DIFFERENTIATION

1. DefinitionofDerivativeFunction
The derivative of the function (x) with respect to the variable x is the function f
whose value at x is
f ( x + h) f ( x )
f ( x) = lim
h 0
h
provided the limit exists.
We use the notation (x) rather than simply in the definition to emphasize the
independent variable x, which we are differentiating with respect to. The domain of f
is the set of points in the domain of for which the limit exists, and the domain may be
the same or smaller than the domain of . If f exists at a particular x, we say that is
differentiable (has a derivative) at x. If f exists at every point in the domain of , we
call differentiable. If we write z = x + h , then h = z x and h approaches 0 if and
only if z approaches x. Therefore, an equivalent definition of the derivative is as follows
(see Figure ).

Fig 10 The way we write the difference quotient for the derivative of a function
depends on how we label the points involved.

2. CalculatingDerivativesfromtheDefinition
The process of calculating a derivative is called differentiation. To emphasize the idea
that differentiation is an operation performed on a function y = f (x) , we use the
notation
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d
f (x)
dx
as another way to denote the derivative f (x) .

3. Notations
There are many ways to denote the derivative of a function y = f (x) where the
independent variable is x and the dependent variable is y. Some common alternative
notations for the derivative are
dy df
d
f ( x ) = y =
=
=
f ( x) = D ( f )( x ) = D x f ( x )
dx dx dx
The symbols d dx and D indicate the operation of differentiation and are called
differentiation operators. We read dy dx as the derivative of y with respect to x,
and df dx and ( d dx )(x) as the derivative of with respect to x. The prime
notations y and f come from notations that Newton used for derivatives. The d dx
notations are similar to those used by Leibniz.
To indicate the value of a derivative at a specified number x = a , we use the notation

f (a) =

dy
dx

=
x=a

df
dx

=
x=a

d
f ( x) .
dx
x=a

4. DifferentiableFunctionsAreContinuous
A function is continuous at every point where it has a derivative. If has a derivative at
x = c, then is continuous at x = c.

5. DifferentiationRules
(1) RULE 1 Derivative of a Constant Function
If has the constant value f ( x) = c then
df
d
= (c ) = 0 .
dx dx
(2) RULE 2 Power Rule for Positive Integers
If n is a positive integer, then
d n
x = nx n1 .
dx
(3) RULE 3 Constant Multiple Rule
If u is a differentiable function of x, and c is a constant, then
d
du
(cu ) = c .
dx
dx
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(4) RULE 4 Derivative Sum Rule

If u and y are differentiable functions of x, then their sum u + v is differentiable at
every point where u and y are both differentiable. At such points,
du dv
d
.
(u + v ) =
+
dx dx
dx
(5) RULE 5 Derivative Product Rule
If u and y are differentiable at x, then so is their product uy, and

d
dv
du
( uv ) = u
+v
.
dx
dx
dx
(6) RULE 6 Derivative Quotient Rule
If u and y are differentiable at x and if v( x) 0 , then the quotient u / v is
differentiable at x, and
du
dv
v u
d u
= dx 2 dx .
dx v
v
(7) RULE 7 Power Rule for Negative Integers
If n is a negative integer and x 0 then
d n
(x ) = nx n1 .
dx

6. SecondandHigherOrderDerivatives
If is y = f ( x) a differentiable function, then its derivative f ( x) is also a function. If
f is also differentiable, then we can differentiate f to get a new function of x denoted
by f . So f = ( f ) . The function f is called the second derivative of because it is
the derivative of the first derivative. Notationally,
d 2 y d dy dy
2
f ( x) = 2 = =
= y = D 2 ( f )( x) = Dx f ( x) .
dx dx dx
dx
2
The symbol D means the operation of differentiation is performed twice.

7. InstantaneousRatesofChange
If we interpret the difference quotient ( f ( x + h) f ( x)) / h as the average rate of change
in over the interval from x to x + h , we can interpret its limit as h 0 as the rate at
which is changing at the point x.
The instantaneous rate of change of with respect to x at x0 is the derivative
f ( x0 + h ) f ( x0 )
,
f ( x0 ) = lim
h 0
h
provided the limit exists.

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8. MotionAlongaLine:Displacement,Velocity,Speed,Acceleration,and
Jerk
Suppose that an object is moving along a coordinate line (say an s-axis) so that we know
its position s on that line as a function of time t:

s = f (t )
The displacement of the object over the time interval from t to t + t (Figure .) is
s = f (t + t ) f )t )
and the average velocity of the object over that time interval is

Fig 11 The positions of a body moving along a coordinate line at time t

and shortly later at time t + t .
To find the bodys velocity at the exact instant t, we take the limit of the average
velocity over the interval from t to t + t as t shrinks to zero. This limit is the
derivative of with respect to t.
8.1. DefinitionofVelocity
Velocity (instantaneous velocity) is the derivative of position with respect to time. If a
bodys position at time t is s = f (t ) , then the bodys velocity at time t is
ds
f (t + t ) f (t )
(t ) = = lim

0
dt
t
8.2. DefinitionofSpeed
Speed is the absolute value of velocity.
ds
Speed = (t ) =
dt

8.3. DefinitionofAccelerationandJerk
Acceleration is the derivative of velocity with respect to time. If a bodys position at
time t is s = f (t ) , then the bodys acceleration at time t is

d d 2 s
a(t ) =
=
.
dt dt 2
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Jerk is the derivative of acceleration with respect to time:

da d 3 s
j (t ) =
=
dt dt 3

9. DerivativesofTrigonometricFunctions
(1) The derivative of the sine function is the cosine function:
d
(sin x) = cos x
dx
(2) The derivative of the cosine function is the negative of the sine function:
d
(cos x) = sin x
dx
(3) Derivatives of the other trigonometric functions:
d

(tan x) = sec 2 x
dx
d

(sec x) = sec x tan x

dx
d

(cot x) = csc 2 x
dx
d

(csc x) = csc x cot x

dx

10. DerivativeofaCompositeFunction:TheChainRule
If (u) is differentiable at the point u = g ( x) and g ( x) is differentiable at x, then the
composite function ( f D g )( x) = f ( g ( x)) is differentiable at x, and
( f D g )( x) = f ( g ( x)) g ( x) .
In Leibnizs notation, if y = f (u ) and u = g ( x) , then
dy dy du
=

dx du dx
where dy / du is evaluated at u = g ( x) .

11. TheChainRulewithPowersofaFunction
If is a differentiable function of u and if u is a differentiable function of x, then
substituting y = f (u ) into the Chain Rule formula
dy dy du
=

dx du dx
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leads to the formula

du
d
f (u ) = f (u ) .
dx
dx
If u is a differentiable function of x, then we can use the Chain Rule to extend this to the
Power Chain Rule:
d n
du
.
u = nu n 1
dx
dx

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