-government.
Parliament passed the Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act 1992.
By the mid 1980s, demand for decentralization of powers became clear that with
concentration of power, Indian polity could crumble. Meanwhile, the success of the secondgeneration panchayats as political institutions in the States of West Bengal, Karnataka and AP
as well as a general demand for decentralization of power with the slogan power to the
people also accelerated the pace for the constitutional amendment.
Elections at the Local Bodies
The study of the Panchayat Election Process and Election issues in Karnataka in
1995 and TN in 1996 revealed some interesting facts about the democratic process at the
grassroots level that caste and religion which were playing a prominent role in elections have
shown signs of decline. In TN, in the 1996 panchayat elections, growing democratic
consciousness of the people was clearly evident. Nearly 81% of the respondents of a survey
said that the religious or caste leaders did not direct the people to exercise their voting right in
one way or other. These election studies show that the local body elections lessen the intensity
of casteism and parochialism. This is mainly because people in general give priority to the
welfare and development activities in the villages or blocks level, transcending caste or party
politics. The May 1993 elections to the WB panchayats also highlighted this positive aspect at
the grassroots level.
Political Parties in Panchayat Elections
Political parties are formed not with the object of practicing democracy, but of capturing power.
They are guided by the dictum that the end justifies the means and the means often amount
to the corruption and destruction of democracy.
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Santhanam Committee on Panchayati Raj elections stated in 1964, whether and to what
extent political parties should participate in panchayat elections. However, in the given context
of Indian politics and society, involvement of political parties in local government elections has
become necessary. It is not without some positive aspects of social change. Studies of
harassment and illtreatment of women Sarpanches, members and office bearers belonging to
the Scheduled Castes in panchayats of MP

came to light only because there were political

parties on the other side to take up the victims cause. Field studies have also shown that even
in a highly politicized states like WB, after the elections on party lines are over, all members
cooperate for the development of the village. After all, if we have a multi-party election
process for the State Assembly and Parliament, partyless elections at the base will be
meaningless.
Women and Weaker Sections in Local Governance:
The new panchayats and municipalities provide opportunities for weaker sections i.e. SCs, STs,
who form 25% of our population. The membership is decided by the proportion of their
population in an area. The fifth and sixth sechedules in the Constitution give special status and
privileges to tribal areas. In reality, in tribal majority areas, non-tribals have been controlling
the affairs, dominating the scene and destroying the tribal tradition. Tribal land was
appropriated by non-tribals. The high-level committee under the chairmanship of D. S. Bhuria,
in 1994 suggested proposal to extend the 73ed Constitution Amendment to the Scheduled
Areas, had recommended:
1. to constitute a village assembly in all tribal villages because the community should be
the basic unit of self-governance in tribal areas.
2. to reserve a majority of seats in all levels of the elected bodies for members of the
Scheduled Tribes
3. Only a tribal could be elected as a Sarpanch.
A unique feature of the new phase in panchayats and municipalities in India is that it has
ensured one-third representation for women in the local bodies and one-third of the offices of
chairpersons at all level in rural and urban bodies for them.
Problems of the Third Tier of Governance:
1. In the State Panchayat and Municipal Acts after 1993, one finds that the States have
accepted the letter of the 73rd and 74 th Amendments rather than their spirit. In many
States Acts, civil servants are given powers indirectly over the elected body. Transfer
of activities and functions to panchayats is taking place very slowly. Only in places
where strong demands from below-the Village Assembly, Village Panchayats and
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District Panchayats as well as enlightened citizens orgnisation come up, attempts to

devolve powers are taking place.
2. Another problem is that although States have enacted Conformity Acts, many States
have not formulated rules and bye-laws for the day to day functioning. The necessary
infrastructural facilities are lacking for panchayats in many states.
3. The reluctance of State-level politicians to recognize the importance of the
governance-their autonomy, their powers and their areas of functioning-is creating a
serious problem. In Orissa, when the new government case to power in early 1995 it
decided to dissolve the duly elected panchayats and municipalities. The real reason for
this action was that the MLAs were impatient to wrest full control of large sums of
money coming to the panchayats through the Central Government schemes for rural
development.
4. The government officials and government employees prefer to work with a distant
control mechanism i.e. the State Capital. They do not want to be closely supervised
under Panchayati Raj. Therefore, their non-cooperative attitude towards elected
panchayat members is a major issues.
5. The low level of political consciousness in many parts of the country is another
factor which will pull the new APanchayati Raj backwards. The States of Bihar, MP,
Rajasthan, UP and Orissa, with a population of about 370 million (1991 census), have a
low Panchayati Raj performance rating. The main reason is the low level of political
awareness, prevalence of feudal authority and feudal values.
6. In many places, the panchayats themselves are working as oppressive instruments.
Absence of land reforms, low level of literacy, especially among women, patriarchal
system, etc. will work against weaker sections in the villages.
7. Serious conflicts have taken place during elections and afterwards in their functioning
in the villages. The recently held panchayat elections in Orissa ahd widespread violence
resulting in loss of life.
8. The central government itself creates situations which are not conducive for the growth
of panchayats. Any programmes, any scheme, any organization created parallel to the
functioning of the panchayats, will undermine the local government system. The
serious offensive against the emerging local governance is the disbursal of Rs. 800
crores out of the Consolidated Fund of India at the rate of Rs. 1 crore per MP, popularly
known as MPs Constituency Development Scheme. Now, it is 2 crores.
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Distribution of Power in Village Community of India and how it is changing:

Community Power Structure:
Traditionally, village community in India had hierarchy of caste. Although as many of
orientalists believed that village had internal matter-village council or panchayat decided all
matters. The rural power structure or distribution of power in villages was never egalitarian or
democratic power, it was exercised on ascriptive basis i.e. birth, age etc.
Who wielded power:
Power was held by influential family belonging to, according to Srinivas, land owning dominant
caste. Every caste has its ritual and secular hierarchy. These two overlap each others but not
totally.
Rampura in Mysore:
Madhav Brahmins are ritually considered as highest caste i.e. in terms of Hindu notion of
purity and pollution but except for ceremonial occasion when people touched their feet in day
to day they had little say and hardly mattered. In secular affairs, village communities like
Okkaligas, a dominate landowners, dominated village council, though ritually they ranked in
middle of hierarchy wielded power in village.
Dominant caste numerically preponderant vis a vis other jatis, but quite often it is jati in
village which owns maximum land and also dominates village councils and exercises political
power. Power is exercised by dominant caste, influential families belonging to dominant castes
wield power in the village. They came close to elite model of distribution of power i.e. minority
wields power. This shows that power is concentrated in very small group of elites, it is not
broad based. They happen to be elite because of their control over land and village council.
Elders from these were in village council. Eg. Thakurs in India wield power though less in
numerical strength but are big land owners.

M.N. Srinivas and Yogendra Singh:

Studied six villages in UP. Although power continues to be wielded by traditional dominant
caste, by this time Panchayti Raj Institutions and electoral politics introduced. So, rights to the
member of village council based on majority support and no longer ascriptive and hereditary
basis. Dominant caste held power by gradually accommodating interest of other people, jati
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and caste. Now they had to win election. So, factional alliances developed and often individual
clashes because more than one member from single family tried to gain seat in village council.
Till early 70s, power continued to reside in dominant castes, though power developed factions
within dominant caste and mobilisation tended to be vertical i.e. other caste mobilized behind
lower section of dominant caste.
Task

force by Planning Commission at All India level:

In 140 villages all over India to look at pattern of distribution of power in early 70s. It has
been found that in almost 95% of the cases, the village Council President was from dominant
caste i.e. Dominant caste model persisted. Power in few hands resembled elite mode.
Dominant caste model came to be questioned by late 70s.
Prof. Rajni Kothari: presented an alternate model, because of changes in India after
independence has brought a lot of change in distribution of power, land reforms, conferring
ownership rights on superior tenant which had hereditary rights or had documentary evidence
of tenancy etc., abolishing zamindari system. By late 1960s, Green Revolution introduced use
of hybrid variety seeds, seed-fertilizer techniques. New kind of seed converted nutrient into
fruit. Output could be increased by increase in fertilizer. Brought prosperity to farmers who had
access to irrigation, as irrigational facilities extended, agriculture converted into capitalist.
Middle sized farmers organized themselves are pressure group demanding increase in
procurement price etc. so increase in politicization. These were numerically superior to land
owning caste. Now became independent and economically well by Green Revolution, land
reforms. Rise of Charan Singh in mid 1960s, Chief Minister of UP shows rise of middle size
farmer. People mobilized for political power. Power in village community became broad based
and competition for power.
1. Dominant caste vs. middle castes, Rajni Kothari called them as Entrenched caste vs.
Ascendant caste respectively. Eg. Jats provided low status initially. Yadavas, Kurmis, Koris in
UP. Their rise to political power at local level and also state level led to violent conflict.
2. Factionalism within backward castes: Different sections of so called backward castes
had factions among them because of personal ambitions.
3. Phase of 1980s: by 80s, the ascendant castes were largely successful in gaining power at
local level. So power now shared between entrenched caste and ascendant caste. Mobilisation
of dalits was initially in Maharashtra but now spread to all India level. Horizontal mobilization
of Dalit castes fused together because Harijan identity was rejected. Dalit means oppressed
earlier, alliance with dominant castes.

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T.K. Oomen:
He has presented alternative model of distribution of power- power pool. By 90s, model of
power cannot be explained in terms of entrenched caste and ascendant caste because dalits
have emerged where they have gained economically. At local level acquired power. Distribution
of power is complex now. Now, it is not confined to one caste. In every village community,
there is a power pool. No single faction alone explains power pool land ownership,
politicization i.e. alliance with any political party gives organization and cloud at political level,
numerical strength, education (people acquire empowerment either position which command
authority or lucrative jobs).
Power has become in village community broad based. No single caste can claim power now. It
is power pool.

In south also, power of dominant caste has declined. Dalit mobilization has

taken place there also. In AP, dominant castes in Telangana region was Reddys, who mostly
wielded power as land owner which was challenged by middle class.
Paul Brass:
The politics of India since independence: among the elite and middle status castes, a process
of caste succession had begun before independence and was intensified after it with the
adoption of adult franchise by which in election after election, new leaders from previously
unrepresented or under represented castes began to emerge and the castes began themselves
to be mobilized. The intermediate castes acquired increasing voting power through adult
suffrage and increased economic power through Zaminidari abolition.
Dipankar Gupta: Interrogating caste: locus of power has shifted from ritually higher castes to
numerically large.
Stateless society:
These societies have no formal agency of social control. These have idea of territorial rights
which are maintained through notions of age and social sanctions and social control. Power
and authority are diffused in different groups in a society.
Features of stateless society:
-

No rigid boundary

Oral traditions

No Bureaucracy

Single person holds several powers like religious, economical, political etc.

No fixed ideology

Simple economy
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Types of stateless society:

1. Hunting and Gathering:

is largest social unit, cooperating groups of families, No

gradations or stratifications, no specific political organization, authority/power is

enjoyed by senior members of these families.
2. Village Communities: this type of society has kinship and economic ties, formally
appointed councils to maintain administration, emergence of political order.
3. Age set System: in this authority is vested in elders one. Organization is based on
principle of seniority eg. Cheyenne of America and Nuer of Africa.
4. Political functions: unilineal descent system prevails. There is no specific political
office. Elders may exercise limited authority. Eg. Nuer, Dinka of South Sudan.
Political principles of stateless society:
-

Society becomes united when different groups unite. Come together for some particular
cause.

Authority delegated to a subordinate

Mystical symbols integrated and unify stateless societies

For example, Tonga an African tribe, is a nomadic tribe. Its headman has little

power. It belongs to Matrilineal kin group called as Mukowa. Principle of exogamy in Mukowa
prevails. Joking relationship also exists. This society functions without political power and
authority because of warning issued during joking relationships.
Stateless Tribes in India:
Political institutions in Indian tribes are based on clan & lineage, village unit and group of
villages eg. Lineage system of Santals, Oraon, Bhils has :
-

Principle of segmental opposition.

When hostility is over, return back and organizational position takes place.

Territorial separateness prevents conflict between lineages

Judicial Machinery:
-

To deal with social offences

Village council is a assembly of elders

Informal control, in evening meetings through public disapproval and criticism.

For criminals, fine and punishment are announced

State in traditional societies:

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States in traditional societies lie between two poles of stateless and Modern states.

These lack developed form of political institutions.

Distinct and permanent political structures clearly dominated by religion and to a lesser
extent by kinship.

Nature and Scope of political authority:

1. Chief authority as Titular head. Chief is a symbolic head, representing entire group
though segmentary social structure persists. He is considered almost divine eg. Shilluk
of Upper Nile (Evan Pritchard) her king reigned but did not govern.
2. Secular authority endowed with sacredness. Secular authority of king is with
sacredness eg. Indian Rajans ruled their kingdoms on behalf of presiding deities of their
lineages. Myths of divine origin legitimize political authority of king.
3. Necessity of acquiring a king. Secular authority is ritualized to raise its status above
ordinary people. Territory and demography in relation to range of political authority.
4. Range of political authority: Area in which residents acknowledge power of the king.
Geographical limits of his administration and judicial measures.
5. Economy and centralization of polity: More the level of surplus, greater the
development of centralized polity.
Scope of political authority:
Extent to which a ruler exercises his authority over his people, defines the scope of his
political power. Scope rather than range of power makes polity more centralized eg.
Feudatory states of Orissa. Territory of king surrounded by segmentary clan lineage based
units. They participate in main rituals and ceremonies of central kingdom. No other political
authority exist i.e. minimal scope eg. Silluks of upper Nile.
6. Among loyal subjects Relatives are considered as rivals. Loyalty is rewarded by king in
form of shared authority.

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