Gold Deposits and Gold Metallogeny of Far East Russia

Ore Geology Reviews 59 (2014) 123151
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Ore Geology Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oregeorev
Review
Gold deposits and gold metallogeny of Far East Russia

Nikolay A. Goryachev a,, Franco Pirajno b
a
b
North East Interdisciplinary Scientic Research Institute, named after N.A. Shilo, Far East Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (NEISRI FEB RAS), 16 Portovaya Ulitsa, Magadan 685000, Russia
Centre for Exploration Targeting (CET), University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 6 April 2013
Received in revised form 29 November 2013
Accepted 29 November 2013
Available online 26 December 2013
Keywords:
Far East Russia
Orogenic
Intrusion related and epithermal gold deposits
Gold metallogeny and tectonics
a b s t r a c t
The Russian Far East or Far East Russia (FER) is host to a huge gold endowment and has produced more than
6500 t of gold, since the 1860s. Much of this gold has come from several mining districts: Aldan, Upper Amur,
Lower Amur, Okhotsk, Allakh-Yun, Yana-Kolyma, Priokhotie, Omolon, and Chukotka. These districts include several gold deposits, mostly of orogenic and epithermal nature, as well as large and very large alluvial placer deposits. The main gold districts are of Late Mesozoic age, but there are also three districts (Aldan, Omolon, and
southern Primorie) with pre-Mesozoic gold ores and three districts (Kamchatka, SakhalinSouth Kurile, and
Lower Amur) with gold ores of Cenozoic age. This review paper attempts to marshal on the regional scale all
available data aiming to provide a framework for generating and testing new ideas on the gold deposits of FER.
The focus is on: (1) gold metallogeny, (2) details of key gold deposits, and (3) relationship between gold ore
forming processes, metamorphic processes and granitoid intrusions in different geodynamic settings. The largest
gold metallogenic belts in FER were formed in the late Mesozoic, namely: in the Late Jurassic (Yana-Kolyma),
Early Cretaceous (eastern ank of MongolOkhotsk, Aldan, OloyChukotka, OkhotskKoryak) and Late Cretaceous (Sikhote-Alin).
The Mesozoic era was also the time when most of the gold-hosting orogens were formed. Paleozoic, Mesozoic
and Cenozoic orogens resulted from the interaction between the Pacic oceanic plates with the Siberian craton
and the North China craton. These orogens are products of diverse geodynamic settings and can be divided
into four types: (1) collisional (e.g., Yana-Kolyma), (2) accretionary or uncompleted collisional (e.g., Okhotsk
Koryak or Kamchatka), (3) combined collisional and transform margin (MongolOkhotsk), and (4) active transform margin (Sikhote-Alin). The rst two types are typical of North East Russia, whereas the third and fourth
types are in the southern part of FER. The Late Cretaceous OkhotskChukotka and East Sikhote-Alin gold provinces are associated with continental margin magmatic arcs and are post-accretionary (post-orogenic).
Comparison of lode gold deposits from different geodynamic settings reveals specic features in metallogeny of
the late Mesozoic orogens at the southern and eastern margins of the Siberian craton (Yana-Kolyma collisional
orogen, OkhotskKoryak accretionary orogen and MongolOkhotsk transform margin orogen). These orogens
possess different metal associations. The Yana-Kolyma belt contains Au, Sn, W, and CuPbZn lode deposits.
The Late Jurassic Transbaikalian sector of the MongolOkhotsk orogen contains Au, Mo, PbZn, Sn, TaNb, W,
HgSb lode deposits, whereas Early Cretaceous Au, CuMo, HgSb lode deposits are present in the Amur sector.
Finally, the OkhotskKoryak orogen hosts Au, CuMo, CuWBi, AgCoBiAs, and BeSnLiW deposits of Early
Cretaceous age.
Epithermal gold deposits occur in two different geodynamic settings: (1) island arcs (Kamchatka, Kurile islands)
and magmatic belts at active continental margins (Omolon, OkhotskChukotka and Eastern Sikhote-Alin), and
(2) rift-related magmatism, linked with orogenic events and strike-slip kinematics, such as transform-like continental margin settings (Aldan and Upper Amur in the MongolOkhotsk orogen). Mineralogicgeochemical and
isotope systematics indicate a metamorphicmagmatic origin of hydrothermalplutonic systems in collisional
settings (Yana-Kolyma, OkhotskKoryak, and OloyChukotka orogens) and active continental margin
(OkhotskChukotka and East Sikhote-Alin) settings, with source contributions from the lower crust and mantle.
The MongolOkhotsk and Sikhote-Alin orogens are of transform fault-related origin and suggest a source of the
ore-forming uids mostly from the mantle.
2013 Published by Elsevier B.V.
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: goryachev@neisri.ru (N.A. Goryachev).
0169-1368/$ see front matter 2013 Published by Elsevier B.V.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2013.11.010
124
N.A. Goryachev, F. Pirajno / Ore Geology Reviews 59 (2014) 123151
Contents
1.
2.
3.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A brief history of gold mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tectonic framework of Far East Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
Arctic (OloyChukotka) orogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Yana-Kolyma orogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.
OkhotskKoryak orogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.
MongolOkhotsk orogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.
Sikhote-AlinWest Sakhalin orogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.
East SakhalinKamchatkaKurile orogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.
Uda-Murgal continental margin magmatic arc . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.
OkhotskChukotka continent margin arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9.
East Sikhote-Alin magmatic arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10. KamchatkaKurile magmatic arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.
Gold ore deposit styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
Sediment-hosted auriferous suldes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.
Sediment-hosted and intrusion-hosted goldquartz veins and stockworks
4.3.
Intrusion (granitoid)-related Au lode type . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.
AuAg epithermal deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.
AuSbHg lode deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.
Gold metallogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.
Gold mineralization of pre-Mesozoic metallogenic epochs . . . . . .
5.2.
Late Mesozoic gold metallogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.
Cenozoic gold metallogenic belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.
Orogenic gold deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1.
Tectonic settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.2.
Fluid inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.
Epithermal gold deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.
Lead isotope systematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.
Genetic model for the orogenic gold deposits of Far East Russia . . .
6.4.1.
Geodynamic and metallogenic styles of orogenic belts . . .
7.
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
Far East Russia (FER) has a huge gold endownment, distributed between several metallogenic provinces, and has produced more than
6500 t of gold since the 1860 s, contributing to Russia's standing as
the 4th largest gold producer in 2012, after China, Australia and the
USA (USGS Mineral Commodity Summary, 2013). Much of this gold
has come from several mining districts: Aldan, Upper Amur, Lower
Amur, Okhotsk, Allakh-Yun, Yana-Kolyma, Priokhotie, Omolon,
Chukotka, South Primorie, Kamchatka and some additional smaller
districts (Fig. 1; Table 1). These districts include numerous lode gold
deposits mostly of orogenic and epithermal nature, as well as large
and very large alluvial placers.
In terms of ore ranking, we distinguish the following units (from
larger to smaller): ore province ore belt (if linear)/area (if isometric)
ore district ore deposit. The main gold provinces are of late Mesozoic age, but the three provinces (Aldan, Omolon, and part of the
Southwestern Primorie) contain pre-Mesozoic gold ores, and three
districts (Kamchatka, SakhalinKurile, and East Sikhote-Alin) have
gold ores of Cenozoic age.
These deposits have been investigated by researchers, explorers, and
miners, and reports have been published in Russian language papers
and books (Amuzinsky, 2005; Amuzinsky et al., 1988; Anert, 1929;
Bilibin, 1937; Buryak, 2003; Eirish, 2002, 2003; Firsov, 1985;
Gamyanin, 2001; Goncharov, 1983; Khanchuk, 2006; Khomich et al.,
1991; Moiseenko and Eirish, 1996; Nekrasov, 1991; Parfenov and
Kuzmin, 2001; Rozhkov et al., 1971; Shilo, 1960, 1976, 2002; Sidorov,
1966, 1978; Struzhkov and Konstantinov, 2005; Volkov et al., 2006;
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and many others). Several geological, genetic, geodynamic, petrologic,

exploration models and ideas have been proposed and discussed by
prominent Russian geologists (E.E. Anert, Yu.A. Bilibin, N.S. Bortnikov,
V.A. Buryak, V.I. Goncharov, V.G. Khomich, V.G. Moiseenko, I.Ya.
Nekrasov, V.A. Obruchev, S.V. Obruchev, Yu.S. Rozhkov, N.A. Shilo, A.A.
Sidorov, V.A. Stepanov) over a period spanning 150 years. However,
English language publications on the gold metallogeny and individual
deposits of FER are not many and mostly deal with deposits in North
East Russia (Berger, 1993; Gamyanin et al., 2000a,b; Goldfarb et al.,
1998; Goryachev, 1995; Goryachev and Edwards, 1999; Goryachev
and Yakubchuk, 2008; Nokleberg, 2010; Nokleberg et al., 2005;
Yakubchuk, 2009).
This paper attempts to marshal on a regional scale all available
data aiming to provide a framework for generating and testing new
models on the gold deposits of FER. More specically, this paper
aims to synthesize and reinterpret some of existing geological, geochemical and mineralogical data pertaining to FER gold deposits.
The focus is on: (1) gold metallogeny, (2) detailing the large and/or
key gold deposits, and (3) relationship between gold ore forming
processes, metamorphic processes and granitoid intrusions in different
geodynamic settings.
2. A brief history of gold mining
Gold production in FER commenced in 1868 in several major gold
elds in the Amur mining districts, but the rst discovery of alluvial
gold took place in the Okhotsk mining district in 1829 (Anert, 1929). Initial production was from very rich alluvial workings in the Upper and
Lower Amur districts between 1868 and 1871. The rst auriferous
quartz veins were discovered in the Upper Amur mining district in
1889 (Anert, 1929; Stepanov et al., 2008). The rst discoveries of gold
in Aldan were made in 1899, with a discovery of economically viable
gold ores made by M.P. Tarabukin and V.P. Bertin in 1924 (Khatylaev,
1972). In Allakh-Yun district, this has happened in 1932; and in the
Yana-Kolyma district presence of gold was reported in 1914, although
discovery of commercially viable gold in placers was made by Yu.A.
Bilibin in 1928. Other districts were discovered in 1851 (Kamchatka),
in 1886 (South Primorie), in 1898 (American prospectors in Golden
Range Eastern Chukotka), in 1937 (Omolon), in 1948 (West-Central
Chukotka), and in 1969 (Priokhotie).
The Yana-Kolyma mining district is the largest of the FER primary
producers, with 3000 t of gold, including 90 t gold extracted from the
Natalka mine (Table 1). It is followed by: Upper Amur (950 t, includes
hardrock gold from Pokrovskoye mine (about 70 t) and Tokur (30 t);
Aldan (500 t, includes Kuranakh area with 250 t); Chukotka (more
than 800 t, including about 90 t from Kupol), Allakh-Yun (about 200 t,
including 20 t from Nezhdaninskoye), Lower Amur (about 200 t,
including more than 40 t from Mnogovershinnoye), Kular (170 t),
Omolon (140 t, including 90 t from Kubaka).
3. Tectonic framework of Far East Russia

Various tectonic models for the FER region have been proposed by
Bogdanov and Tilman (1992), Parfenov (1991, 1994), Chekhov (2000),
Parfenov and Kuzmin (2001), Parfenov et al. (2003) Oxman (2003),
Fig. 1. Main gold mining districts of Far East Russia.
125
Table 1
Gold production from major gold districts of the Far East Russia.
District
Estimated total
production, t
Primary gold, t
Placers gold, t
Aldan
Upper Amur
Low Amur
Allakh Yun
Kular
Yana-Kolyma
Chukotka and
AnadyrKoryak
Omolon
Okhotsk
Priokhotie
South Primorie
Kamchatka
SakhalinKurile
Total
540
950
200
200
170
3000
800
280
110
55
30
No data
250
150
260
840
145
170
170
2750
650
140
50
50
25
20
12
6157
100
50
5
10
No data
1040
40
50
No data
20
10
12
5117
References: Anert, 1929; Khatylaev, 1972; Rudakov, 2003; Stepanov et al., 2008;
Benevolsky, 1995; Sukhov et al., 2000 and Goryachev's estimates (unpublished).
Nokleberg et al. (2000, 2005), Khanchuk (2006) and in various publications by Goryachev (1998, 2003, 2005, 2010) and Goryachev et al.
(2011a,b). On the basis of these works, FER comprises the following tectonic units (Fig. 2): Siberian craton and its deformed eastern passive
margin, the Omolon and Okhotsk cratonic terranes attached to the craton in the east; the Arctic orogen; the MesozoicCenozoic collage of
oroclinally-bent island arc terranes of the Kolyma Loop and Indigirka
Kolyma accretionary wedge terranes; the collage of terranes extending
from the Koryak Highlands, to Kamchatka, Okhotsk Sea, Sakhalin Island
and Sikhote-Alin; and the MongolOkhotsk orogenic collage. The age of
the orogenic events is Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (MongolOkhotsk,
Yana-Kolyma and OkhotskKoryak), Early Cretaceous (OloyChukotka
(or Arctic)), Koryak and Sikhote Alin), and Cenozoic (Sakhalin and Kamchatka). All these orogens reveal a different pre-Mesozoic history, with
basements of different ages, ranging from the Archean to the Paleozoic.
Proterozoic rock assemblages form the basement of Yana-Kolyma, part
of MongolOkhotsk, and Arctic orogens. The basement of Koryak,
Sikhote Alin, and KamchatkaKurile orogens is Paleozoic in age.
The boundaries between these major tectonic units, according to
2-DV geophysical transects, are trans-crustal or trans-lithospheric
faults (Goryachev et al., 2007). Following the orogenic events,
these faults evolved from thrust kinematics to strike-slip movements
(Goryachev et al., 2007). Detailed investigations along the Anyui
Oloy suture zone between the Arctic orogen and IndigirkaKolyma
accretionary terrane show that this boundary is a deep crustal thrust,
accompanied by anticlinorium uplift with fan-like folds (Byalobzhesky
et al., 2007; Goryachev et al., 2011a,b). Late Mesozoic fold belts formed
as a result of the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (160135 Ma) and
Cretaceous (130100 Ma) events. These fold belts are of collisional
(Yana-Kolyma belt with S-type granite magmatism), accretionary
collisional (Arctic), and accretionarytransform margin origin
(MongolOkhotsk, Sikhote-Alin, and OkhotskKoryak accretionary
orogens), and the tectono-magmatic processes are currently active
in the KamchatkaKurile magmatic arcs. Broadly speaking, these
Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic orogens can be considered as
products of interaction between the Pacic oceanic plates with the
Siberian craton. They can be explained in terms of two different kinematic regimes: (1) frontal collision (with thrusting) and (2) strike-slip
or transform style movements (Khanchuk, 2006).
A brief description of the main gold-hosting orogens, mostly based
on Khanchuk (2006), is provided below. They host orogenic and
epithermal (pre- or post-orogenic) gold lode deposits. These deposits
are associated in space and time with the late Mesozoic (Arctic, YanaKolyma, MongolOkhotsk, Sikhote-Alin) and Cenozoic (Koryak,
KamchatkaKurile) gold belts. Few gold lodes are located within
126
in volcano-clastic rocks. The types of ore deposits and associated

metallogenic epochs of the Yana-Kolyma orogen include: preaccretionary (Cu, PbZn, Fe, Au in the Omolon and Prikolyma
terranes); orogenic (Au, Sn, W); and post-orogenic (AuAg, SbHg,
AgSb, Sn in the OkhotskChukotka magmatic arc) (Gamyanin
et al., 2007; Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005).
3.3. OkhotskKoryak orogen
In this accretionary orogen (Khanchuk, 2006; Sokolov, 2010), the
major orogenic event took place in Early Cretaceous times, marked by
deformation, local metamorphism and granitoid intrusions. The time of
intrusion of collisional granitoids, according to KAr data, was 134
110 Ma (Goryachev, 2005). Mineralization is hosted in Late Paleozoic
and Mesozoic volcano-clastic and terrigeneous rocks and in Precambrian
metamorphic rocks in the Okhotsk and Omolon terranes. The types of
ore deposits and metallogenic epochs are: pre-accretionary (Cu, Mo,
AuAg in the Uda-Murgal magmatic arc); orogenic (Au, Sn, Co, Li, Be);
and post-orogenic (Au, Ag, Sn, W, Mo, Cu, U in the OkhotskChukotka
magmatic arc) (Goryachev, 2005; Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al.,
2005).
3.4. MongolOkhotsk orogen
Fig. 2. Main tectonic units of Far East Russia (Goryachev, 2006); 1 Siberian craton; 2
Verkhoyansk deformed passive continental margin; 3 Omolon (a), and Okhotsk
(b) cratonic terranes; 4 island arc terranes of Kolyma Loop; 57 Central Asian orogenic belt: (5) Argun cratonic terrane, (6) Solonker accretionary terrane, (7) Bureya-Khanka
cratonic terrane; 811 Mesozoic orogens: MongolOkhotsk (8), Yana-Kolyma
(9), OkhotskKoryak (10), Arctic (11) and its Chukotka shelf terrane (11a); 12
14 MesozoicCenozoic orogens: Koryak (12), Sikhote-Alin (13) and KamchatkaKurile island arc terranes (14).
fragments of Paleozoic or older belts (Omolon and Khanka terranes)

and Aldan shield of the Siberian craton (Fig. 3).
The major orogenic event on the eastern ank of this belt took place
in Early Cretaceous times, with deformation, Barrovian-style metamorphism and granitoid intrusions. The belt was formed in a left-lateral
strike-sleep setting, interpreted as transform continental margin
(Khanchuk, 2000a,b, 2006). The time of granitoid intrusion, according
to UPb SHRIMP and ArAr data, is 144125 Ma (Ponomarchuk et al.,
2008; Sorokin et al., 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2011). Gold
mineraliazation is hosted in Precambrian to Paleozoic metamorphic,
granitoid and gabbroic rocks and in Mesozoic volcano-clastic and
terrigeneous sedimentary rocks. The ore deposits in the major terranes
3.1. Arctic (OloyChukotka) orogen

The tectonic event responsible for the deformation in the Arctic
orogen took place in the Early Cretaceous and is characterized by
Barrovian-style greenschist and amphibolite facies metamorphism
and granitoid intrusions. The intrusions are I-type ilmenite granitoids
in the Chukotka granitoid belt, emplaced, according to RbSr data, at
130125 Ma (Bakharev et al., 1988), but recent UPb SHRIMP dating
yielded ages ranging from 117 to 103 Ma (Katkov et al., 2007). The
Paleozoic and Mesozoic volcano-clastic, mac and ultramac, granitoid
and terrigeneous rocks are the principal host of the gold mineralization.
The ore deposits and metallogenic epochs of the Arctic orogenic belt
include: pre-orogenic (Cu, Mo, AuAg, PbZn); orogenic (Au, Sn); and
post-orogenic (AuAg, Sn, W, Mo) (Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al.,
2005).
3.2. Yana-Kolyma orogen
The Precambrian metamorphic rocks are present in the Omolon,
Okhotsk and Prikolyma terranes (Khanchuk, 2006). The major orogenic event took place in Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous times
and is characterized by deformation, Barrovian-style metamorphism, and granitoid intrusions. These constitute a unique example
of typical collision belt in FER (Khanchuk, 2006; Parfenov and
Kuzmin, 2001). Collisional S- and I-type granitoids in the YanaKolyma orogen are represented by the Main Kolyma granitoid belt,
which, according to UPb SHRIMP (Akinin et al., 2009) and ArAr
data, was formed at 149153 Ma and 137149 Ma, respectively
(Layer et al., 2001; Newberry et al., 2000). Mineralization is hosted
in Paleozoic and Mesozoic terrigeneous, carbonate, and, more rarely,
Fig. 3. Gold metallogenic belts of Far East Russia and major gold deposits discussed in this
paper: 1 Natalka, 2 Nezhdaninskoye, 3 Mayskoye, 4 Duet-Yur, 5 AgnieAfanasievskoye, 6 Tokur, 7 Badran, 8 Malomyr, 9 Glukhoye, 10 Degdekan, 11
Utinka, 12 Shkolnoye, 13 Berezitovoye, 14 Kirovskoye, 15 Askold, 16 Kubaka,
17 Kupol, 18 Kuranakh, 19 Kyuchus, 20 Sarylakh, 21 Sentachan. See Fig. 2 for tectonic legend.
127
Fig. 4. (A) Cross section of the Degdekan gold deposit (Manshin and Goryachev, 2009); (B) eld photographs from the Dedgekan deposit, illustrating the complexity of gold mineralization.
The top photo shows sheeted auriferous quartz veins emplaced into carbonaceous siltstone; the photo below shows a hand specimen of carbonaceous siltstone with disseminated suldes
(with invisible gold?) and three generations of cross-cutting sulde veinlets.
of the MongolOkhotsk orogen span a very narrow time interval (about

1015 m.y.) and include: pre-accretionary (Cu, Mo); orogenic (Au);
and post-orogenic (AuAg, SbHg) (Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al.,
2005; Stepanov et al., 2008).
AlinWest Sakhalin orogenic belt are pre-accretionary (PbZnCaF2,

LiBe in the Khanka terrane); orogenic (Au, Sn, W, Be); and postorogenic (AuAg, Sn, B, PbZn, CuMo in the East Sikhote-Alin magmatic arc) (Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005).
3.5. Sikhote-AlinWest Sakhalin orogen
3.6. East SakhalinKamchatkaKurile orogen
This orogen, described as a transform continental margin by

Khanchuk (1994, 2000a,b), was formed in response to a major orogenic
event, which took place in late Early Cretaceous times and was characterized by deformation, Barrovian-style zonal metamorphism, and
granitoid intrusions. The time of intrusion of collisional granitoids,
based on UPb SHRIMP, ArAr and RbSr data, was 125100 Ma and
90 Ma at the southern ank of the orogenic belt (Khanchuk, 2006).
Here, mineralization is hosted in Paleozoic metamorphic, granitoid
and gabbroic rocks and Mesozoic volcano-clastic and terrigeneous sediments. The ore deposit types and metallogenic epochs in the Sikhote-
This is an accretionary orogen formed in late Eocene times, with

strong deformation, Barrovian-style zoned metamorphism, accompanied by collisional granitoid intrusions. The time of granitoid emplacement, according to KAr data, was 4538 Ma (Khanchuk, 2006). Host
rocks for the mineralization are late Paleozoic metamorphic and gabbroic rocks, Mesozoic to early Cenozoic volcano-clastic and terrigenous
sediments. The types of ore deposits in the East SakhalinKamchatka
Kurile orogen are pre-accretionary (CuNi in the Central Kamchatka
terrane); orogenic (Au, W); and post-orogenic (AuAgSbHg)
(Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005).
128
3.7. Uda-Murgal continental margin magmatic arc

This continental margin subduction-related volcano-plutonic arc
(Fig. 2) was formed in Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous times
(Khanchuk, 2006). The Uda-Murgal magmatic arc extends along the
northern coast of the Okhotsk Sea (Goryachev, 2005). The early stage
of this magmatic arc was characterized by andesite to dacitic volcanism,
whereas its second stage is marked by the emplacement of I-type granitoids, comprising gabbrodioritegranodioritegranite igneous suites,
with KAr ages ranging from 150 to 135 Ma. These suites consist of
Na-rich granitoids of the ilmenite and magnetite series. Epithermal
AuAg and CuMo ores were formed in this magmatic arc.
3.8. OkhotskChukotka continent margin arc
This arc (Fig. 2) is of Albian to Campanian (10677 Ma) age (Akinin
and Miller, 2011). It extends for more than 3000 km along the Okhotsk
Sea coast through the Chukotka Peninsula to Alaska (Khanchuk, 2006).
Felsic volcanic and plutonic magmatism (with subordinate mac
magmatism) are the dominant igneous suites. This belt comprises Au
Ag, CuMo, AgSb, AgSn, Sn, and SbHg deposits, which were formed
throughout the geodynamic evolution of this belt (Khanchuk, 2006;
Nokleberg et al., 2005).
3.9. East Sikhote-Alin magmatic arc
The East Sikhote-Alin arc extends along the Sea of Japan and Tatar
Straight coast for more than 1500 km. This is a subduction-related continental margin magmatic arc (Fig. 2) of Late Cenomanian to
Maastrichtian age (Khanchuk, 2006), slightly younger than the
OkhotskChukotka arc. We do not include the overlapping Cenozoic
volcanic assemblages into this arc because, they form isolated volcanic
elds in the Primorie region, mostly with intraplate signatures and
closely correlate with riftogenic depressions (Khanchuk, 2006). The
metallogenic signature of these volcanic elds is characterized by
small AuAg epithermal prospects and Ag-base metal to uorite
deposits.
In the East Sikhote-Alin magmatic arc are the three phases of igneous activity: 1) a Cenomanian phase, with basalt-andesite volcanic
rocks; 2) a TuronianSantonian phase, characterized by large volumes
of felsic tuffs and ignimbrites; 3) a Maastrichtian phase, with andesites
and dacites. These volcanic rocks are accompanied by granitoid pluton
suites, including multiphase I-type (magnetite series), dioritegranodioritegranite, a single stage I-type granite of the ilmenite series,
emplaced at shallow levels. The magmatic arc contains AuAg, Sn, B,
PbZn, and CuMo deposits (Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005).
3.10. KamchatkaKurile magmatic arc
This arc includes the Sredinny Kamchatka and East Kamchatka
Kurile volcanic belts. Their magmatic activity began in the Late Oligocene (Sredinny Kamchatka) and the Pleistocene (East Kamchatka) and
continues to present day (Khanchuk, 2006). Andesites and basalts are
the dominant volcanic rocks, whereas gabbro and diorite predominate
among plutonic rocks. Rhyolites, dacites and granodiorites are of subordinate signicance. The magmatic arc contains numerous goldsilver
epithermal deposits and occurrences (Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg
et al., 2005).
4. Gold ore deposit styles
A classication of gold mineralization based on an assumed relationship with granitoid intrusions in Northeast Asia was common throughout the middle part of the 20th century (Firsov, 1957; Konychev, 1953;
Shilo, 1960; Skornyakov, 1949). Traditionally, lode gold deposits were
labeled mesothermal and classied as sediment-hosted goldquartz
vein, gold-bearing dike and gold-rare metal vein types. The rst and second types have a spatial relationship with granitoids, although they
show no clear connection with igneous activity, whereas the third
type is genetically related to granitic intrusions. This classication is
commonly accepted by Russian geologists even in modern times. If we
compare the last type, gold-rare metal veins, with established international classications (Cox and Singer, 1986; Extrand, 1984; Goldfarb
et al., 2001, 2005, 2008; Lang et al., 2000; Thomson et al., 1999), we
can conclude that they would t the intrusion-related type.
Mesothermal lode gold deposits are also hosted in dikes and small plutons and can be further subdivided as intrusion (granitoid)-hosted and
intrusion (granitoid)-related subtypes. Gold-bearing dikes or intrusionhosted gold deposits are hosted in small granitoid plutons with porphyritic textures and associated porphyry dikes, but do not have a close
genetic releationship with the host intrusions, because gold deposits
and intrusions may have either the same or different age. For the rst
time, the epithermal goldsilver deposits in North East Russia were
recognized by A.A. Sidorov in the Chukotka area (Sidorov, 1966).
Volarovich described epithermal gold deposits in the Lower Amur
district (Khanchuk, 2006). According to Russian classications, these
deposits were considered as volcanogenic goldsilver formation,
which effectively corresponds to epithermal precious metal systems
(Goryachev, 2006; Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005; Sidorov,
1978).
The gold lodes of FER include the following types (Goryachev, 1998,
2003):
Intrusion (granitoid)-related (skarns, greisens and quartz veins);
Dike-hosted and shear zone-controlled goldquartz (early orogenic
and late orogenic veins);
Goldsulde-disseminated zones (early orogenic);
Goldsilver epithermal (pre- and post-accretionary);
AuSb and AuSbHg lodes (post-accretionary).
At present, the notion of orogeny-related gold deposits has become
widespread. This deposit type is now considered as one of the major
recognized mineral systems, in the same way as the Carlin-type gold deposits, epithermal goldsilver, porphyry coppergold, iron oxide coppergold (IOCG) and VMS and SEDEX polymetallic deposit types
(Goldfarb et al., 2001; Kerrich et al., 2000). In compliance with the
existing viewpoints, orogeny-related deposit type typically includes
goldquartz vein deposits and intrusion (granitoid)-related ones, as
well as goldsulde deposits, because they originated from orogenyrelated granitoid magmatic systems (Gamyanin et al., 2003;
Goryachev, 1998, 2003, 2010). All these deposit types were formed during the orogenic stage in the evolution of fold belts.
Goryachev (2006) and Goryachev and Gamyanin (2006) proposed
to classify the orogenic gold deposits on the basis of their geological setting, style, age and relationships with orogenic granitoid assemblages,
such as: (1) disseminated suldes with gold; 2) sediment-hosted and
intrusion-hosted gold quartz veins, stockworks zones, and shear
zones; and 3) intrusion-(granitoid)-related goldbismuth. The deposit
types and their characteristics are discussed below.
4.1. Sediment-hosted auriferous suldes
The examples of deposits of this type in FER include Degdekan,
Maiskoye and Malomyr. They are typically structurally controlled and
are characterized by disseminated mineralization in mylonite zones.
The Degdekan deposit is hosted in Permian clastic sediments of the
Ayan-Yuryakh anticlinorium in the southeastern ank of the
Verkhoyansk passive margin (Fig. 3). The ore bodies occur along a
major NW-trending thrust zone and comprise two main types of ores:
disseminated pyrite and arsenopyrite (up to 35%) in carbonaceous
terrigeneous rocks, with carbonatechlorite and sericite alteration;
and sheeted quartz veins, locally associated with felsic dikes (Degdekan
Lode; Goryachev and Fridovsky, 2013) (Fig. 4A, B). The age of this
129
Fig. 5. Malomyr gold deposit (after Vasiliev at al., 2000). Note association of gold orebodies with altered mylonite zones.
mineralization is 134130 Ma (Voroshin et al., 2004). The overall average grade is about 1.2 g/t Au, with a resource of about 200 t. Besides
gold, the ore also contains minor amounts of unusual or rare PGE minerals (RuIrOs, RuS2, RuOs, IrAs, native Os) (Goryachev et al., 2011a,b;
Khanchuk et al., 2011).
The Mayskoye deposit is hosted in Triassic clastic rocks of the
Chukotka shelf terrane, part of the Arctic orogen (Fig. 2). Triassic sediments are intruded by granite- and granodiorite-porphyries, rhyolites,
and lamprophyres dikes. Fine-grained, acicular disseminated arsenopyrite and pyrite (68%) are the main ore minerals, mostly concentrated in
highly enriched carbon-bearing sub-vertical north-trending shear
zones, up to 1012 m thick, extending to depths ranging from 1500 m
to 1000 m and with about 9 g/t average gold grade (Bortnikov et al.,
2004; Volkov and Sidorov, 2001; Volkov et al., 2006). According to
these authors, arsenopyrite is gold-bearing (up to 1811554 ppm)
and about 90% of the total gold in the deposit is hosted by pyrite and arsenopyrite. Late stibnitequartz veins and veinlets contain no more
than 10% of gold, mostly as native coarse grains with 800920 neness.
The Malomyr deposit is another example of gold mineralization from
the eastern ank of the MongolOkhotsk belt (Fig. 3). This deposit is
localized in Paleozoic greenschist facies metamorphic rocks in the
south-western ank of the Nizhnyaya Stoiba metamorphic dome
(Buryak and Perestoronin, 2000; Buryak et al., 1988) of late Mesozoic
deformational age (Fig. 5). The main Diagonalnaya ore zone dips at
2530 towards the NW, with a thickness of 60 to 100 m and a length
of 4200 m. The average gold grade varies from 1 to 11.8 g/t. Arsenian
pyrite (3050 ppm Au) and acicular arsenopyrite disseminations (up
to 5%) are located in altered (sericite, adularia, carbonate, ankerite,
quartz) metasandstones, metasiltstone, greenschist and also in Paleozoic metamorphosed granite. Small quartz veins and veinlets, with adularia and suldes (pyrite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, marcasite)
and wolframite occur in altered rocks (Buryak and Perestoronin, 2000;
Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005). More than 50% of native gold
has a grain size less than 0.02 mm. The neness of gold is 700820.
4.2. Sediment-hosted and intrusion-hosted goldquartz veins and stockworks
These gold deposits are usually characterized by quartz veins and
stockworks in shear zones (Kerrich et al., 2000; Goldfarb et al., 2001,
2005). Examples of this type are Natalka, Nezhdaninskoye, Duet,
Tokur, Agnie-Afanasievskoye, Glukhoye, Pavlik, Utinka, Shkolnoye and
Karalveem deposits in different parts of FER (Fig. 3).
The largest gold deposit is the Natalka deposit (Fig. 6A, B), with resources of more than 1700 t of gold grading 1.7 g/t (Eremin et al.,
1994; Mikhalitsyna, 2011). The total past production from hard rock
ores and placers of the Omchak district is about 280 t of gold. The
130
Fig. 6. Rock types of the Natalka deposit: (A) weakly foliated diamictite; (B) hydraulic fracturing with silica inll cutting diamictite; (C) pervasively altered, shallow-dipping felsic dike.
deposit is located in the Omchak goldeld (with 30 km2 of gold

anomalism) in the south-east of the Yana-Kolyma gold belt. The
Omchak district includes, in addition to Natalka, two gold lode deposits
(Omchak and Pavlik), several prospects and alluvial placers. The host
rocks of the ore deposits are foliated Permian sandstones, diamictites,
volcano-clastic and terrigeneous rocks, part of the Ayan-Yuryakh
anticlinorium in the Verkhoyansk passive margin. All gold deposits are
located within a Middle Permian lithostratigraphic level, consisting of
volcano-clastic rocks, rich in carbon and gold (Astakhov et al., 2010).
The gold deposits and prospects are controlled by the regional scale
NW-striking Ten'ka fault and are associated with dike swarms (granite-porphyry and lamprophyre dikes) (Fig. 6C). The ArAr age of sericite
from the altered rocks is 135 Ma (Newberry et al., 2000). The ore body
has a strike length of about 4 km, is 1 km wide and 500 m deep. It consists of disseminated arsenopyrite and pyrite and quartzsulde veins
and stockworks (Golub et al., 2008; Goryachev et al., 2008). The main
sulde minerals are pyrite, arsenopyrite and pyrrhotite. The gangue
minerals are quartz and calcite. The alteration halo consists of an
outer zone of chloritecarbonate altered terrigeneous rocks and an
inner quartzsericite or quartzalbite altered rocks. The deposit occurs within a large AuAsW geochemical anomaly (Bortnikov and
Goryachev, 2010; Goncharov et al., 2002).
The Nezhdaninskoye deposit is the second largest orogenic gold deposits in FER (Gamyanin et al., 2000a,b; Goryachev, 1998; Parfenov
and Kuzmin, 2001). It is located in the Lower Permian terrigeneous sediments in the core of a large anticline. This deposit consists of two ore
styles: (1) disseminated suldes (5%) with pyrite (10150 ppm Au)
and arsenopyrite (30500 ppm Au), associated with numerous quartz
veinlets and stockworks in shear zones (grading about 59 g/t Au)
and (2) sub-vertical plate-like quartz veins, up to 2 m thick and 200
400 m long, and grading 10 to 2000 g/t Au (Goryachev, 1998;
Gamyanin et al., 2000a,b; Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001). The host rocks
are pervasively altered (sericite, chlorite, quartz, Fedolomite), forming
50 to 200 m wide alteration haloes. The main ore zone (No.1) is located
in a sub-vertical shear zone (Fig. 7); it is 140 m thick, 7 km long, and
1600 m deep. The reserves are 475 t of gold grading 89 g/t Au and
10200 g/t Ag. Based on geological observations, the Nezhdaninskoye
deposit was formed in three stages: (1) metamorphogenic low Au
Fig. 7. Vertical cross section of the main ore body No.1 of the Nezhdaninskoye deposit
(adapted from Goryachev, 1998, 1999).
grade (less than 2 g/t), (2) main goldquartz hydrothermal and (3)
silver-base metals (Gamyanin et al., 1985, 2000a,2000b; Goryachev,
1998). The age of mineralization is 122119 Ma (Chugaev et al., 2010;
Gamyanin, 2001; Gamyanin et al., 2003).
The Duet, Yur and Nekur deposits are stratabound gold-bearing
quartz veins in a sequence of interlayered Upper Carboniferous to
Lower Permian sandstone and shale (Fig. 8) in the southern part of
the Allakh-Yun gold belt (Fridovsky, 2002; Konstantinov et al., 2002;
Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001; Sukhov et al., 2000). Five levels of saddleshaped goldquartz veins are hosted in Upper Carboniferous (4 levels)
and Lower Permian (1 level) sandstone sequences (Fridovsky, 2002;
Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001). The length of veins is up to 5 km, with
thicknesses ranging from 0.5 to 2.5 m, rarely up to 10 m. Native gold
is associated with arsenopyrite, pyrite and galena. The sulde amount
in the veins is generally no more than 3%. The same deposit types are
known along the northern ank of Kular district (Emelyanovskoye,
Kyllakh, Emis) (Fridovsky, 2002; Nokleberg et al., 2005; Parfenov and
Kuzmin, 2001). Similar deposits from the Yana-Kolyma belt
(Zhdannoye, Svetloye) are represented by veins (Zhdannoye) at low
angle to bedding or parallel to the strike of the sedimentary rocks
(Svetloye) (Goryachev, 1995, 1998; Nokleberg et al., 2005; Parfenov
and Kuzmin, 2001).
The Agnie-Afanasievskoye goldquartz vein deposit is in the northern
ank of the Sikhote-Alin fold belt, from which more than 11 t of gold
from low-sulde quartz veins have been recovered.
Many discordant goldquartz veins are also known in different gold
districts. These veins (for example, the Igumenovskoye deposit in
131
Verkhoyansk passive margin (Goryachev, 1995, 1998)) lled subsidiary

faults and are related to late orogenic ssures.
The Tokur and Badran gold-bearing quartz veins are good examples
of thrust-related vein deposits. The goldquartz veins of the Tokur
deposit (Upper Amur belt) are localized in a large thrust zone (Fig. 9).
Early Cretaceous post-ore diorite porphyry stocks and dikes cut the
veins, with some redistribution of gold into secondary ore shoots
(Eirish et al., 2002).
The main goldquartz vein of the Badran deposit (Verkoyansk passive margin) is hosted in the thrust zones (Fig. 10; Fridovsky, 2002;
Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001), with very high-grade gold shoots (up to
2001000 g/t Au). These deposits are characterized by high grades
(up to 2550 g/t Au), but have small resources (less than 30 t of
gold). Quartz is the main gangue mineral (typically more than 90%). Alteration minerals (about 13%) comprise albite, sericite, chlorite, calcite
and Fedolomite. Arsenopyrite and pyrite (up to 5%), small and rare
grains of galena, sphalerite, tetrahedrite and native gold are also present
(Goryachev, 1995, 1998; Khanchuk, 2006; Moiseenko and Eirish, 1996;
Nokleberg et al., 2005; Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001).
Similar deposits, but of smaller size, occur in the Yana-Kolyma belt
(Vetrenskoye, Kellyam) (Mikhalitsyna, 2011; Nokleberg et al., 2005;
Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001) and in the Sikhote-Alin orogen (Glukhoye)
(Eirish, 2003; Khanchuk and Ivanov, 1999).
The Glukhoye gold deposit is in the central-southern part of the
Sikhote-Alin orogen (Fig. 3) (Eirish, 2003; Khanchuk and Ivanov,
1999). The host rocks are ysch sediments of Early Cretaceous age,
which are folded into an anticline. Gold-bearing shear zones are localized in the central portion of the anticline, closely related to the large
north-south trending Kuleshov fault (Fig. 11). This fault is a branch of
the Central Sikhote-Alin sinistral strike-slip fault. The main ore body is
more than 1000 m long, with an average thickness of 19 m. Drill holes
indicate that this ore body extends to a depth of at least 400 m. Gold
grades range from 1.56 to 3.8 g/t. The ore bodies are mainly represented
by suldequartz veinlets forming linear stockworks in intensively
folded and altered (quartzsericite)carbonaceous (up to 1% C) shale,
with pyrrhotite, pyrite and arsenopyrite disseminations (212%
volume). Pyrite contains 1036 ppm Au, and arsenopyrite contains
50160 ppm Au (Eirish, 2003). According to Eirish (2003), about 50%
of the gold is native, with less than 0.1 mm grain size and a neness
of 508 to 943. Chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, tetrahedrite, stibnite,
and scheelite are rare ore minerals.
The Utinka (Utinskoye) deposit is a good example of intrusion (dike)hosted deposit. Deposits of this sub-type occur mostly in the YanaKolyma belt (Shkolnoye, Dorozhnoye, Novaya, Srednekan, Arik,
Tungus), but are less common in the Arctic and Koryak districts
(Ozernoye, Aliskerovo, Nutekin) (Goryachev, 1998; Khanchuk, 2006;
Nokleberg et al., 2005; Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001; Volkov et al.,
2006). At Utinka, the main ore body is in the diorite-porphyry dike
No. 7. Quartzalbitearsenopyrite veinlets form a stockwork in the
hosting dike (Fig. 12). This sub-vertical dike is more than 4 km long,
12 m thick and was traced to a depth of at least 500 m. Gold grades
are 45 g/t, but individual ore shoots have grades of more than 50
100 g/t. Past production is about 12 t of gold, with a current resource
of about 10 t. Native gold (880980 neness) is associated with coarse
grains of arsenopyrite, galena, jensenite, boulanjerite and tetrahedrite
(Gamyanin et al., 2003). The age of the dike is 150 3 Ma (UPb
SHRIMP data) (Akinin et al., 2009), whereas the ArAr age of mineralization is 138126 Ma (Newberry et al., 2000).
Another example of a similar system is the Shkolnoye deposit. Here,
goldsilverquartz veins cut through diorite and granodiorite rocks of
the Burgagyn stock (about 4 km2), UPb dated at 150 Ma (Khanchuk,
2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005). High grade gold (about 50 g/t) ore veins
are associated with quartzsericite alteration haloes in the host intrusion. The E-W-trending ore body No. 1 is 400 m long, 1 m thick and
600 m deep. This deposit is now mined out with past production of
about 20 t of gold.
132
Fig. 8. Geology of Yur gold deposit (Goryachev, 1995, 1998) with concordant goldquartz veins (A) and regional position of goldquartz veins in Carboniferous sediments in longitudinal
projection (B).
Fig. 9. Geological map of the Tokur gold deposits (after Vasiliev et al., 2000).
133
Fig. 10. Thrust-controlled Badran orogenic gold deposit (Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001).
4.3. Intrusion (granitoid)-related Au lode type

The gold deposits of this type have a good exploration potential in
FER. However, only three are currently economically signicant. They
are the Berezitovoye and Kirovskoye deposits in east of the Mongol

Okhotsk belt and the Askold deposit in the south of the Sikhote-Alin
belt. Gold deposits of this type differ from other deposits because: (1)
they have a close spatial and temporal relationship with I- and S-types
Fig. 11. Glukhoye gold deposit (modied after Khanchuk and Ivanov, 1999).
134
by quartz stockwork-like veins and veinlet zones in quartzmuscovite

tourmalinegarnet-altered granitoids. These high grade gold ores
contain diverse amounts of suldes (pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, and
typical PbBi-sulphosalts, PbBi- and Bi-sulphotellurides and native
gold) (Stepanov et al., 2008; Vakh et al., 2011). Metamorphosed dikes intruded between the early and late stages, whereas spessartite and
diorite-porphyry dikes are part of a post-ore event (Stepanov et al.,
2008; Vakh et al., 2008). The ArAr age data suggest that rst ore stage
occurred at 132131 Ma, and the second, at 125 Ma (Ponomarchuk
et al., 2012). The RbSr age of Khaikta pluton and related granite porphyry dikes is 133126 Ma (Stepanov et al., 2008).
The Kirovskoye deposit consists of auriferous quartz veins, hosted
in late Mesozoic granodiorite pluton and Paleozoic and Mesozoic
metamorphic and terrigeneous rocks, mostly along the Mongol
Okhotsk suture (Fig. 14). Fifty ve ore veins were mined since the
1880s with about 9.65 t of gold recovered (Sukhov et al., 2000).
The ore bodies are 0.1 to 1.52 m thick, 50 to 600 m long, and extending
to a depth of more than 200 m. The ores also contained up to 1.6% Bi and
As, 0.9% Cu, 0.4% W, and locally Zn, Pb, Ni (Eirish, 2002). The main ore
minerals comprise arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, bismuhtite, Bi and Cu
sulphosalts, Bi-tellurides and sulpho-tellurides, tennantitetetrahedrite,
native Bi and Au (920940 neness), and stibnite (Gvozdev et al., 2011).
The Askold deposit is situated on an island of the same name in South
Primorie. This deposit has been known since 1886 and has produced
about 2 t of gold (Sukhov et al., 2000). Very narrow (up to 1.5 cm
thick) high grade (usually more than 100 g/t Au) quartz veinlets form
a linear stockwork along a fault zone in greisenized early Late Cretaceous granite, and sericite-altered Paleozoic to Mesozoic metamorphic,
volcanic, and sedimentary rocks of the late Mesozoic Askold graniticmetamorphic dome (core complex) (Goryachev, 1995; Nokleberg
et al., 2005). The average grade is 5.97.6 g/t Au (Nokleberg et al.,
2005). The ore minerals include pyrite, chalcopyrite, bismuthinite, native Bi and Au, Bi-sulfo-tellurides and arsenopyrite.
Many occurrences of this type are also known in the Yana-Kolyma
(Chistoye, Malysh-Dubach, Ergelyak), Allakh-Yun (Levo-Dybinskoye),
Chukotka (Palyangai), Kular (Novoe, Solur) and Lower Amur (Verkhne
Oemku, Bolotisty) districts (Gamyanin et al., 2000a; Goryachev, 1995;
Goryachev and Edwards, 1999; Goryachev and Yakubchuk, 2008;
Khanchuk, 2006; Lotina, 2011; Nokleberg et al., 2005; Parfenov and
Kuzmin, 2001).
Fig. 12. Dike-hosted Utinka gold deposit (Goryachev, 1998; Nokleberg et al., 2005). Regional location (A) and local cross sections (B).
granitoids, (2) the native gold constantly associates with a variety of bismuth minerals (native bismuth, bismuthinite, maldonite, Bi-tellurides
and sulfotellurides, and Bi-sulfosalts) (Gamyanin et al., 2000a,b;
Goryachev and Gamyanin, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005). An internationally well-known example of this deposit type is Fort Knox (Alaska,
USA) (Bakke, 1995; McCoy et al., 1997; Nokleberg et al., 2005).
The Berezitovoye deposit is hosted in granodiorite of the Khaikta
Orogzhan pluton. The average gold grade in the ores is 3.3 g/t, and
gold metal reserve is estimated at 42.3 t. Other interesting features of
these ores are the presence of Zn (0.97%), Pb (0.92%), and Ag
(14.83 g/t) (Sukhov et al., 2000), and at least two mineralization stages.
This pluton is located in the apical portion of the large late Mesozoic
Khaikta granite batholith (Fig. 13), with KAr and ArAr ages of 134
132 Ma (Ponomarchuk et al., 2012; Sorokin et al., 2008; Stepanov
et al., 2008). The Berezitovoye ore eld also includes the orogenic
Khaikta and Trubny gold quartz veins and the Orogzhan intrusionrelated occurrences. The main ore body of the Berezitovoye mine is
lens-like (Fig. 13). The rst stage formed disseminated low-grade gold
with pyrite + galena + sphalerite and massive ores, accompanied by
quartzsericite alteration in explosive breccias in the host rocks
(Stepanov et al., 2008; Vakh et al., 2008). The second stage is represented
4.4. AuAg epithermal deposits

Continental margin arc and island arc terranes host epithermal
goldsilver deposits. In FER, these deposits are typically of lowsuldation type and have historically produced about 550 t of gold
and several thousand tons of silver. The largest epithermal goldsilver
deposits in FER are Kubaka, Kuranakh, Kupol, with a total production
of about 330 t of Au. The famous Dukat deposit is a silver-dominant
epithermal system, with small amount of gold (30 t; Konstantinov
et al., 1998).
The Kubaka deposit is a Paleozoic epithermal deposit. It is hosted in
felsic volcanic rocks of the Devonian-age Kedon volcanic belt, overlying
the Precambrian Omolon terrane. It was the rst deposit discovered in
this area, and many papers have been published on this deposit
(Khanchuk, 2006; Moiseenko and Eirish, 1996; Nokleberg et al., 2005;
Savva et al., 2007; Sidorov and Goryachev, 1994; Stepanov and
Shishakova, 1994; Sukhov et al., 2000). The past production of gold is
90 t. The Kedon volcanic belt also contains two medium-size
epithermal deposits of Olcha (Savva and Shakhtyrov, 2011) and
Birkachan. Steep-dipping (Fig. 15) 12 m thick adulariaquartz sheeted
veins at Kubalka can be grouped into three ore zones with a total length
of about 2 km (Stepanov and Shishakova, 1994). The host rocks are
Middle and Upper Devonian agglomerate tuffs, ignimbrites, and rhyolitedacite and andesitedacite sills. Chlorite, sericite, hydromica, and
quartz are the main alteration minerals. Post-ore dolerite dikes are of
135
Fig. 13. Berezitovoye gold deposit: regional position (A) and local geology (B) (modied from Avchenko et al., 2010).
Carboniferous and late Mesozoic age. Isochron RbSr ages of the ores
range from 340 to 334 Ma. Besides adularia and quartz, the ores contain
calcite, uorite, barite and 0.5% ore minerals (with dominant electrum,
native gold, acanthite, hessite, pyrite and lesser quantities of arsenopyrite, galena, and sphalerite). The AuAg ratio is 1:1.
The Kupol epithermal deposit is in the Chukotka district (Fig. 3).
This deposit is located in the southern ank of a large volcanic structure, in the northern part of the late Cretaceous OkhotskChukotka
volcanic belt (Fig. 3). Its tectonic setting has been compared to that
of the San Juan deposit in Colorado (Belyi et al., 2007). The main
ore body is north-south-trending and is characterized by a vein of
quartzchalcedony with calcite and adularia, with a thickness ranging
from 1.5 to 20 m and lengths of up to 2.4 km. It dips east at 7590,
down to 350 m. The average grade is 20 g/t Au with a AgAu ratio
12:1 (Golden and Thompson, 2011). The past production was 90 t of
gold, with current estimated resources of about 100 t of gold. Host
136
Fig. 14. Kirovskoye intrusion-related gold deposit (modied after Vasiliev at al., 2000).
rocks are Late Cretaceous (84 Ma) ash and lapilli tuffs and andesitic lava
ows. Post-ore rhyolite dikes (81 Ma) cut through the andesite
sequence. Hydrothermal alteration consists of quartzillitepyrite,
quartzillite, illite, chloritecalciteepidote (distal) (Golden and
Thompson, 2011). The ore minerals are native gold, electrum, gold selenides, Agsulphosalts (pyrargyrite, stephanite, freibergite, tetrahedrite),
and acanthite in association with pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, sphalerite
and chalcopyrite. The amount of ore minerals is less than 4%.
The Kuranakh deposit is an unusual epithermal jasperoidal deposit in

the Aldan district (Rodionov et al., 2005). It is characterized by large ore
bodies hosted along the contact of Lower Cambrian carbonate (mostly
dolomites) and Jurassic rocks, outside the volcanic area, but in close association with northerly-trending Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous
lamprophyre and syenite dikes and small diatremes of alkaline trachyte
(Fig. 16; Maksimov et al., 2010). The past production is 240 t of gold,
with remaining reserves of not more than 50 t of gold. The ore bodies
Fig. 15. Position of Kubaka deposit in Devonian volcanic rocks (adapted from Stepanov et al., 1989).
137
of 725900, with grain size of up to 0.10.3 mm (Konstantinov et al.,

2002). The average grade is 57 g/t Au.
Other medium-size deposits (Pokrovskoye, Khakandzha,
Mnogovershinnoye, Aginskoye, Ametistovoye, Asachinskoye, Julietta,
Valunistoye, Karamken) and small size (Prasolovskoye, Belaya Gora)
epithermal deposits are scattered in the late Mesozoic to Cenozoic
volcanic arcs of FER.
4.5. AuSbHg lode deposits
Fig. 16. Kuranakh epithermal gold deposit (adapted from Maksimov et al., 2010).
have ribbon-like shapes (Fig. 17). The adulariaquartz ne-grained mineralization (7590%) includes up to 510 to 60% pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite (12%), galena, chalcopyrite, native gold and gold-tellurides.
This is the primary mineralization, which occurs as fragments of different
size in strongly oxidized secondary ores. The sub-horizontal ore bodies
are 25 km long, 50800 m wide, and 1020 m thick (Moiseenko and
Eirish, 1996). The main gold mineralization event is of supergene origin,
associated with Fe-hydroxides. The average size of the gold grains is
0.0006 mm with a neness of 900923. The primary gold has a neness
Fig. 17. Cross section of a typical ore body of the Kuranakh deposit (adapted after
Maksimov et al., 2010).
These are multiphase lode deposits, which can be partly orogenic

and partly post-orogenic. They can be divided into two subtypes: Au
SbHg (Kyuchus) and AuSb (Sarylakh and Sentachan), both hosted
in terrigeneous rocks.
The Kyuchus deposit is located in the eastern ank of the Kular
district and the horst-anticlinorium of the same name. The gold reserve is 246 t with an average grade of 8.7 g/t Au (Benevolsky,
1995; Sukhov et al., 2000). The gold ores also contain 0.4% Sb,
0.024% Hg, and 1.5% As. Host rocks are Upper Triassic interbedded
siltstones, black shales and sandstones (Berzon et al., 1999). The
ore body consists of several sub-parallel sulde-mineralized shear
zones, along a subsidiary fault zone to a regional strike-slip northsouth trending YanaDulgalakh fault (Nokleberg et al., 2005;
Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001). This fault controls the regional distribution of Late Cretaceous Hg and Sb deposits in this sector of the
Verkhoyansk deformed passive continental margin. The ore zone extends for 3.8 km in a northeast-southwest direction and is up to 15 m
thick. The central parts of the mineralized shear zones are characterized
by quartzstibnite replacement veins with haloes of jasperoidal and
dickitehydromicaFedolomite and sericite alteration. All mineralized
rocks host disseminated aggregates of gold-bearing pyrite and arsenopyrite. The gold content of pyrite is up to 6070 ppm, and in arsenopyrite it
is up to 400500 ppm. The quartzstibnite veins also contain native
mercury and gold, gold amalgam, cinnabar, orpiment, metacinnabar, realgar, tetrahedrite, chalcostibite, bournonite and jamsonite (Parfenov
and Kuzmin, 2001).
The Sarylakh AuSb deposit has been known since 1966. It is located in the Indigirka part of the Yana-Kolyma district. The ore reserves are 115,602 t of Sb, and 14 t of Au, grading 20.89% Sb and
10.4 g/t Au (Sukhov et al., 2000). The past production accounts for
13 t of Au and 105,000 t of Sb. Originally, it was a large (500 m
long, 2 m thick and 665 m deep) quartzstibnite vein within the
Rudny fault zone, which is part of the regional Adycha-Taryn
strike-slip fault (Berger, 1979; Indolev et al., 1980; Parfenov and
Kuzmin, 2001; Sukhov et al., 2000). During the latest exploration
works, seven smaller ore veins have been identied in the Rudny
fault zone (Amuzinsky et al., 2001). Host rocks are siltstone and
shale of Upper Triassic age. The deposit is spatially associated with
an Early Cretaceous (130115 Ma) diorite stock and Jurassic (155
148 Ma) rhyolite dikes (Amuzinsky et al., 2001). This area also
hosts the recently discovered and potentially large Malotarynskoye
gold deposit.
The Sentachan deposit is located 345 km north-west of the Sarylakh
deposit and also within the Adycha-Taryn fault. The host rocks are the
same as in the Sarylakh deposit (Amuzinsky et al., 2001; Berger, 1979;
Indolev et al., 1980). Three ore bodies (No. 1, 2, and 2a) contain
133,022 t of Sb, and 21.8 t of Au (Sukhov et al., 2000). The No. 2 orebody
accounts for 96% of the total reserve. Gold grade is 51.5 g/t, and Sb grade
is 3040% (Sukhov et al., 2000). The ore bodies are up to 210 m long, 0.2
to 8 m thick and extend to a depth of 550 m. The past production is
about 4000 t of Sb and 2 t of Au (Sukhov et al., 2000).
The ores of Sarylakh and Sentachan deposits have a similar mineral composition (Amuzinsky et al., 2001). Main sulde and gangue
minerals (more than 10%) are quartz and stibnite in veins (dolomite
and pyrite are up 1 to 10%), with an alteration halo consisting of
quartz, dolomite and sericite (pyrite and arsenopyrite), dickite,
138
Table 2
Age data of gold deposits in Far East Russia.
Deposit
Mineral
Data, Ma
Method
Belt
Type
References
Kubaka
Olcha
Svetloye
Ryzhyi
Chepak
Malysh-Dubach
Netchen Khaya
Chistoye
Transportnoye
Daryal-2
Surmyanaya
Yugler
Shturmovskoye
Dorozhnoye
Natalka
Shkolnoye
Degdekan
Nagornoye
Malo-arynskoye
Pavlik
Goltsovoye
Nadezhda
Vetrenskoye
Sarylakh
Kyuchus
Myakit
Teutedzhak
Nezhdaninskoye (Au)
Nezhdaninskoye (Ag)
Julietta
Talanakh
Pilnen
Levo-Dybin
Zaderzhnoye
Tuguchak
Mayskoye
Karalveem
Kirovskoye
Berezitovoye
Bamskoye
Kuranakh
Malomyr
Pokrovskoye
Tokur
Nyavlenga
Arylakh
Porozhistoye
Irbychan
Evenskoye
Kegali
Karamken
Oira
Khalali
Teply
Valunistoye
Dalnegorsk
Krinichnoye
Askold
Mnogovershinnoye
Milogradovskoye
Hydromica
Adularia
Sericite
Muscovite
Muscovite
Muscovite
Muscovite
Muscovite + quartz
Muscovite
Muscovite
Sericite
Sericite
Muscovite
Muscovite
Sericite
Muscovite
Sericite
Sericite
Sericite
Sericite
Sericite
Sricite
Sericite
Hydromica
Altered rocks
Muscovite
Muscovite + tourmaline
Sericite
335330
255265
130 reset 150 max
148
146
147
146
140
140
140
139.5
138
134.4139.2
136
135.2
135.2
133137
135
130
N110
128.2
126.5
125
124115
122
141
103
119118.4
98.295.2
136
126
126
124.8
123.5
124.2
110113
104123
131126
131.2 and 125.3
129
136.2
132
129
122
93.7
86
83
82.5
80.4
79.9
78.9
76.1
73
72
71.8
115
88
79
7060
70.4
RbSr
KAr
ArAr
ArAr
ArAr
ArAr
ArAr
KAr
ArAr
ArAr
ArAr
ArAr
ArAr
ArAr
KAr
KAr
ArAr
KAr
ArAr
OM
OM
YaK
YaK
YaK
YaK
YaK
YaK
YaK
YaK
Yak
YaK
YaK
YaK
YaK
YaK
Yak
YaK
YaK
Yak
YaK
Yak
YaK
YaK
Yak
OKR
OKR
OKR
EP
EP
OSH
IR
IR
IR
IR
IR
OIH
OIH
OIH
OIH
OIH
OIH
OSH
OIH
OIH
OSH
OSH
OSH
OSH
OIH
OSH
AuSb
AuSb
IR
IR
OSH
RbSr
Ar
Ar
ArAr
ArAr
ArAr
KAr
KAr
RbSr
ArAr
RbSr
ArAr
ArAr
RbSr
ArAr
ArAr
RbSr
ArAr
ArAr
AAr
ArAr
ArAr
ArAr
RbSr
RbSr
ArAr
RbSr
KAr
ArAr
KAr
UPb SHRIMP
OKR
OKR
OKR
OKR
OKR
OCH
OCH
OCH
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
OCVB
OCVB
OCVB
OCVB
OCVB
OCVB
OCVB
OCVB
OCVB
OCVB
OCVB
SA
SA
SA
ESA
ESA
EP
IR
IR
IR
OSH
IR
OSH
OIH
IR
IR
OSH
EP
OSH
EP
OSH
EP
EP
IR
EP
EP
EP
EP
EP
IR
EP
EP
OSH
IR
IR
EP
EP
Stepanov et al. (1998)

Pokazaniev (1976)
Voroshin et al. (2004)
Newberry et al. (2000)
Goryachev (2005)
Ibid
Akinin et al. (2003)
Akimov (2004)
Akimov (2004)
Indolev et al. (1980); Berger, 1979
Berzon et al. (1999)
Goryachev (2005)1
Chugaev et al. (2010);
Borisenko et al. (2012)
Struzhkov et al. (1994)
Kondratieva et al. (2010)
Volkov and Sidorov (2001)
Davidenko (1975)
Moiseenko et al. (1999)
Ponomarchuk et al. (2012)
Buchko et al. (2011)
Adularia
Sericite
Sericite
Muscovite
Sericite
Muscovite
Altered rocks
Muscovite
Sericite
Sericite
Altered rocks
Adularia
Adularia
Hydromica
sericite
Adularia
Adularia
Adularia
Adularia
Adularia
Altered rock
Hydromica
Adularia
Carbon rich shear zones
Muscovite
Sericite
Adularia
Altered rock
ArAr
ArAr
ArAr
ArAr
ArAr
KAr
KAr
Layer et al. (2001)

Layer et al. (2001)
Layer et al. (2001)
Layer et al. (2001)
Layer et al. (2001)
Layer et al. (2001)
Layer et al. (2001)
Tomson et al. (2001)
Sayadyan (2004)
Layer et al. (2001)
Khanchuk (2006)
Alenicheva and Sakhno (2008)
Types: IRintrusion related, EPepithermal, OSHorogenic sediment-hosted, OIHorogenic intrusion-hosted.
stibnite and hydromica minerals. Native gold, arsenopyrite, calcite

and white mica are present in the ore veins. Less common ore minerals include: berthierite, chalcostibite, native antimony, sphalerite,
aurostibite and Pbsulfosalts (Amuzinsky et al., 2001). Very unusual
native aluminum and chrome have been identied at the deeper
levels of the Sarylakh deposit (Amuzinsky et al., 2001). The ore
was formed in three stages, consisting of: (1) polysuldecarbonatequartz, (2) quartzstibnite and (3) stibnitecarbonatequartz
(Amuzinsky et al., 2001). However, it must be emphasized that
other investigators proposed a two-stage formation model for the
ores: (1) goldquartz and (2) stibnite with gold remobilization
(e.g., Indolev et al., 1980). Also contradictory is the age of ores.

One group of researchers proposed an Early Cretaceous age based
on KAr dating of hydromica, yielding 145, 124, 115 Ma (Sarylakh)
and 116 Ma (Sentachan) (Berger, 1979). Another group proposed
a Late Cretaceous age based on latest structural position of AuSb ores
independent from orogenic tectonic deformation and a single younger
KAr age of 8090 Ma (Amuzinsky et al., 2001; Goryachev and
Edwards, 1999; Indolev et al., 1980; Nokleberg et al., 2005; Parfenov
and Kuzmin, 2001). We further discuss the age and geodynamic setting
of the Kyuchus, Sarylakh and Sentachan deposits in the metallogeny
section of this contribution.
5. Gold metallogeny
As noted above, the major gold belts and districts in FER do cluster in
three age groups (Table 2): (1) Paleozoic: Omolon district of early
Paleozoic mesothermal and middle Paleozoic epithermal deposits, and
late Paleozoic LaoelinGrodekov belt in South Primorie; (2) Late
Mesozoic belts: Yana-Kolyma, Arctic, OkhotskKoryak, Okhotsk
Chukotka, MongolOkhotsk, West Sikhote-Alin, and East Sikhote-Alin;
and (3) Cenozoic: Sakhalin, KamchatkaKurile (Fig. 3). All these gold
districts and gold belts are described in many publications (Buryak,
2003; Goldfarb et al., 1998; Khanchuk, 2006; Moiseenko and Eirish,
1996; Nokleberg et al., 2005; Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001; Sukhov
et al., 2000). Some are described in more detail (Petrenko, 1999;
Goryachev, 1998; Eirish, 2002, 2003; Buryak et al., 2002; Struzhkov
and Konstantinov, 2005; Volkov et al., 2006). Many publications have
been devoted to gold metallogeny (Buryak et al., 2001; Goncharov,
1983; Konstantinov et al., 1992; Vasiliev et al., 2000). Data from these
publications, integrated with the rst author's eld observations on several deposits in the Yana-Kolyma, OloyChukotka, OkhotskKoryak,
MongolOkhotsk, West Sikhote-Alin, and Kamchatka, were used to distinguish some general characteristics of the gold metallogeny in these
belts.
5.1. Gold mineralization of pre-Mesozoic metallogenic epochs
We do not have reliable information about Precambrian gold deposits within the belts being considered in this review. The early Proterozoic Pinegin gold deposit is the only one known in the Aldan shield to
the west of the Aldan gold district (Smelov and Timofeev, 2005). The Archean rocks of the Omolon and Okhotsk terranes host small gold occurrences of uncertain age, suggested by some authors as Precambrian
(Shevchenko, 2006). Other investigators have proposed an early Paleozoic age, based on the relationships between early Paleozoic granitoids
and small early Paleozoic mesothermal goldquartz veins of the Noddy
prospect in the Omolon district (Goryachev and Egorov, 2001;
Nokleberg et al., 2005). A middle to late Paleozoic age has been dened
for Kubaka (330340 Ma) and Olcha (older than 255 Ma) epithermal
deposits (Pokazaniev, 1976; Savva and Shakhtyrov, 2011; Stepanov
and Shishakova, 1994). These are all low-suldation deposits, formed
139
during activity in the Kedon continental margin (Nokleberg et al.,

2005). A late Paleozoic age (270255 Ma) is assigned to small
epithermal occurrences in the LaoelinGrodekovo magmatic arc in the
present-day South Primorie area (Alenicheva and Sakhno, 2008;
Nokleberg et al., 2005). A late Paleozoic age is also assigned to several
gold occurrences in the Argun terrane (Buchko and Sorokin, 2005).
These occurrences are spatially and temporally associated with
subduction-related high-Na granitoids and felsic volcanic rocks, and it
is possible that these two areas represent fragments of a formerly single
late Paleozoic metallogenic belt.
5.2. Late Mesozoic gold metallogeny
The largest gold metallogenic belts in FER were formed during the
late Mesozoic. These gold belts were developed in the Late Jurassic
(Yana-Kolyma), Early Cretaceous (MongolOkhotsk, Arctic, Okhotsk
Koryak) and the Late Cretaceous (Sikhote-Alin), contemporaneous
with the tectonic events in the corresponding orogens. These orogens
can be divided into four types (Goryachev, 2010; Khanchuk, 2006;
Khanchuk and Ivanov, 1999; Nokleberg et al., 2000, 2005): (1) collisional
(Yana-Kolyma), (2) accretionary or incomplete collisional (Arctic,
OkhotskKoryak), (3) combined collisionaltransform margin
(MongolOkhotsk), and (4) active transform margin (SikhoteAlin). The rst two are typical for FER, whereas the third and fourth
types are known only in its southern part. The Late Cretaceous
OkhotskChukotka and East Sikhote-Alin gold belts are associated
with active continental magmatic arcs, which are post-accretionary
(post-orogenic) relative to the main deformational events.
The Yana-Kolyma, Arctic and OkhotskKoryak gold belts were formed
during three stages of Mesozoic orogenic events (Goldfarb et al., 2014).
The rst stage is the main one and occurred at 150136 Ma (based on
UPb and ArAr age data) during which the Yana-Kolyma orogenic
gold belt was established (Fig. 18). Fold and thrust structures are accompanied by regional greenschist and amphibolite facies metamorphism
and the intrusion of S- and I-type ilmenite series granitoids with Au,
Sn and W mineral systems (Goryachev and Berdnikov, 2006;
Goncharov et al., 1995; Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005). This
was a time when large gold deposits, such as Natalka, Pavlik, and
Degdekan were formed. Perhaps, the goldquartz sheeted veins of the
Fig. 18. Yana-Kolyma gold belt (Goryachev, 1998).
140
Fig. 19. Chukotka gold belt (Goryachev, 1998).
Allakh-Yun district (Yur, Duet and others deposits) originated during

this stage as well and may have been synchronous with the development of epithermal gold deposits (Julietta) in the Uda-Murgal arc.
The second stage occurred between 140 Ma and 105 Ma, when the
OkhotskKoryak orogenic belt was developed. This resulted in the formation of the Uda-Murgal magmatic arc, thrust and strike-slip deformation, accompanied by dioritegranite intrusions of I-type ilmenite and
magnetite series and, more rarely, A-type intrusions, with Mo, Sn, W,
Au, Co mineral systems in the Allakh-Yun belt and Okhotsk cratonic terrane. The main phase of this orogeny occurred between 130 Ma and
115 Ma (Goryachev, 2005, 2010), resulting in the formation of several
orogenic gold deposits in the Yana-Kolyma belt, namely Vetrenskoye,
Shkolnoye, Darial, and Nagornoye (Table 2), synchronous with strikeslip movements along earlier large thrusts. We propose that the Au
Sb deposits (including Sarylakh and Sentachan) were formed during
this stage too, because they are controlled by strike-slip faults
reactivated in this time, and the ores have KAr ages ranging from 128
to 116 Ma (Table 2) (Goldfarb et al., 2014). But deformation, metamorphic and igneous events of this stage also occurred in the Allakh-Yun
district. The ArAr ages of orogenic deformation, I-type granitoid
magmatism of ilmenite series and local metamorphism in the axial
part of the Allakh-Yun fold belt are the same as the 125119 Ma KAr
ages (Borisenko et al., 2012; Goryachev, 1998, 2003; Goryachev and
Goncharov, 1995; Layer et al., 2001; Prokopiev et al., 2006). The largest
Fig. 20. Kular gold area on the western ank of the OloyChukotka orogenic belt (Goryachev, 1998).
141
Fig. 21. Distribution of orogenic gold deposits in the MongolOkhotsk orogen (tectonic base modied after Zonenshain et al., 1990).
orogenic gold deposit of this belt is Nezhdaninskoye, which was formed

at this time, together with other orogenic gold deposits, such as
Zaderzhnoye, Voskhod and Lazurnoye (Goryachev, 1995, 1998;
Kondratieva et al., 2010). Small intrusion-related gold occurrences
(Levo-Dybin, Kurum) were also emplaced between 125 and 115 Ma
(Borisenko et al., 2012; Goryachev, 1998). Similar deposits in the northern Priokhotie area were formed at 120103 Ma (Teutedzhak,
Vetvistyi), during the late stages of this orogeny (Goryachev, 2005).
The third stage affected the northern part of FER and resulted in the
formation of the OloyChukotka orogen, associated with several orogenic gold deposits. This orogen consists of four segments (from west to
east): Kular, Ulakhan-Tas, Anyui-Chukotka and Chaun-Chukotka
(Fig. 19). It extends as far as Alaska to the east (Goryachev et al.,
2007) and is characterized by several Early Cretaceous granitemetamorphic domes (core complexes), which are more or less aligned
along a northwest-southeast trend. Some of the eroded core complexes
control the position of orogenic and intrusion-related gold deposits in
the Chukotka (Karalveem, Mayskoye, Sovinoye, Dor) and Kular areas
(Fig. 20). The main axis of this belt is a zone of thrusts, dividing the orogenic belt into northern and southern parts. The northern upper part
constitutes an accreted shelf and island-arc terranes, in which orogenic
and intrusion-related gold deposits, as well as tin and tungsten deposits,
are present in the eastern and central segments. The southern part is a
collage of island arc terranes, hosting porphyry copper (Peschanka,
Innakh) and small epithermal goldsilver deposits (Polevaya,
Vesenneye), whereas in Kular is the deformed shelf terrane of the
Verkhoyansk passive continental margin, hosting numerous orogenic
goldquartz veins. Unlike the linear distribution of gold deposits in
Yana-Kolyma belt, mineral systems in the OkhotskKoryak and Arctic
belts form a series of en-echelon clusters.
The MongolOkhotsk gold belt extends between the Siberian craton
and the Central Asian orogenic belt from Mongolia in the west to the
Okhotsk Sea in the east (Fig. 21). The geodynamic setting of this belt is
interpreted here as a combination of two events: (1) Jurassic collision
and (2) Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous transform margin (Khanchuk,
2006). The eastern ank of this belt includes the main gold zone,
which is controlled by the MongolOkhotsk suture and a chain of late
Mesozoic granite-metamorphic core complexes. The age of metamorphism and of the granitoid plutons is 143128 Ma (ArAr dating)
(Khanchuk, 2006; Sorokin et al., 2006). It is interesting to note that
the gold deposits in the Aldan shield and Stanovoy Range (e.g.,
Bamskoye and Dess deposits) in the north have the same age and
general trend. Therefore, the style and spatial distribution of the

gold deposits in this belt is similar to those in the OkhotskKoryak
and OloyChukotka belts. Orogenic and intrusion-related gold
deposits are spatially and temporally associated with small- and
medium-size I-type granitoid plutons and dike swarms. The outstanding feature of this belt is the spatial association of not so large
and slightly younger (128122 Ma) volcanic structures (Sorokin
et al., 2008), which host small and medium-size epithermal AuAg
deposits (Pokrovskoye mine) (Khomich and Vlasov, 2004), as well
as small Sb and Hg deposits (Stepanov et al., 2008).
The West Sikhote-Alin gold belt forms a well dened area along the
Early Cretaceous active transform margin, characterized by giant
upright folds and strike-slip faults (Khanchuk, 1994, 2001, 2006). The
distribution of gold deposits is controlled by the above-mentioned
structures. These deposits are typical orogenic (mostly auriferous quartz
veins) in the northern part of the belt (Agnie-Afanasievskoye, Oemku,
Albazino) and intrusion (granitoid)-related AuBi occurrences and deposits, forming several clusters in the central and southern parts of the
belt (Verkhne-Oemku, Bolotistoye, Malinovoye, Glukhoye, Krinichnoye,
Askold). The host rocks are Paleozoic and Mesozoic volcanic and
terrigeneous sediments of accretionary wedge terranes, gabbrodiorite
and high-Na granitoid plutons of ilmenite and magnetite series (Eirish,
2003; Khanchuk, 2006).
The Andean-type Late Cretaceous OkhotskChukotka and East
Sikhote-Alin gold belts form a giant arc-like structure along an active
continental margin with magmatic arcs that extend from East Chukotka
to South Primorie. The polyphase AlbianCampanian OkhotskChukotka
continental magmatic arc (Akinin and Miller, 2011) extends for more
than 3000 km from East Chukotka in the north to the Uda River in the
south. This volcanic belt contains many calderas of different size and
subvolcanic intrusions with local uplifts, in which several epithermal
AuAg deposits are spatially and temporally related to the felsic volcanism and sub-volcanic granitoids. All these deposits are hosted in
altered (sericite, illite, smectite, kaolinite) volcanic rocks, controlled by
radial and ring-like faults, in the central or peripheral parts of such
volcanic structures. The age of these deposits varies from 90 to 70 Ma
(Layer et al., 1997). The deposits include Dukat (Ag), Utro (AgSb),
Arman, Mechta (AgPbZn), Tigrets (SnAg), in the central and southern sectors, and AgSb, SnAg, SbHg (Plamennoye) deposits, in
ChukotkaBering sector (Nokleberg et al., 2005). Nokleberg et al.
(2005) and Nokleberg (2010) named this belt a giant Eastern AsiaArctic
metallogenic belt, occupying a back-arc position in Northeast Asia. But
142
according to Goryachev et al. (2010), the gold deposits formed at this

time are concentrated in the OkhotskChukotka volcanic belt. The gold
ores belong to the low-suldation epithermal systems and consist of
quartzadularia veins with 15% of ore minerals (pyrite, acanthite, Ag
sulfosalts, electrum, and rare AgAu selenides and Ag tellurides) hosted
in altered felsic volcanic rocks.
The Late CenomanianMaastrichtian East Sikhote-Alin belt extends for
more than 1600 km along the coast of the Japan Sea, from Amur River
mouth, in the north, to Kievka Bay, in the south (Khanchuk, 2006;
Nokleberg et al., 2005). This belt includes several epithermal goldsilver
(Mnogovershinnoye, Belaya Gora, Milogradovskoye, Progress) and silver
(Tayozhnoye) deposits, leadzinc skarn deposits (Dalnegorsk area), porphyry copper (Lazurnoye, Nochnoye, Verkhnezolotoye) and tin
(Yantarnoye) deposits (Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005). In this
metallogenic belt are included all the AuAg deposits from several districts, such as Sergeevka, Kema, Mnogovershinnoye (Nokleberg et al.,
2005), because all these mineral systems have similar ores, associated
with subduction-related magmatism and timing of formation (Table 2).
5.3. Cenozoic gold metallogenic belts

Cenozoic metallogenic belts are related to the formation of the
East SakhalinKamchatka orogen and its KamchatkaKurile magmatic arc (Figs. 2 and 3). The main tectonic event in the Sakhalin
area took place in Late Eocene times (Khanchuk, 2006), during
which small orogenic gold occurrences were formed in the Langery
area of Sakhalin Island. Mesothermal scheelite-bearing goldquartz
veins are hosted in amphibolites, schists, migmatites and small concordant granitic bodies (Buryak et al., 2002; Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg
et al., 2005). They were interpreted as part of Eocene graniticmetamorphic domes (core complexes). Similar small occurrences are
known in Sredinny Kamchatka Range (Tumannoye) (Nokleberg et al.,
2005). The Late Oligocene to Quaternary KamchatkaKurile magmatic
arc is a host to several medium- (Ametiystovoye, Aginskoye,
Ozernovskoye) to small-size epithermal AuAg deposits (Asachinskoye,
Baranievskoye, Mutnovskoye and Rodnikovoye in Kamchatka;
Prasolovskoye and Aion in the Kurile Islands) (Khanchuk, 2006;
Kurinnaya et al., 2011; Liessman and Okrugin, 1994; Nokleberg, 2010;
Nokleberg et al., 2005; Okrugin and Zelensky, 2004; Petrenko, 1999;
Sukhov et al., 2000; Takahasi et al., 2001). KAr dating shows that
these deposits were formed in three main pulses: 41.138.3 Ma;
21.413.9 Ma; and 8.90.3 Ma (V.M. Okrugin, pers. comm., 2010) and
are associated with basaltandesitedacite volcanic sequences and
small diorite and granodiorite plutons. The amount of ore minerals in
the ore veins is less than 5%. The main ore minerals are pyrite, sphalerite, galena, tennantitetetrahedrite, Sb- and As-sulfosalts, Hg minerals,
tellurides, and others. Apart from native gold and electrum, the ores
also include AuAg selenides and tellurides. The ore reserves of these
deposits vary from 20 to 60 t of contained gold metal, with average
grades of 7 to 20 g/t Au (Sukhov et al., 2000). Small AuAg deposits
(Prasolovskoye) in the Kurile Islands are hosted in Miocene green
tuffs and Late Miocene plagiogranite and diorite bodies and Pliocene
volcano-plutonic settings (Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005).
Quite unusual for island arc metallogeny, these mineral systems are
characterized by AuSn (Miocene) and AuTe (Pliocene) mineralization (Nokleberg et al., 2005).
6. Discussion
The review of gold deposit types, related geodynamic settings and
relationships with magmatic and metamorphic processes, integrated
with published isotopic and uid inclusion data, constitute the basis
for this discussion about the origin of the gold in orogenic belts and
continental magmatic arcs.
Fig. 22. Age data histograms for orogenic granitoids and gold ores of Yana-Kolyma (YKGB)
and OkhotskKoryak (OKGB) gold belts (compiled after Akinin et al., 2009; Goryachev,
1998; Newberry et al., 2000; Voroshin et al., 2004). Gold deposit types: SH sedimenthosted, IH intrusion-hosted, IR intrusion-related.
6.1. Orogenic gold deposits

The orogenic gold deposits share common features such as tectonic
setting and uid inclusion characteristics.
6.1.1. Tectonic settings
Orogenic gold deposits are controlled by thrust fault zones (Badran
in Yana-Kolyma, Tokur in MongolOkhotsk) or subsidiary faults to
main tectonic sutures (MongolOkhotsk and Sikhote-Alin orogens). A
good example is the Omchak gold district, hosting the Natalka deposit,
where three stages have been recognized: (1) long-lived sedimentary
basin history with primary accumulation of carbon and gold in shelffacies volcano-clastic sediments; (2) short-lived early compressional
Quartz, arsenopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite,

sericite, slbite, Fedolomite and calcite
Quartz, arsenopyrite, lollingite pyrrhotite,

sericite siderite and calcite
OIRD
OSHDorogenic sediment-hosted deposits; OIHDorogenic intrusion-hosted deposits; OIRDorogenic intrusion-related deposits.
Invisible Au in lollingite and arsenopyrite. Native Au in

quartz and in BiTeS minerals. Fineness is 7001000
AuAsSbPb (BiWAg)
sulfosalts with
up to 57% Bi
AuBiTeAsW (Cu, Mo, Sb)
Bi minerals with
up to 57% Sb or Pb
Up 1 to 10%.
Average 5%
Gold position
OIHD
Galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite,

boulangerite, jamsonite,
Bisulfosalts (lillianite, kobellite)
Bi-tellurides and sulphotellurides, native Bi,
maldonite, bismuthite, Bisulfosalts, nickelite,
cobaltite, gersdorte
From 1 to 60.
Average not more 10%
AuAsSbPb (W)
Geochemical composition
Amount of sulde minerals
Less than 3%
Galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite,
boulangerite, stibnite, gersdorfte
Typical minerals
Major minerals
Quartz, arsenopyrite, pyrite, sericite,

albite, Fe-dolomite and calcite
Types
OSHD
Table 3
Mineralogical and geochemical data of orogenic Au lodes.
Native Au in quartz and in sulfosalt paragenesis. Fineness is

600950 with up to 5 g/t Bi. Invisible Au in pyrite and
arsenopyrite
Native gold in quartz and in sulfosalt mineral paragenesis.
Fineness is 600900 with up to 5100 g/t Bi.
143
tectonics and metamorphic uid activity; and (3) short-lived late orogenic extension and magmatic uid activity (Golub et al., 2008;
Goryachev et al., 2008). The last two stages include the proposed direct
supply of ore components from an underplated layered magma chamber and mobilization of these components due to processes of dehydration and decarbonation of host rocks during regional metamorphism
(Goryachev et al., 2008).
The commonly observed auriferous sheeted quartz veins, located in
the deformed Verkhoyansk passive margin (Allakh-Yun and Kular
areas), are interpreted as early orogenic in a collisional geodynamic
setting. These veins were formed during folding, possibly pre-thrust,
and concurrent with regional metamorphic processes. Another
structural-morphological type of veins was formed in relation to thrust
and strike-slip movements during late orogenic stages, which are postmetamorphic. This model is supported by dating of these veins. The
rst group of veins yielded ages of 170150 Ma (RbSr mineral isochron on carbonates; Nenashev, 1979), pre-dating the collisional Sgranites in the Yana-Kolyma belt (Akinin et al., 2009), which are
older than Early Cretaceous accretion-related metamorphism and
granitoid intrusions of the OkhotskKoryak orogenic event (Borisenko
et al., 2012). The second group of veins was formed after the intrusion
of collisional granites (Fig. 22) and as such they marked a time of
cooling of all orogenic structures. The age difference is more than
15 m.y. In other instances, the formation of orogenic gold deposits
took place in orogenic belts, controlled by strike-slip movements (MongolOkhotsk and Sikhote-Alin). The age difference is less than 10 m.y.
(Fig. 22).
Worthy of note is the connection between orogenic gold deposits
and granite-metamorphic domes (metamorphic core complexes) in
the Arctic and MongolOkhotsk orogens. The structural position of
these domes is not fully understood, because deformed greenschist
and amphibolite facies metamorphic rocks in the Arctic orogen cut undeformed granitic intrusions and are therefore slightly younger (Katkov
et al., 2007). This is in contradiction with the previously proposed extensional geodynamic setting (Miller et al., 2009), because these
domes do not show typical detachment structures (Katkov, 2010). We
believe that these domes are the result of orogenic events, formed during a change from collision to strike-slip movements.
The common spatial and temporal association of intrusion (granitoid)-related gold deposits with orogenic granitoid plutons or in the
thermally metamorphosed rocks (hornfels) above the cupolas (apical
part of a pluton). The ore deposits of this type in FER were formed as a
result of tectono-thermal events and must be distinguished as an orogenic sub-type. Similarly, the ore composition of intrusion-related deposits (Khalali, Kukhtui) at active continental margin magmatic arc
differs from this sub-type in the absence of W-bearing minerals and
tourmaline, which are typical in FER.
The comparison between orogenic sediment-hosted, intrusionhosted and intrusion-related deposits shows many differences along
with some similarities in terms of mineralogical and geochemical features (Table 3). Sediment-hosted and intrusion-hosted orogenic gold
deposits are characterized by close correlation of gold with sulfosalts
and arsenopyrite, and of small and moderate bismuth content with native gold, respectively. The ore body styles include veins, veinlets in
shear zones and disseminations (sediment-hosted) and mineralized
dikes, 1 to 2530 m thick, or mineralized stocks in altered granitoids
(intrusion-hosted). For both ores types, typical alteration (albite,
sericite, paragonite, suldes, quartz) occurs around the ore bodies.
Many intrusion-related deposits exhibit wall rock alteration haloes, including skarn (Kandidat deposit in the Oloy-Chukotka belt)), greisen
and sericite (Myakit, Teutedzhak, Levo-Dybin in OkhotskKoryak belt;
Ergelyak, Chistoe in the Yana-Kolyma orogen, Kirovskoye, Berezitovoye
in the MongolOkhotsk orogen; Verkhne-Oemku, Krinichnoye in the
Sikhote-Alin belt); quartz, chlorite, tourmaline, epidote and feldspar
(e.g. Teutedzhak). The alteration haloes also include disseminated
pyrite, arsenopyrite and lollingite. The altered rocks reveal gold grades
144
ranging from 0.5 to 3.0 g/t. Spatial links between intrusion-related and
intrusion-hosted gold lodes are in the localization of the mineralization
in the apical portion of I- and S-type granitoid plutons, dikes, and stocks.
It is interesting that uid inclusions in quartz of gold-bearing granites
from the Yana-Kolyma and OkhotskKoryak belts have high contents
of CO2 and H2O, and also NaCl with CH4 and N2 admixtures; the salinity
of secondary inclusions is more than 12% NaCl equivalent (Goryachev
and Berdnikov, 2006). These data correspond to the uid composition
and concentration in gold-bearing quartz (Gamyanin et al., 2003,
2011; Goryachev, 2003; Struzhkov et al., 2008) and support links
between sediment-hosted, intrusion-hosted and intrusion-related
deposit types.
6.1.2. Fluid inclusions
Fluid inclusion studies (Bortnikov et al., 2010; Gamyanin et al., 2011;
Goryachev et al., 2008; Struzhkov et al., 2008) carried out on orogenic
and intrusion-related gold deposits show that uid concentrations in
the intrusion-related gold deposits are higher than uid concentrations
of orogenic quartz veins (Table 4). Orogenic gold ores formed at
250350 C and 1.12.4 kb (interval of gold deposition) as a result of
phase separation under conditions of decreasing P and T, according to
the REE patterns of altered rocks and gold-bearing quartz veins and
uid inclusions of orogenic sediment-hosted, intrusion-hosted and
intrusion-related deposits (Bortnikov et al., 2010; Struzhkov et al.,
2008; Volkov et al., 2011; Goryachev et al., 2008; Bortnikov and
Goryachev, 2010). The parental uids of the early and late mineral assemblages were probably derived from a homogeneous magmatic
source and were characterized by 18OH2O = + 6.3 to + 8.8 at
350 C and + 3.6 to + 5.9 at 280 C, respectively (Table 5)
(Bortnikov et al., 2004; Goryachev et al., 2008; Struzhkov et al., 2008),
and by very heavy oxygen isotope systematics for sheeted veins, as in
the Duet deposit (Konstantinov et al., 2002). Intrusion (granitoid)-related deposits were formed in a temperature range of 400 to 250 C and
within a wide range of pressures (0.22.5 kb). The uids originated
from magma chambers of the plutons, according to 18OH2O data
(Gamyanin et al., 2000a,b; Struzhkov et al., 2008). The composition of
ore minerals (arsenopyrite, CoNi-arsenides and sulfoarsenides and Bitellurides and sulfotellurides) (Gamyanin, 2001; Goryachev and
Gamyanin, 2006) is in agreement with the uid inclusion data (wide

range of pressure = 0.012.4; Gamyanin et al., 2011; Prokoev et al.,
2011; Struzhkov et al., 2008).
6.2. Epithermal gold deposits
The epithermal gold deposits occur in two different geodynamic
settings: (1) island arc magmatic belts (KamchatkaKurile belt, preaccretionary epithermal deposits in OloyChukotka belt) and active
continental margin magmatic arcs (Omolon area, Okhotsk
Chukotka and Eastern Sikhote-Alin belts), and (2) rift-related
deprressions, linked with orogenic belts and general strike-slip kinematics, such as transform-like active continent margin settings
(Aldan area and Pokrovskoye deposit in the MongolOkhotsk
orogen). The epithermal deposits of the second group exhibit
many varieties, such as jasperoid-like low-angle (stratabound? or
manto-like) ore body morphologies, pyrite dominant and goldtelluride ores, and low amounts of Ag-sulfosalts. These deposits
(Aldan area especially) are similar to the epithermal gold deposits
of the Basin-and-Range province, such as Cripple Creek in Colorado (USA). Fluid inclusion data are not so representative (Table 3).
The epithermal gold ores formed at temperatures of between 150
and 350 C and pressures of between 0.01 and 0.12 kb, from very
low salinity uids, with phase separation and boiling under conditions of decreasing T and P. The stable isotope data show good evidence about mixing between magmatic and meteoric water
(Table 5). Some cases, such as the ore uids of the Kuranakh deposit, show evidence of dominant meteoric water (Konstantinov
et al., 2002).
6.3. Lead isotope systematics
Lead isotope signatures in galena, pyrite and arsenopyrite from orogenic, intrusion-related, and epithermal gold deposits show different
ranges for each gold belt and seem to be independent of ore types
(Fig. 23). The late Mesozoic gold deposits from Precambrian terranes
and continental blocks reveal very low-radiogenic lead isotope composition (deposits in the Omolon and Stanovoy terranes), which, for the
Table 4
Fluid inclusion data.
Deposit
type
Belt
Homogenization
temperatures, C
Pressure,
Kbar
Concentration,
NaCl eq.%
Deposits
References
OSHD
YKB
380165
0.41.6
311
OIHD
OSHD
YKB
OCB
450150
430119
1.32.5
0.21.2
3.710.7
0.710.1
Gamyanin et al. (2003); Akimov (2004);

Goryachev et al. (2008); Struzhkov et al. (2008)
Volkov et al. (2006)
Bortnikov et al. (2004); Volkov et al. (2006);
OSHD
OIHD
AuSb OSHD
OKB
OKB
YKB
368189
387129
380100
0.32.3
0.41.9
0.88.3
1.29.6
12.5
Utinskoye, Natalka, Taryn, Badran,

Degdekan, Yugler, Khakhchan,
Krokhalinoye, Srednekan, Berezitovoye
Sypuchee, Karalveem, Sovinoye
Maiskoye
Nezhdaninskoye, Zaderzhnoye
Shkolnoye
Sarylakh, Sentachan, Kyuchus
IRD
YKB
380184
12.5
OCB
OKB
382281
550160
0.010.36
0.22,4
1.210.3
2.245.9
OCVB
OM
540120
300100
0.010.2
26
1.411.2
OKB
AD
MOB
OCVB
380100
250125
140125
430100
0.020.12
About 3
0.45.3
ESAB
KKIB
12090
300100
0.010.1
low
0.29.2
ED
4.746
Malysh-Dubach, Delyuvialnoye,
Chuguluk, Ergelyakh
Tuguchak
Pauk, Teutedjak, Chumysh, Kurum,
Levo-Dybin, Arkachan, Butarnoye
Khalali, Porozhistoye
Birkachan, Kubaka
Julietta
Kuranakh
Pokrovskoye
Karamken, Dalnee, Dukat,
Lunnoye, Arylakh, Teply
Belaya Gora
Asachinskoye
Gamyanin et al. (2007); Kondratieva et al. (2010)

Volkov et al. (2011)
Bortnikov et al. (2010);
Berzon et al. (1999)
Struzhkov et al. (2008);
Gamyanin et al. (2011)
Gamyanin et al. (2011)
Struzhkov et al. (2008); Gamyanin et al. (2011);
Prokoev et al. (2011)
Struzhkov and Konstantinov (2005)
Konstantinov et al. (2002); Stepanov and
Shishakova (1994)
Konstantinov et al. (2002)
Kravtsova (2010);
Mishin and Berdnikov (2004)
Borovikov et al. (2008)
OSHDorogenic sediment-hosted deposits; OIHDorogenic intrusion-hosted deposits; IRDintrusion-related deposits; YKBYana-Kolyma belt; OKBOkhotskKoryak belt; OCB
OkhotskChukotka belt; ADAldan area; MOBMongolOkhotsk belt; OCVBOkhotskChukotka magmatic arc; ESABEast Sikhote-Alin magmatic arc; KKIBKamchatka Kurile Islands arc.
145
Table 5
18O data for uids from gold deposits.
Deposit
Mineral
Thom average
18
18
18
References
Birkachan (ED)
Teply (ED)
Dukat-1 (ED)
Dukat-2 (ED)
Lunny (ED)
Arylakh (ED)
Jullietta (ED)
Kuranakh (ED)
Quartz
Kfspar
Kfspar
Kfspar
Kfspar
Kfspar
Kfspar
Quartz
Kaolinite
Kfspar
Quartz
6.27.7
6.410.0
6.911.1
3.49.3
2.57.8
3.08.4
2.6
6.38.1
11.0
11.5
0.65.8
7.3
12.5
12.4
9.3
11.9
10.4
9.2
2.8
3.2
11.7
8.9
Nezhdaninskoye (OSHD)
Duet, Yur, Nekur (OSHD)
Quartz
Quartz
6.37.7
10.313.9
11.115.3
7.213.1
8.314.6
9.113.8
9.2
2.1..3.7
3.2
10.713.2
6.411.6
6.3 8.8
3.6 5.9
8.01.0
3.84.3
4.75.5
7.19.2

Belaya Gora (ED)

Khalali (IRGD)
Natalka (OSHD)
190150
340
350
370
280
290
170
230
150
100
280
350
280
300
320350
150
320350
O Quartz,
5.015.2
9.811.2
6.715.7
14.216.1
O Fluid,
O Fluid average
2.5
8.1
Mishin and Berdnikov (2004)

Goryachev et al. (2008)
Gamyanin et al. (2000a)
Buryak et al. (1990);
EDEpithermal deposit; IRGDIntrusion-related gold deposit; OSHDorogenic sediment-hosted deposits.
FER orogenic and continental margin magmatic belts, are quite uniform
and plot within a narrow range (Fig. 23). These data provide evidence
for a large input of a lower crustal source into the gold deposits of this
region. In the MongolOkhotsk belt, a signicant contribution of mantle
source is suggested.
6.4. Genetic model for the orogenic gold deposits of Far East Russia
The data on isotopic-geochemical, thermometric, barometric and
mineralogicalgeochemical characteristics of mineral deposits serve as
a basis for researchers to create a model of gold mineralization in the
Fig. 23. Lead isotope data for orogenic gold deposits from main gold belts of the Russian Far East and Alaska (after Avchenko et al., 2013; Dril et al., 2012; Goryachev et al., 2000; Ostapenko
and Moiseenko, 2004; Stepanov et al., 2008). Fields of pictures according to Zartman (1974).
146
Fig. 24. A plutonicmetamorphic ore genesis model for orogenic gold deposits (modied after Goryachev, 2003), showing (A) early stage and (B) late stage (middle stage not shown; see
text for details).
orogenic belts (Goryachev, 2006). We propose that the geochemical

differences in orogenic granitoids are due both to distinct levels of
partial melts and heterogeneous nature of the country rocks, as indicated by: (1) occurence of compositionally different xenoliths
hosted by S- (mostly gneiss) and I- (mostly amphibolites) type granites; (2) differences in initial Sr ratio (0.70400.7120); (3) position
in basement blocks that have different densities, according to geophysical data (Mikhailov and Goryachev, 2000; Goryachev, 2003).
The fact that S- and I-type granites have similar uid phase compositions (Goryachev and Berdnikov, 2006) indicates a genetic link between crystallization products that formed at different depths in
the regional plutonicmetamorphic system of the Yana-Kolyma
collisional orogen. Two main stages were rst envisaged by

Goryachev (2003). However, based on the data provided in Table 2
(and references therein), we suggest that it is more likely that
three stages were involved as follows:
(1) The rst stage is early orogenic and it is marked by Barrovian
metamorphism, ductile deformation and metamorphic reactions
in sedimentary and igneous lithologies. This is time of incipient
growth of graniticmetamorphic dome (core complexes), the
stage of metamorphic uid originating from progressive
devolatilization of volatile-bearing (OH, CO2, SO2) minerals
(Pirajno, 2009; Zhang et al., 2013) and of partial melting of the
lower crust. Orogenic goldquartz veins and goldsulde

disseminated ores form during this early orogenic stage. The
nal part of this stage is responsible for the change from ductile
to brittle deformation and thrust faulting;
(2) The second stage is characterized by the emplacement of orogenic
granitic intrusions and formation of intrusion-related gold
deposits;
(3) The third stage is the time of granite-metamorphic dome (core
complexes) completion and emplacement of collisional granitic
intrusions. The strike-slip structures are predominant during
this late orogenic stage. The interacting metamorphic and
magmatic-hydrothermal uids, sourced from cooling plutons,
are associated with the late orogenic auriferous quartz veins,
shear zone-associated and intrusion-related gold deposits. The
rst and third stages are illustrated in Fig. 24.
147
2008). Early orogenic gold deposits and late orogenic antimony deposits
are found in the Yana-Kolyma belt. Mesothermal orogenic gold deposits
in the Yana-Kolyma belt are associated with tin-tungsten and molybdenum deposits. The antimony and mercury lode deposits formed later
and are related to the second orogenic or post-orogenic (Hg) stage.
The gold lode deposits of MongolOkhotsk and Yana-Kolyma orogenic
belts have dissimilar bismuth and antimony mineral parageneses for
different deposit types. Collisional orogens are characterized by an
AuSnW metal association. The accretionary orogens generally feature
a AuSnCuMo association (suggesting a dominant crustal source),
whereas transform continental margin orogenic belts typically have a
AuMoSbHg association (suggesting a dominant mantle source).
These metallogenic differences help in constraining the geodynamic
conditions and evolutionary trends of the FER orogens.
7. Conclusions
6.4.1. Geodynamic and metallogenic styles of orogenic belts

Comparison of orogenic gold deposit features from different orogens
shows a gold-specic metallogeny for the late Mesozoic orogens on the
southern and eastern margins of the Siberian craton (Yana-Kolyma,
OkhotskKoryak and MongolOkhotsk transform margin) (Goryachev,
2010). These belts have different metal associations. The Yana-Kolyma
orogen contains Au, Sn, W, CuPbZn lode deposits. The Transbaikalian
sector of the MongolOkhotsk orogen contains Au, Mo, PbZn, Sn, Ta
Nb, W, HgSb lode deposits, whereas Early Cretaceous Au, CuMo,
HgSb lode deposits are present in the Amur sector of the latter. The
OkhotskKoryak accretionary orogen hosts Au, CuMo, CuWBi, Ag
CoBiAs, BeSnLiW deposits of Early Cretaceous age. Position of Au
and SbHg deposits is different in all these orogens. In the Mongol
Okhotsk orogen, these deposits were formed during a short time interval and are controlled by specic tectonic elements (Stepanov et al.,
FER was an exciting theater of early prospecting and exploration

since the midlate 1800s, although much less publicized than its western counterparts (e.g., North America, Australia, New Zealand). Its logistical and climatic conditions are probably more demanding. For this
reason and notwithstanding the previous publications, such as
Nokleberg (2010), which covered the wider part of North East Asia,
we feel that in some way this review, which specically deals with
FER, also honors and acknowledges the early prospectors and explorers
who have toiled in the years past in the harsh conditions of the local
terrains.
Here, we have presented a wide range of gold deposits, within the
tectonic framework of the vast FER region, which comprises orogens,
consisting of variably deformed passive continental margin sequences,
as well as continental margin volcanic and accreted island arcs. The
types of gold deposits in FER include orogenic, sedimentary-rockhosted, intrusion-related and intrusion-hosted systems, as well as
goldsilver and goldantimonymercury epithermal systems, typically
linked with island arc magmatism. The gold metallogeny of FER formed
during three major geological epochs: Paleozoic, late Mesozoic and
Cenozoic.
Mineralogical, geochemical and isotope data indicate a combination
of metamorphic and magmatichydrothermal origin in collisional settings (Yana-Kolyma, OkhotskKoryak, and OloyChukotka orogens)
and active continental margin settings (OkhotskChukotka and Eastern
Sikhote-Alin), with source contributions from the lower crust and mantle (Fig. 24). The MongolOkhotsk and Sikhote-Alin orogens are of
transform fault-related origin and indicate that the source of the oreforming uids is mostly from the mantle. These data provide evidence
of a combination of lower crust and mantle sources for formation of
most gold ore deposits in FER. The sialic basement has an important
role for the formation of orogenic gold intrusion (granitoid)-related
and intrusion-hosted lodes, in combination with tin and tungsten
deposits.
Epithermal precious metal mineral systems, on the other hand, are
intrinsically related to subduction regimes of island arcs and continental
margins or, more rarely, to rift-associated back-arc tectonic settings.
Lastly, we point out that the substantial contribution of gold production from alluvial placers in FER is effectively the result of the ongoing
progressive erosion by uvial drainage systems of the gold deposits, enhanced by permafrost environment, herein discussed (Fig. 25).
Acknowledgments
Fig. 25. (A) Extensive placer workings along the Tuora-Tas River in Yakutia; (B) nuggets
recovered from placer deposits (photo taken in Ust-Nera Geological Museum (Northeastern Yakutia, Russia).
We would like to thank the Editors of Ore Geology Reviews and Tim
Horscroft, for the invitation to prepare this review. Discussions and eld
trips with the rst author's colleagues, Alexandr Vakh and Vitaly
Gvozdev from the Far East Geological Institute and Viktor Okrugin
from the Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, provided useful information about gold deposits in Primorie, Amur region and Kamchatka.
148
We also extend our gratitude to the following colleagues, for their stimulating discussions which have assisted in the preparation of this work:
Richard Goldfarb, Alex Khanchuk, Gennady Gamyanin, Vladimir
Golozubov, and Vladimir Shpikerman. Alexander Yakubchuk handled
this manuscript as Associate Editor and is thanked for his insightful
comments, which resulted in considerable improvement of this contribution. This manuscript is part of IGCP-592 and supported by Far East
Branch of RAS Project 12-II-CO-08-30.
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ore Geology Reviews

Gold deposits and gold metallogeny of Far East Russia

N.A. Goryachev, F. Pirajno / Ore Geology Reviews 59 (2014) 123151

and many others). Several geological, genetic, geodynamic, petrologic,

N.A. Goryachev, F. Pirajno / Ore Geology Reviews 59 (2014) 123151

3. Tectonic framework of Far East Russia

Fig. 1. Main gold mining districts of Far East Russia.

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in volcano-clastic rocks. The types of ore deposits and associated

fragments of Paleozoic or older belts (Omolon and Khanka terranes)

3.1. Arctic (OloyChukotka) orogen

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of the MongolOkhotsk orogen span a very narrow time interval (about

AlinWest Sakhalin orogenic belt are pre-accretionary (PbZnCaF2,

3.5. Sikhote-AlinWest Sakhalin orogen

3.6. East SakhalinKamchatkaKurile orogen

This orogen, described as a transform continental margin by

This is an accretionary orogen formed in late Eocene times, with

N.A. Goryachev, F. Pirajno / Ore Geology Reviews 59 (2014) 123151

3.7. Uda-Murgal continental margin magmatic arc

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deposit is located in the Omchak goldeld (with 30 km2 of gold

N.A. Goryachev, F. Pirajno / Ore Geology Reviews 59 (2014) 123151

Verkhoyansk passive margin (Goryachev, 1995, 1998)) lled subsidiary

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4.3. Intrusion (granitoid)-related Au lode type

are the Berezitovoye and Kirovskoye deposits in east of the Mongol

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by quartz stockwork-like veins and veinlet zones in quartzmuscovite

4.4. AuAg epithermal deposits

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The Kuranakh deposit is an unusual epithermal jasperoidal deposit in

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of 725900, with grain size of up to 0.10.3 mm (Konstantinov et al.,

These are multiphase lode deposits, which can be partly orogenic

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Stepanov et al. (1998)

Layer et al. (2001)

Types: IRintrusion related, EPepithermal, OSHorogenic sediment-hosted, OIHorogenic intrusion-hosted.

stibnite and hydromica minerals. Native gold, arsenopyrite, calcite

(e.g., Indolev et al., 1980). Also contradictory is the age of ores.

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during activity in the Kedon continental margin (Nokleberg et al.,

Fig. 18. Yana-Kolyma gold belt (Goryachev, 1998).

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Fig. 19. Chukotka gold belt (Goryachev, 1998).

Allakh-Yun district (Yur, Duet and others deposits) originated during

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orogenic gold deposit of this belt is Nezhdaninskoye, which was formed

general trend. Therefore, the style and spatial distribution of the

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according to Goryachev et al. (2010), the gold deposits formed at this

5.3. Cenozoic gold metallogenic belts

6.1. Orogenic gold deposits

Quartz, arsenopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite,

Quartz, arsenopyrite, lollingite pyrrhotite,

OSHDorogenic sediment-hosted deposits; OIHDorogenic intrusion-hosted deposits; OIRDorogenic intrusion-related deposits.

Invisible Au in lollingite and arsenopyrite. Native Au in