BFT 40503

basil/uthm/2015

INTERSECTION CONTROL
An intersection is an area shared by two or more
roads.
Its main function is to allow the change of route
directions.
Intersections can be grade-separated or at-grade.
Several types of traffic control systems are used
to reduce traffic delays and crashes on at-grade
intersections, and to increase the capacity of
highways or streets.
Appropriate regulations must be enforced if these
systems are to be effective.

BFT 40503
ADVANCED TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Chapter 3: Intersection Signalisation

CONCEPTS OF TRAFFIC CONTROL

The purpose of traffic control is to assign the
right of way to drivers, and thus to facilitate
highway safety by ensuring the orderly and
predictable movement of all traffic on highways.
Control may be achieved by using traffic signals
signs, markings that regulate, guide, warn and/or
channel traffic.
To be effective, a traffic control device must:
1) Fulfill a need.
2) Command attention.
3) Convey a clear simple meaning.
4) Command respect of road users.
5) Give adequate time for proper response.

CONCEPTS OF TRAFFIC CONTROL

BDD/UTHM/HANDOUT3A

To ensure that a traffic control device possesses

these five properties, the following factors must
be considered:
Design

The device
should be
designed with a
combination of
size, colour and
shape that will
convey a
message and
command the
respect and
attention of the
driver.

Placement

Operation

The device
should be located
so that it is
within the cone
of vision of the
viewer and the
driver has
adequate
response time
when driving at
normal speed.

The device
should be used in
a manner that
ensures the
fulfilment of
traffic
requirements in
a consistent and
uniform way.
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CONCEPTS OF TRAFFIC CONTROL

TYPES OF INTERSECTION CONTROL

To ensure that a traffic control device possesses

these five properties, the following factors must
be considered:
Maintenance
The device must be
regularly
maintained to
ensure that
legibility is
sustained.

Uniformity
To facilitate the
recognition and
understanding of
these devices by
drivers, similar
devices should be
used at locations
with similar traffic
and geometric
characteristics.

YIELD SIGN CONTROL

All drivers on approaches with yield signs are
required to slow down and yield the right of way
to all conflicting vehicles at the intersection.
Stopping at yield sign is not mandatory, but
drivers are required to stop when necessary to
avoid interfering with a traffic stream that has
the right of way.
Yield signs are therefore placed on minor-road
approaches, where it is necessary to yield the
right of way to the major-road traffic.
This sign is warranted at intersections where
there is a separate or channelised left-turn lane
without an adequate acceleration lane.

STOP SIGN CONTROL

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The primary objective in the design of traffic

control system at an intersection is to reduce the
number of significant conflict points.
The methods selected for controlling conflicting
streams of vehicles at intersections depend on:
the type of intersection
the volume of traffic in each conflicting
streams
The two types of intersection control are:
(1) Yield signs
(2) Stop signs

A stop sign is used where an approaching vehicle

is required to stop before entering the
intersection.
Stop signs should be used only when they are
warranted, since the use of these signs results in
inconvenience to motorists.
Stops signs should not be used at signalised
intersections or on through roadways of
expressways.
The warrants for stop signs suggest that a stop
sign may be used:
1. On a minor road when it intersects a major
road

BFT 40503

STOP SIGN CONTROL

2.
3.

STOP SIGN CONTROL

At an unsignalised intersection.
Where a combination of high speed, restricted
view and serious crashes indicates the
necessity for such a control.

Multiway stop signs are used as a safety measure

at some intersections and are normally used
when the traffic volumes on all approaches are
approximately equal. When volumes are high,
the use of signals is recommended.
The warrants of multiway control specify that the
total intersection approach volume should not be
less than 500 veh/h for 8 hr of an average day,
nor should the combine volume of vehicles and
pedestrians from the minor approach be less than
200 units per hour for the same 8 hr. The average

Multiway stop signs require that all vehicles

approaching the intersection stop before entering
it.

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STOP SIGN CONTROL

STOP SIGN CONTROL

delay of the vehicles on the minor street also

should not be less than 30 sec per vehicle during
the maximum hour.
The minimum requirement for vehicular volume
can be reduced by 30% if the 85th percentile
approach speed on the major approach is > 40
mph (64.4 km/h)

Example 3.1
A minor road carrying 150 veh/h for 8 hr of an
average day crosses a major road carrying 320 veh/h
for the same 8 hr, forming a four-leg intersection.
Determine whether a multiway stop sign is justified at
this location if the following conditions exist:
The pedestrian volume from the minor street for the
same 8 hr as the traffic volumes is 70 ped/hr.
The average delay to minor-street vehicular traffic
during the maximum hours is 37 sec per vehicle.
The 85th percentile approach speed of the major
road is 43 mph.

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STOP SIGN CONTROL

STOP SIGN CONTROL

Solution
The warrant is that the total intersection volume
should not be less than 500 veh/h for 8 hr.

The warrant stipulates that average delay of vehicles

on the minor street should not be less than 30 sec per
vehicle during the maximum hour.

Total vehicular volume = 150 + 320 = 470 veh/h.

This is satisfied because the measured average delay

was 37 sec per vehicle.

But, since the 85th percentile speed > 40 mph, the

requirement can be reduced by 30%. The total
volume required now is not less than 350 veh/h.

The warrant also stipulates that the combined

vehicular and pedestrian traffic on the minor street
should not be less than 200 units per hour.

This satisfies the vehicular volume requirement.

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This is satisfied because the combined traffic is 150 +

70 = 220 units per hour.

TRAFFIC SIGNALS

WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

One of the most effective ways of controlling

traffic at an intersection is the use of traffic
signals.
The significant factors that determine the need
for traffic signals at a particular intersection are:

The Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices

(MUTCD) details 11 warrants, at least one of which
should be satisfied for an intersection to be signalised.

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8-hour vehicular volume

o Minimum vehicular volume
o Interruption of continuous traffic
o Combination of warrants
Minimum pedestrian volume
School crossing
Coordinated signal system
Crash experience
Roadway network
4-hour vehicular volume
Peak hour
o Peak hour delay
o Peak hour volume

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WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

1. Minimum Vehicle Volume

This warrant is applied when the principal factor
for considering signalisation is the traffic volume.
The warrant is satisfied when traffic volumes on
major streets and on higher-volume minor street
approaches for each of any 8hr of are at least
equal to the volumes in the Table 1.

Table 1: Volume requirements for Minimum

Vehicular Volumes Warrant
Number of Lanes for
Moving Traffic on
Each Approach

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Major
Street

Minor
Street

1
2
2
1

1
1
2
2

Vehicles per
hour on Major
Street (total of
both
approaches)

Vehicles per hour

on Higher Volume
Minor Street
Approach (one
direction)

500
600
600
500

150
150
200
200

Note: If posted, statutory or 85th percentile speed on the major street is > 40
mph (64.4 km/h) or if the intersection lies in an area with population
<10,000, 70% of the volumes shown may be used.

WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

2. Interruptions of Continuous Traffic

This warrant should be considered when traffic
on a minor street experiences excessive delay due
to heavy volume on the major street.
Heavy major street traffic may also make it
hazardous for minor-street traffic to enter or
cross the major street.
The warrant is satisfied when the traffic volume
on the major street and on the higher-volume
minor street approach for each of any 8 hr of an
average day is at least equal to the volumes in
Table 2.

Table 2: Minimum Vehicular Volumes for

Interruption of Continuous Traffic Warrant

BDD/UTHM/HANDOUT3A

Number of Lanes for

Moving Traffic on
Each Approach

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Major
Street

Minor
Street

1
2
2
1

1
1
2
2

Vehicles per
hour on Major
Street (total of
both
approaches)

Vehicles per hour

on Higher Volume
Minor Street
Approach (one
direction)

750
900
900
750

75
75
100
100

Note: If posted, statutory or 85th percentile speed on the major street is > 40
mph (64.4 km/h) or if the intersection lies in an area with population
<10,000, 70% of the volumes shown may be used.

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WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

3. Combination of Warrants
This warrant, in exceptional cases, justifies the
installation of signals when none of the above
warrants is satisfied but when the first two
warrants are satisfied to the extent of 80% of the
stipulated volumes, i.e. volumes given in Tables 1
and 2.

190 ped during any 1 hr, and there are fewer

than 60 gaps per hour that are acceptable by
pedestrians for crossing.
In addition, the nearest traffic signal along the
major street should be at least 300 ft (91.4 m)
away from the intersection.
When this warrant is used, the signal should be
the traffic-actuated type, with push buttons.

4. Minimum Pedestrian Volume

This warrant is satisfied when the pedestrian
volume crossing the major street on an average
day is at least 100 ped for each of any 4 hr, or

5. School Crossing
When an analysis of gap data at an established
school zone shows that the frequency of
occurrence of gaps and the lengths of gaps are

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WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

inadequate for safe crossing by schoolchildren,

this warrant is applied.
Traffic signals are warranted during the period
when schoolchildren are using the crossing the
no. of acceptable gaps is < 4, and there are at
least 20 students during the highest crossing
hour.
The signal used is pedestrian-actuated, and all
obstructions to view should be prohibited for at
least 100 ft (30.5 m) before and 20 ft (6 m) after
the crosswalk.

6. Coordinated Signal System

This warrant may justify the installation of
traffic lights at an intersection where lights
would not otherwise have been installed.
It justifies that such an installation will help
maintain a proper grouping of vehicles and
effectively regulate group speed.
This warrant is not applicable when the
resultant spacing of the traffic signal will be less
than 300 ft (91.4 m).
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WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

7. Crash Experience
This warrant justifies signalisation of an
intersection when crash frequency has not been
reduced by adequate trial of less restrictive
measures.
It stipulates that the use of traffic signals is
warranted at an intersection if 5 or more injury
or reportable property-damage-only crashes have
occurred within a 12-month period and that
signal control is a suitable countermeasure for
these crashes.
In addition, the traffic and pedestrian volumes

WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

should not be less than 80% of the requirements
specified in Warrants 1, 2 and 4.

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WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

9. Four-Hour Volume
This warrant is based on Figure 1.
When the plot for each of any 4 hr of an average
day falls above the standard graph, this warrant
is satisfied.

Maximum vehicular volume

Interruption of traffic
Combination of warrants
4-hr volume
Peak hour volume

(2) When the total existing or projected entering

volume is at least 1,000 vehicles for each of any
5-hr of a Saturday and/or a Sunday.

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WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

hour of a typical weekday, and the 5-year

projected traffic volumes, based on an
engineering study, satisfy the requirements of
the following warrants:

8. Roadway Network
This warrant justifies the installation of signals
at some intersections when such an installation
will help to encourage concentration and
organisation of traffic networks.
The warrant can be applied at intersections of
two or more major roads when:
(1) The total existing or immediately projected
entering volume is at least 1,000 during the peak

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BFT 40503

WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

Figure 1: Graphs for Four-Hour Volume Warrant

10. Peak-Hour Delay

This warrant is used to justify the installation of
traffic signals at intersections where traffic
conditions during 1 hr of the day result in undue
delay on the minor street.
The warrant is satisfied when the delay during
any four consecutive 15-min periods on one of the
minor-street approaches (one direction only)
controlled by a stop sign is equal to or greater
than specified levels and the same minor-street
approach (one direction only) volume and the
total intersection entering volume are equal to

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WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

or greater than the specified levels.

The specified delay is 4 vehicle-hours for a onelane approach and 5 vehicle-hours for a two-lane
approach.
The specified volumes are 100 veh/h for one
moving lane for intersections with four or more
approaches or 650 veh/h for intersections with
three approaches.

11. Peak-Hour Volume

This warrant is also used to justify the
installation of traffic signals at intersections
where traffic conditions during 1 hr of the day
result in undue delay on the minor street.
It is based on Figure 2.
When the plot for an average day lies above the
standard curve, this warrant is satisfied.

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BFT 40503

WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

Figure 2: Graphs for Peak-Hour Volume Warrant

Example 3.2
A two-lane minor street crosses a four-lane major
street. If the traffic conditions are as given below,
determine whether installing a traffic signal at this
intersection is warranted.
The traffic volumes for each of 8 hr of an average
day (both directions on major street) total 400
veh/h. For the higher-volume minor street (one
direction) the total is 100 veh/h.
The 85th percentile speed of major-street traffic is
43 mph (69.2 km/h).

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WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

The pedestrian volume crossing the major street

during an average day is 200 ped/hour during peak
pedestrian periods (2 hr in the morning, 2 hr in the
afternoon)
The number of acceptable gaps per hour in the
traffic stream for pedestrians to cross during peak
pedestrian periods is 62.
The nearest traffic signal is located 450 ft (137 m)
from this location.

Solution
Since vehicular and pedestrian volumes are known,
check the following warrants:
1. Minimum vehicle volume (Warrant 1)
2. Minimum pedestrian volume (Warrant 4)

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Min. volume requirements (two-lanes for major

street and one lane for minor street) from Table 1:
600 veh/h on major (total of both approaches)
150 veh/h on minor (one direction)
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BFT 40503

WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

Number of Lanes for
Moving Traffic on
Each Approach

Major
Street

Minor
Street

1
2
2
1

1
1
2
2

WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

Vehicles per
hour on Major
Street (total of
both
approaches)

Vehicles per hour

on Higher Volume
Minor Street
Approach (one
direction)

500
600
600
500

150
150
200
200

Since the 85th percentile speed is greater than 40

mph, the requirements can be reduced to 70%. Thus,
420 veh/h on major (total of both approaches)
105 veh/h on minor (one direction)

Unfortunately, the current traffic volumes do not meet

the minimum requirements, i.e.
400 < 420 veh/h on major
100 < 105 veh/h on minor
Therefore Warrant 1 is not satisfied.

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WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

A major disadvantage of fixed or pre-timed

signals is that they cannot adjust themselves to
handle fluctuating traffic volumes.
When fluctuation of traffic volumes warrants it, a
vehicle-actuated signal is used. These signals are
capable of adjusting themselves.
When actuated signals are used, vehicles arriving
at the intersection are detected by detectors,
which transmit this information to a controller
unit.
The controller then adjusts the phase lengths to
meet the requirements of prevailing traffic
conditions.

The number of available acceptable gaps is 62, which

satisfies the requirement.
The nearest traffic signal is located 450 ft, therefore it
satisfies the requirement.

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ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

Warrant 4 also mentions requirement for acceptable

gaps (i.e. minimum 60 gaps per hour) and location of
nearest traffic signal (i.e. minimum 300 ft)

Conclusion: A traffic signal is justified under Warrant 4

(minimum pedestrian volume). The signal should be
traffic-actuated type with push buttons for pedestrians.

Min. pedestrian volume requirements:

100 or more (each day of any 4 hr)
190 or more (any 1 hr)
The current pedestrian volume is 200 (4 hr peak
periods). Therefore Warrant 4 is satisfied.

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BFT 40503

ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

Actuated signals can be either:

(1) Semi-actuated
(2) Fully actuated

1. Semi-Actuated Signals
Semi-actuated signals are used when the major
stream flow is uniform and the minor stream
flow is low.
The detectors are placed only in the minor
stream flow.
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The semi-actuated signals are set as follows:

(1) The green signal on the major approach is
preset for a minimum period, but it will stay on
until the signal is actuated by a minor-street
vehicle.
(2) If the green signal on the major approach
has been on for a period equal to or greater than
the minimum, the signal will change to red in
response to the actuation of the minor-street
vehicle.
(3) The green signal on the minor stream will
then come on for at least a period equal to the

ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

minimum for this stream.

(4) The signal on the minor stream then
changes to red, and that on the major stream
changes to green.
If volume is high on the minor-street, the signal
will act as a pre-timed signal.

2. Fully Actuated Signals

Fully actuated signals are suitable for
intersections at which large fluctuations of traffic
volumes occur on all approaches during the day.
Maximum and minimum green times are set for
each approach.
The green time on one approach (say, north-south
direction) will stay on until the minimum green
time ends. If vehicles actuate the detectors on the
other approach (say, east-west direction), then a
red signal will come on for the north-south
approach. If there are no vehicles arriving on

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ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

the east-west approach, the north-south

approach will continue to experience green until
the maximum green time expires.
Traffic lights
Controller
Detector

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ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS

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