Economic Geology

Vol. 96, 2001, pp. 773796

Hydrothermal Alteration and Hydrologic Evolution of the

Golden Cross Epithermal Au-Ag Deposit, New Zealand
MARK P. SIMPSON, JEFFREY L. MAUK,
Geology Department, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand
AND

STUART F. SIMMONS

Geothermal Institute and Geology Department, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand

Abstract
Golden Cross, located in the Coromandel peninsula, New Zealand, is a classic example of a volcanic rockhosted, low-sulfidation epithermal gold-silver deposit. Gold and silver ore is confined to the Empire vein system and shallow-level stockwork. The veins are hosted by Miocene to early Pliocene andesites and dacites of
the Waipupu Formation and the Waiharakeke Dacite that are unconformably overlain by the postore
Whakamoehau Andesite.
Hydrothermal alteration minerals display distinct spatial and temporal zonation around veins, as defined
along three cross sections (1,000 m long 450 m deep), located 200 m apart, which transect the Empire vein
system. Along these sections replacement quartz, chlorite, and pyrite are ubiquitous with the abundance of
quartz veinlets increasing toward major veins. Replacement adularia envelops the Empire vein system and
shallow stockwork in each section. It is coextensive with, and is variably replaced by, illite that progressively
grades upward and laterally into a zone of interstratified illite-smectite that mantles the deposit. Replacement
calcite and minor siderite formed contemporaneously with, and also overprint, the above minerals, whereas
late barren calcite veins crosscut mineralized quartz veins. Kaolinite pyrite veinlets, together with rare, very
local alunite, formed during late-stage hydrothermal activity.
Clay mineral zonation is well developed. Illite occurs at depth and close to the veins, grading outward and
upward into illite-smectite, with minor smectite occurring ~600 m east of the Empire vein system. This overall zonation reflects paleothermal gradients of ~150C on the periphery to >220C near the veins, consistent
with the observed Th range of 150 to 240C for fluid inclusions in quartz, platy calcite, and late barren calcite
veins. Final ice-melting temperatures for inclusions mostly range from 0.0 to 1.4C, corresponding to apparent salinities of less than 2.4 wt percent NaCl equiv. Ice-melting temperatures combined with vapor bubble expansion on crushing indicate the presence of dissolved CO2 in some platy calcite and late-stage barren
calcite. The CO2 content is estimated to range from 0.35 to 3.5 wt percent, with the lower limit set by fluid inclusion vapor expansion during crushing and the upper limit by the absence of any observable clathrates. Depth
estimates based on inclusions in platy calcite suggest that the shallow-level stockwork zone formed about 100
m below the paleowater table under hydrostatic conditions.
Veins and alteration minerals at Golden Cross formed in the shallow part (<400 m) of a hydrothermal system analogous to geothermal systems in the nearby Taupo Volcanic Zone. The assemblage of quartz, adularia,
chlorite, illite, calcite, and pyrite reflects the upflow of near-neutral pH to weakly alkaline chloride waters. Contemporaneously, steam-heated CO2-rich waters formed on the margins and reacted with the wall rock to form
the assemblage of calcite, siderite, smectite, illite-smectite, and kaolinite. Eventual thermal collapse and invasion of these peripheral CO2-rich waters into the former upflow zone produced late-stage barren calcite veins
and an overprint of clay-carbonate alteration minerals. At the same time, localized steam-heated acid-sulfate
waters, generated above the water table, descended to form the late overprint of kaolinite, pyrite, and alunite.

Introduction
LOW-SULFIDATION epithermal vein deposits are an important
source of precious metals and are characterized by distinct
zones of hydrothermal alteration minerals (e.g., Buchanan,
1981; Hayba et al., 1985; Heald et al., 1987; White et al.,
1995). Numerous studies of epithermal deposits have focused
on the occurrence, textures, paragenetic sequence, and formation of quartz veins and associated ore (e.g., Gemmel et
al., 1988; Dong et al., 1995; Shimizu et al., 1998). Relatively
few studies describe the hydrothermal alteration zones that
surround epithermal veins (e.g., Conrad et al., 1992; Simeone
and Simmons, 1998), though general summaries exist (Lindgren, 1933; Buchanan, 1981; White, 1981; Hayba et al., 1985;
Heald et al., 1987).

Corresponding author, e-mail: ma.simpson@auckland.ac.nz

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In this study, we describe how the distribution of hydrothermal alteration minerals relates to mineralized quartz
veins at Golden Cross, a volcanic-hosted low-sulfidation epithermal Au-Ag deposit located within the Coromandel
peninsula, New Zealand (Fig. 1).
An earlier investigation by de Ronde and Blattner (1988) described alteration from surface exposures and diamond drill
core along a single cross section (4850m N), obtained during exploration of the deposit. This study extends their work by documenting the occurrence, paragenetic relationships, and spatial
distribution of alteration minerals exposed by open-pit and underground mining along three cross sections (5050, 4850 and
4650m N), located 200 m apart, which transect the center and
periphery of the Empire vein system. This is complemented by
a fluid inclusion study of the major veins and peripheral veinlets.
Here, we compare the spatial and temporal distribution of

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SIMPSON ET AL.

176E

Auckland

1755E

Area shown
below

COROMANDEL
PENINSULA

38S

Tokatea

200 km

LEGEND

370 S

Alluvial sediments

Thames

(Quaternary)

Hau

Whitianga Group

rak
i Ri

(Pliocene - Pleistocene)
rhyolites and ignimbrites

ft

Coromandel Group
(L. Miocene - Pliocene)
andesites and dacites

Komata
Karangahake

Coromandel Group

Golden Cross
Martha Hill

(L. Miocene)
diorite intrusives

Manaia Hill Group

(Jurassic)
metagreywacke

20 km

Major fault

FIG. 1. Geologic map of the Coromandel peninsula, showing the location

of Golden Cross and selected major epithermal gold-silver deposits (after
Skinner, 1986). The insert shows the location of the Coromandel peninsula
within the North Island of New Zealand.

alteration minerals to their distribution in geothermal systems

in order to model the hydrologic evolution of the hydrothermal
system that formed the Golden Cross deposit.
Regional Geology and Mining History
The Golden Cross deposit occurs in the Coromandel
peninsula, the central subaerial sector of a 200-km-long by
35-km-wide continental volcanic arc, known as the Coromandel volcanic zone (Skinner, 1986; Brathwaite and Skinner,
1997). The Coromandel volcanic zone rests upon a blockfaulted basement of Late Jurassic, low-grade graywackes of
the Manaia Hill Group that are exposed on the northern and
northwestern sides of the peninsula. This graywacke basement is unconformably overlain by Miocene to early Pliocene
(ca. 184 Ma) andesites, minor dacites, and rhyolites (Adams
et al., 1994). Volcanism during the Miocene (ca. 189 Ma)
was dominated by eruptions of andesites and subordinate
dacites of the Coromandel Group. In the late Miocene (ca. 10
Ma), volcanism shifted from the west to the east-central sector of the peninsula and changed from andesitic activity to the
rhyolitic volcanism of the Whitianga Group.
The regional structure of the Coromandel volcanic zone is
controlled by north-northwest- and northeast- to east-northeasttrending block faults that formed in the Jurassic
graywacke during the Early Cretaceous (Skinner, 1986,
1995). The Coromandel volcanic zone is bounded to the west
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by the Hauraki rift, a major graben filled by up to 3 km of

Pliocene to Pleistocene volcaniclastic sediments (Hochstein
and Ballance, 1993).
The Golden Cross deposit is one of over 50 separate lowsulfidation epithermal gold-silver deposits in the Hauraki
goldfield (Christie and Brathwaite, 1986). From 1862 to 1952
the Hauraki goldfield produced 44 million ounces (1.4 million
kg) of Au-Ag bullion (Au/Ag ratio of 1/4), with 98 percent of
this total from just six mines (in order of decreasing production): Martha Hill, Karangahake, Thames, Golden Cross, Komata, and Kapanga-Hauraki (Figs. 1 and 2). This Au-Ag ore
occurs in steeply dipping quartz veins that fill extensional
fractures hosted mainly within andesites and dacites of the
Coromandel Group (Brathwaite and Pirajno, 1993).
Gold and silver in the Golden Cross deposit (Fig. 2) were
first extracted from quartz veins of the Golden Cross 1 reef
(Fig. 3) in 1895 (Bell and Fraser, 1912). Between 1895 and
1917, the Golden Cross 1 reef produced 157,184 t of ore at an
estimated average grade of 16 g/t Au and 54 g/t Ag (Downey,
1935). Exploration drives along strike and to the north intersected the stockwork but failed to locate the fault-offset extension of the vein (Keall et al., 1993). However, renewed exploration in 1982 resulted in the discovery and delineation of
the Empire vein system (Fig. 3) located only ~20 m north of
the Golden Cross 1 reef. Mining of the underground Empire
vein system and associated open-pit stockwork between 1991
and 1998 produced 662,000 oz of Au from 5,136,300 t of ore
(Au/Ag ratio of 1/3.1). The mine is now closed and the open
pit filled and rehabilitated. Combined historic and recent
mining produced ~750,000 oz of Au and ~2,325,000 oz of Ag.
Local Geology, Structure, and Veins
The Golden Cross area (Fig. 2) contains volcanic rocks of
the andesitic Coromandel Group and the younger rhyolitic
Whitianga Group. The Coromandel Group consists of three
units (Fig. 3). From oldest to youngest, these are the Waipupu
Formation (ca. 7.9 Ma), the Waiharakeke Dacite (ca. 7.2 Ma),
and the Whakamoehau Andesite (ca. 6.76.6 Ma; Brathwaite
and Christie, 1996). The Waipupu Formation consists predominantly of two-pyroxene andesitic lava flows, with localized intercalations of volcanic breccias, lithic-crystal tuffs, and
minor epiclastic sedimentary rocks. Andesitic lava flows have
phenocrysts of plagioclase, hypersthene, and augite, supported in a groundmass of plagioclase laths, Fe-Ti oxides, and
interstitial glass that is either devitrified or hydrothermally altered (Brathwaite and Christie, 1996). In the mine, the
Waipupu Formation forms the main hanging-wall unit to the
Empire fault and contains four informally named members:
Monroe, Empire, Candle, and Golden Cross porphyry
(Table 1; Fig. 4; Caddey et al., 1995).
The younger Waiharakeke Dacite comprises dacitic lava
flows and tuff breccia, intercalated with minor lithic-crystal
tuffs, ignimbrites, and flow-banded rhyolites (Brathwaite and
Christie, 1996). Dacitic lava flows have phenocrysts of plagioclase, hypersthene, augite, hornblende, and minor quartz, set
in a spherulitic glassy groundmass. The Waiharakeke Dacite
forms the main footwall unit to the Empire fault and consists
of four informally named members: lower, middle, middle member breccia, and upper (Table 1; Fig. 4; Caddey et
al., 1995).

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GOLDEN CROSS EPITHERMAL Au-Ag DEPOSIT, NEW ZEALAND

17545E

17550E

Map Grid North

Maratoto
Magnetic
North

3720 S

GOLDEN
CROSS

Komata
Grace
Darling

Huanai

ult

Waitekauri

Fa

i
aih
W

Martha Hill

WAIHI

3725 S

Gladstone &
Union Hill

LEGEND
LITHOLOGY

SYMBOLS

Alluvium

Waih
iF

ault

Karangahake

Ohinemuri Subgroup

Whitianga Group

Lithologic contact

Kaimai Subgroup

Coromandel Group

Fault
Quartz vein

Coroglen Subgroup
Whitianga Group
Minden Rhyolite Subgroup

SCALE

Omahine Subgroup
Coromandel Group

2 Km

Waiwawa Subgroup

FIG. 2. Geologic map of the Waihi district, showing the location of the Golden Cross deposit and other important
epithermal Au-Ag deposits (after Brathwaite and Christie, 1996). The area outlined around Golden Cross is enlarged in
Figure 3.
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5600m N

200 m

E510

55

lt
l fau

4850m N

West Mine fault

5050m N

edra

5200m N

58
62

4800m N

Cath

Nort

80

Open pit
outline

Emp
(245 ire vein
mR
SL)

netic

ry fault
Bounda
Western

Mag
Mine Grid
North

Taranaki Hippo vein

(425m RSL)

SIMPSON ET AL.

E475

den
(25 Cross
0m
1
RS reef
L)

4650m N
Drain

age

drive

(~22

5m

RSL

Fault XIV

4000m N

3500m E

3900m E

78

3100m E

Tra
m
(25 way
0m
v
RS ein
L)
Em
pire
S
o
(25
0m uth ve
RSL in
)

Slump

2700m E

Gol

4400m N

LEGEND
Lithology

Symbols

Whakamoehau Andesite

Lithologic boundary

Quartz vein

Waiharakeke Dacite

Inferred lithologic boundary

Cross section

Waipupu Formation

Fault

Drill hole

FIG. 3. Surface geologic map of the Golden Cross mine area, showing the location of the Empire zone, Golden Cross 1
reef, and cross sections 5050, 4850, and 4650m N. Drill holes E510, E475, and the drainage drive are also shown; these are
projected onto the 5050, 4850, and 4650m N subsurface cross sections in Figure 4.
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GOLDEN CROSS EPITHERMAL Au-Ag DEPOSIT, NEW ZEALAND

777

TABLE 1. Stratigraphy and Lithologic Units of the Golden Cross Mine Area (Caddey et al, 1995; Brathwaite and Christie, 1996)
Formations and members1

Thickness2 (m)

Omahine Subgroup
Whakamoehau Andesite
(oa)

>150

Waitekauri beds
(wb)
Waiwawa Subgroup
Waiharakeke Dacite
Upper member
(wu)

15

Lithology
Two-pyroxene andesitic to dacitic lava flows with minor volcanic breccias and basal
carbonaceous horizons
Lacustrine volcaniclastic sediments at the base of the Whakamoehau Andesite

>80

Mixed rhyodacitic to rhyolitic pyroclastic air fall and flow deposits; coarse, unsorted
and polymictic lapilli breccia up to 10 m thick predominate and are intercalated with 0.2to 1.5-m-thick finely bedded carbonaceous horizons

Middle member breccia

(wmb)

125

Coarse monomictic matrix-supported breccia with clasts of middle member dacite

Middle member
(wm)

290

Massive pyroxene dacitic lava flows with rare distinct subrounded xenoliths

Lower member
(wl)

>200

Waipupu Formation
Golden Cross porphyry
(dp)

Mixed dacitic to rhyolitic pyroclastic air fall and unwelded pyroclastic flow deposits;
poorly sorted, monomictic and polymictic matrix-supported breccia and lapilli breccia
horizons up to 55 m thick predominate and are interbedded with 4- to 12-m-thick
horizons of dacitic and/or rhyodacitic tuffs
Feldspar-porphyritic hypabyssal dacitic intrusion characterized by abundant subrounded
xenoliths

Candle member
(cc)

85

Andesitic tuff and crystal tuffs with locally developed basal breccia

Empire member
(ce)

>200

Massive two-pyroxene andesitic lava flows with localized intercalations of volcanic

breccia, lithic tuffs, and volcaniclastic rocks that host discontinuous carbonaceous horizons

Monroe member
(cm)

>200

Feldspar-pyroxene porphyritic andesitic lava flows with volcanic breccia, crystal tuffs, and
local intercalations of volcaniclastic rocks

1Formations

and members are listed in order of youngest to oldest

Observed maximum thickness of unit within the mine area

The Whakamoehau Andesite unconformably overlies both

the Waipupu Formation and the Waiharakeke Dacite, forming an irregular cover that dips gently to the east-northeast
(Figs. 3 and 4). The Whakamoehau Andesite consists of andesitic to dacitic lava flows with phenocrysts of seriate plagioclase, hypersthene, augite, embayed quartz, with or without
hornblende, supported in a groundmass of plagioclase laths,
minor pyroxene, Fe-Ti oxides, and interstitial glass. This unit
is typically deeply weathered but unaltered in the mine area.
Prominent faults in the Golden Cross mine area are the Empire, Western Boundary, West mine, Pillar-Beefeater, Cathedral, and Fault XIV (Fig. 3; Keall et al., 1993). The Empire
fault is a north-northeaststriking and steeply west-dipping
fault (Fig. 4), with over 300 m of apparent reverse displacement (Caddey et al., 1995). The north-striking, east-dipping
Western Boundary fault forms the western limit of open-pit
stockwork veins (Fig. 4), but the sense of movement and
amount of displacement are uncertain. Striking subparallel to
the Western Boundary fault are the West mine and PillarBeefeater faults, which all have normal offsets of less than 20
m (Keall et al., 1993).
The four distinct epithermal vein systems in the Golden
Cross area include the Empire, Golden Cross 1 reef, Empire
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South-Tramway, and Taranaki Hippo (Fig. 3). The Golden

Cross 1 reef is the fault-offset southern continuation of the
Empire vein system.
Recent mining, confined to the Empire zone, extracted ore
from both open-pit and underground workings. The underground mine extracted ore from both veins and breccias. Although at least eight generations of veins occur in the underground workings, most of the vein ore was contained in
crustiform- and colloform-banded quartz veins (Mauk et al.,
1998a). The main vein was the Empire hanging-wall vein,
which strikes north-northeast and dips to the west at 65 (Fig.
4). Footwall veins lie east of the Empire vein. These dip to
the west at less than 50 above 200 m relative to sea level
(r.s.l.), becoming steeper (70-80 west) below that level
(David and Barber, 1997). Crosscutting relationships indicate
that the footwall veins formed both synchronously with, as
well as after, the Empire hanging-wall vein.
The open pit, located approximately 100 m west of the Empire vein system, exploited a stockwork (Fig. 5) formed between the Western Boundary and Empire faults. In this paper,
we use the term stockwork to describe a three-dimensional
network of veinlets that are closely spaced enough so that the
whole mass can be mined, regardless of the orientation of

777

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SIMPSON ET AL.

Cross section 5050m N

A
oa
oa
400RSL

cc
wb
cc
cm

r Fa
Fa

ary

ine

nd

dp

ult

Fa
ult

200RSL

wm

ult

ou

tM

nB

es
W

ter

Pilla

s
We

Empir
e Fau

ce
300RSL

lt

ce

wmb

E510
ce
dp

SCALE

wm

100m

wm

?
cm

2900E

3100E

3300E

wl
3700E

3500E

100RSL

wm

Cross section 4850m N

B
wb
cc

Empir
e Fau

lt

wl

ce

au

oa
wb

wu

Whakamoehau Andesite
Waitekauri beds

Waiharakeke Dacite
wu
wmb
wm
wl

wm

lt

cm

rF

lla

Pi

lt
au
eF
Min
st
We

300RSL

LITHOLOGY
Whakamoehau Andesite

oa

400RSL

dp

upper memeber
middle member breccia
middle member
lower member

WaipupuFormation
wmb
es
W

dp
cc
ce
cm

200RSL

ter
nB

Golden Cross porphyry

Candle member
Empire member
Monroe member

SYMBOLS
Fault
Lithologic contact
Inferred contact
Quartz vein
Calcite vein
Stockwork veins
Drill Hole

SAMPLES
This study
de Ronde and
Blattner, 1988

ou
nd

ce

ar
yF

cm

au

100RSL

lt

SCALE

100m

wm

E475

wm

wl

3700E

3500E

2900E

3100E

3300E

wl

Cross section 4650m N

C
400RSL

oa
wl

Pilla

oa

wl

ult

r Fa

ce
300RSL

dp

wm

dp
dp

cm

wm
es
W
ter

Drainage

nB

200RSL

ou
nd
ar

dp

Drive

wm

wm

yF
au
lt

SCALE
100RSL

100m

3700E

3500E

3300E

3100E

2900E

FIG. 4. A, B, and C. West-east cross sections looking north along the 5050, 4850, and 4650m N sections, respectively, showing the geology, structure, and veins. Shallow-level stockwork veins are shown in the 4850m N section but are also present
in the 5050 and 4650m N sections. Sample locations along selected drill holes are also shown. Drill holes E510, E475, and
the drainage drive are projected onto the 5050, 4850 and 4650m N sections, respectively.
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GOLDEN CROSS EPITHERMAL Au-Ag DEPOSIT, NEW ZEALAND

Stockwork veins

Hard bar'

5 Meters

FIG. 5. Photograph of the open-pit stockwork veins. Veins are hosted in

intensely altered volcanic rocks of the Waipupu Formation. The dark inclined band in the center of the open pit represents a hard bar or lens of
moderately altered rock. Scale: each bench is 5 m high.

these veinlets. Open-pit veins strike northeast and dip steeply

to the northwest or southeast. These massive to weakly
banded veins are commonly 10 to 20 cm thick and rarely exceed 0.5 m in thickness. The relative timing of vein formation
here is difficult to determine due to a lack of exposures showing crosscutting relationships. Some workers postulate that
the open-pit veins formed more or less synchronously with
the underground veins (e.g., Begbie, 1997), whereas others
conclude that open-pit veins postdate most underground
veins (e.g., Keall et al., 1993; Caddey et al., 1995).
In both underground and open-pit workings, the main Auand Ag-bearing minerals are electrum and acanthite, with
minor pyrargyrite and tetrahedrite. Sulfides consist of pyrite,
marcasite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, arsenopyrite, and galena
(Simpson, C., et al., 1995).
Late-stage barren calcite veins crosscut both underground
and open-pit quartz veins (Simmons et al., 2000). These calcite veins are most abundant south of the 4850m N cross section and are up to 5 m wide.
Intense hydrothermal alteration enveloping the veins,
based on geophysical studies, encompasses an area of 3 by 1.5
km elongated parallel to the veins (Locke and de Ronde,
1987). Alteration and vein mineralization occurred between
7.2 Ma, the age of the host Waiharakeke Dacite, and 6.6 Ma,
the age of the overlying unaltered Whakamoehau Andesite
(Brathwaite and Christie, 1996). These are consistent with
40
Ar/39Ar ages for replacement and vein adularia of 6.78
0.04 and 6.9 0.1 Ma, respectively (David and Barber, 1997).
Sampling and Analytical Techniques
Underground workings, the open pit, and over 60,000 m of
drill core provided access to hydrothermally altered volcanic
rocks and veins in the Empire zone of the deposit. Samples
were collected along three cross sections (4650, 4850 and
5050m N) perpendicular to the strike of the main veins (Figs. 3
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779

and 4). Additional samples were collected from drill holes E510
and E475 and the drainage drive (Fig. 3). Drill-core samples
were taken every 20 m, on average, and were selected to represent variations in volcanic units, alteration styles, and vein types.
Various petrographic techniques were used to study alteration and vein minerals, including hand specimen examination, transmitted and reflected light microscopy of over 150
polished thin sections, X-ray diffractometry (XRD), microprobe analysis, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Over 200 samples were analyzed using XRD. To avoid destruction of clay crystal-lattice structures, rock samples were
crushed by hand into a fine homogeneous powder, using an
agate mortar and pestle. Random mounts of powdered rock
were prepared by back filling an aluminum plate. Clay mineral separates for 122 samples were prepared by dispersing
the crushed rock in distilled water, with the 15-m fraction
collected by gravitational settling and mounted onto glass
slides. A additional 109 clay mineral separates of the 2-msized fraction were prepared using a centrifuge and a deflocculent. A comparison of the 15- and 2-m-size fractions of
29 samples showed no significant difference in the clay minerals identified or their degree of interstratification, although
the 2-m fraction produced more intense and better-defined X-ray diffraction profiles. Oriented clay mounts were air
dried, ethylene glycol solvated (glycolated), and heated at
550C for 1 h before analysis. X-ray diffraction patterns were
collected using a Philips PW 1050/25 diffractometer run at 20
mA and 40kV, using CuK radiation. Diffractogram data of
Reynolds (1980) and Moore and Reynolds (1997) were used
to determine clay mineralogy and degree of interstratification.
SEM studies, combined with energy dispersive X-ray analyses (EDS), helped identify minerals, provided qualitative
compositions, and revealed textural relationships.
Fluid inclusion homogenization (Th) and final ice-melting
(Tm) temperatures were measured for inclusions in veins and
veinlets from underground exposures, the open-pit stockwork, and drill core peripheral to the Empire vein system.
Fluid inclusion measurements were made on doubly polished
sections (~100 m thick) using a Fluid Inc.-adapted U.S.G.S.
heating and freezing stage. The thermocouple was calibrated
at 0.0 and 56.6C, using Syn Flinc fluid inclusion standards,
with the data reproducible to 2.0C for homogenization
temperatures and 0.2C for final ice-melting temperatures.
Hydrothermal Alteration
Hydrothermal alteration may be characterized by the intensity and pervasiveness of the altered rock. Intensity is the
degree to which susceptible primary minerals are converted
to secondary minerals (Steiner, 1977; Browne, 1978). Pervasiveness pertains to the distribution of alteration as controlled
by veinlets at one extreme and the matrix, without regard to
veinlets, at the other (Guilbert and Park, 1986). In the Empire zone, most volcanic rocks are strongly to intensely altered. Intensely altered wall rocks have all of their igneous
minerals (>98100%) replaced by hydrothermal minerals, except for primary quartz, trace zircon, and apatite. Strongly altered rocks (7098%) contain relict to unaltered plagioclase
and magnetite. In both intensely and strongly altered rocks,
the igneous textures (e.g., porphyritic, spherulitic, flow) are
moderately to well preserved.

779

780

SIMPSON ET AL.

The lateral extent of altered rock can be determined for

most of the Empire zone except west of the Western Boundary fault where there are few drill holes. Wall rock in the
hanging wall and footwall of the Empire vein system in the
5050, 4850 and 4650m N sections is intensely altered in almost every sample examined. Along drill hole E475 and the
drainage drive intensely altered rocks grade into strongly altered rocks at about 280 and 150 m east of the Empire vein
system, respectively. In the latter, strongly altered rocks extend for 420 m and grade into moderately altered rocks
(4070% altered) at a distance of 540 m from the Empire vein
system and persist for the remaining length of the drive.
Moderately altered rock is also seen in rare isolated lenses of
rock (up to 10 m wide; Fig. 5), termed hard bars (Bell and
Frazer, 1912), which occur exclusively in lava flows of the
Waipupu Formation and the Waiharakeke Dacite.
Unlike the regular variations of intensity, the pervasiveness
of hydrothermal alteration in the Empire zone varies greatly.
In some places, such as the areas near the Empire vein system, rocks are pervasively altered over large distances. Elsewhere, such as in the drainage drive or the open pit, alteration
is selective and clearly controlled by fractures and/or vein
density.
The occurrence and distribution of hydrothermal minerals
A variety of hydrothermal replacement and vein minerals
occur at Golden Cross (Table 2). In the Empire zone, the main
alteration minerals are quartz, adularia, chlorite, illite, interstratified illite-smectite, pyrite, calcite, and kaolinite, together
with minor smectite, siderite, marcasite, titanite, leucoxene,
and alunite. The occurrence, spatial distribution, and temporal

relationships of individual alteration and vein minerals are described below.

Quartz
Quartz occurs most conspicuously as multiple generations
of colloform-banded veins in the Empire vein system and as
cryptocrystalline veins of the shallow stockwork. Quartz also
occurs as irregular veinlets that increase in abundance toward
major veins. However, quartz is most abundant as a replacement mineral of the wall rocks, occurring in every sample
studied, and typically comprises 40 to 50 vol percent of the
rock. Slightly lower quartz contents are present in volcanic
breccias, sporadic hard bars, and moderately altered wall rock
from the drainage drive. Most quartz replaces the groundmass and occurs as fine, anhedral interlocking grains intergrown with chlorite, illite, or illite-smectite, rare adularia, and
trace kaolinite. Quartz and minor pyrite replace pyroxene
phenocrysts in wall rocks adjacent to underground and openpit veins. Cavities and vesicles are commonly rimmed by comb
quartz and filled by chlorite, rare illite, pyrite, and late calcite.
Adularia
Adularia is the only hydrothermal feldspar at Golden Cross,
averaging 2 to 15 vol percent of the wall rocks. It is distributed as a wedge-shaped zone in all three cross sections (Fig.
6) that is broadly similar in distribution to illite (described
below). The westward limit of its distribution appears to coincide with the Western Boundary fault, whereas its eastern
limit in the 5050 and 4850m N sections is poorly constrained.
In the 4850m N section adularia is absent from the middle
member breccia of the Waiharakeke Dacite. It is also absent

TABLE 2. Alteration and Vein Minerals at the Golden Cross Deposit

Mineral
Silicates
Adularia
Chlorite
Cristobalite
Corrensite
Halloysite
Illite
Interstratified
illite-smectite
Kaolinite
Smectite
Quartz
Carbonates
Calcite
Calcite (Mn)
Siderite

Abundance

Origin

Occurrence

A
A
R
R
R
A

H
H
H
H
S
H

W and V
W and V
V
W
V
W and V

A
M
R
A

H
H
H
H

W and V
V and W
W and V
W and V

A
M
M

H
H
H

V and W
V and W
V and W

Sulfates and phosphates

Alunite

Apatite

Barite

Chalcanthite

Gypsum

Jarosite

Natroalunite

Titanite

R
R
R
R
R
R
R
M

H/S?
H
H
S
S
S
H/S?
H

Mineral

W
V
V
W
W
W
W
W

Abundance

Origin

Occurrence

Sulfides and sulfosalts

Acanthite

Arsenopyrite

Bornite

Chalcopyrite

Electrum

Galena

R
R
R
R
R
R

H
H
H
H
H
H

V
V
V
V and W
V
V

Marcasite
Pyragyrite
Pyrite
Pyrolusite
Pyrrhotite
Se acanthite
Sphalerite

M
R
A
R
R
R
R

H
H
H
H
H
H
H

V and W
V
V and W
V
V and W
V
V

Native
Silver
Sulfur

R
R

H
H

V
W

Oxides
Hematite
Iron oxyhydroxides
Leucoxene
Magnetite
Rutile

M
M
M
R
M

H/S
S
H
H
H

W and V
W and V
W
V
W

Symbols: = previously reported and confirmed in present study, = previously reported, unconfirmed in present study, = newly reported from present study; abundances: A = abundant (>10%), M = minor (110%), R = rare (<1%); origin: H = hypogene, S = supergene; occurrence: W = wall rock, V = veins
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00

780

781

GOLDEN CROSS EPITHERMAL Au-Ag DEPOSIT, NEW ZEALAND

Cross section 5050m N

A
oa
oa
400RSL

cc

wb
cc

cm

ce
rn
ste
We

300RSL

u
Bo

Empir
e Fau
lt

ce

wm

ary

nd

dp

Fa
ult

200RSL

wmb

Adularia

E510

?
wm

ce
dp

wm
wm

3100E

cm
2900E

wl

3700E

100m

3500E

3300E

100RSL

Cross section 4850m N

B
wb

oa

cc
wl

ce

Empir
e Fau
lt

400RSL

LITHOLOGY
Whakamoehau Andesite

wu

oa
wb

wm

wu
wmb
wm
wl

rn

te

es
W

dp

un

Bo

dp
cc
ce
cm

ry
ult

Fa

Adularia

Fault
Lithologic contact
Inferred lithologic
contact
Quartz vein
Calcite vein

upper member
middle member breccia
middle member
lower member

WaipupuFormation

wmb

da

200RSL

SYMBOLS

Waiharakeke Dacite

300RSL

cm

Whakamoehau Andesite
Waitekauri beds

Golden Cross porphyry

Candle member
Empire member
Monroe member

Alteration zones
known and
questioned

ce
cm

wm

100m

3500E

3300E

3100E

wl
2900E

E475

wm

wl

3700E

100RSL

Cross section 4650m N

C
400RSL

oa
oa

wl
wl

ce
dp

300RSL

wm

dp

cm
ter
es
W

ou

Drainage

Drive

wm

dp

au

yF
ar

nd

Adularia

wm

wm

nB

200RSL

lt

3700E

3500E

3300E

100m

3100E

2900E

100RSL

FIG. 6. A, B, and C. The distribution of replacement adularia in cross sections 5050, 4850, and 4650m N, respectively.
Adularia is notably absent in samples from drill hole E475, which is projected 100 m north onto the 4850m N section.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00

781

782

SIMPSON ET AL.

in samples from drill hole E475 and is seen only in drainage

drive samples close to the Empire vein system.
Adularia is an alteration product of plagioclase phenocrysts.
X-ray diffraction analyses further indicate that it is also a significant replacement mineral in the groundmass. In moderately altered rocks adularia appears as rare, minute rhombohedral crystals along cracks in weakly altered plagioclase
phenocrysts, suggesting that plagioclase has altered directly to
adularia. Replacement adularia has undergone variable alteration to illite in samples from each of the three cross sections.
It is best preserved in the 5050m N section, at depth in the
footwall of the Empire vein system, where it is only slightly altered to illite. Elsewhere adularia is extensively replaced, irrespective of depth, by illite and calcite. In places, this later
alteration may have completely replaced adularia, which may
explain its absence in drill hole E475.
Adularia commonly fills open spaces as an accessory mineral within quartz veins and veinlets and occurs as extremely
rare monomineralic veinlets (Simpson, M., et al., 1995). It
typically forms less than 5 vol percent of the colloform-banded
quartz veins in the Empire vein system, although rare bands
contain up to 60 percent adularia (Simpson, C., et al., 1995).
Here, adularia forms disseminated euhedral rhombic crystals,
which are typically less than 0.05 mm across. Unlike replacement adularia, the adularia in open space has not altered to
illite. The composition of replacement and open-space adularia, based on electron microprobe analysis, is close to pure
KAlSi3O8.

14.2

Chlorite
Chlorite is found in almost every sample studied, forming 5
to 20 percent of the rock by volume. It is a common alteration
product of hypersthene, augite, amphibole phenocrysts, and
the groundmass but occurs rarely along cleavage planes in
plagioclase. Chlorite is intergrown with fine-grained quartz in
the groundmass. Chlorite fills cavities, vesicles, and veinlets
and displays variable crystal morphology, ranging from microcrystalline to coarsely crystalline radiating masses. In veinlets
it is commonly associated with, and is also cut by, later calcite.
In thin section, the chlorite that replaces mafic phenocrysts
and fills open spaces locally contains murky brown domains
due to the presence of extremely fine grained illite, as determined from EDS analyses.
X-ray diffraction profiles of chlorite are characterized by reflections at ~14.2, 7.10, 4.74, and 3.55 . These were not affected by glycolation but are affected when heated to 550C
for 1 h (Bailey, 1991). At Golden Cross, two types of chlorite
are recognized based on their stability upon heating (cf. Harvey and Browne, 1991). After heating, type A chlorite yields
diffractogram profiles that lack the 7.10, 4.74, and 3.55 reflections, while the 14.2 peak shifts and increases slightly in
magnitude (Fig. 7). In contrast, type B chlorite is essentially
unaffected by heating, although some structural reorganization
is evident from an increase in the magnitude of the 14.2
peak (Fig. 7). Type B chlorite occurs near veins and at depth
and is most abundant in the 4850m N section (Fig. 8). Type A

7.10

4.74

3.55

Chlorite / Kaolinite
R.I. = 561
Chlorite / Kaolinite
R.I. = 342
Chlorite
R.I. = 50

Chlorite
R.I. = 72

Air dried
Heated
550C,1h

Chlorite
R.I. = 133

Chlorite & Kaolinite

R.I. = 997

Chlorite & Kaolinite

R.I. = 517
Chlorite
R.I. = 133

Chlorite
R.I. = 149
Illite

Quartz

Chlorite
R.I. = 46
Chlorite
R.I. = 288

Chlorite
R.I. = 44

14

20

Chlorite
R.I. = 151

26

Air dried

Heated
550C,1h

32

Degrees two theta

FIG. 7. Oriented clay mount (air dried and heated 550C for 1 h) XRD profiles for types A and B chlorite. A. Type A chlorite shows complete structural collapse of the 7.1, 4.7, and 3.5 reflections on heating, with some structural reorganization
indicated by a shift and increase in magnitude of the 14.2 reflection. Kaolinite may also be present in this sample. B. A
mixture of type B chlorite and kaolinite. The intensity of the 14.2 and 4.7 reflections are essentially unchanged after heating and represent chlorite. Heating has resulted in partial collapse of the 7.1 and 3.5 reflections, indicating the thermal decomposition of kaolinite, with the peaks persisting at 7.17 and 3.58 from chlorite. R.I. = raw intensity.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00

782

783

GOLDEN CROSS EPITHERMAL Au-Ag DEPOSIT, NEW ZEALAND

Cross section 5050m N

A
oa
oa
400RSL

cc
wb
cc
cm

ce
rn
ste
We

300RSL

ry
da
un
Bo

Empir
e Fau
lt

ce

wm

dp

u
Fa
lt

200RSL

wmb

Type A Chlorite
Type B Chlorite

ce

E510

wm

dp
wm

100RSL

100m

wm
cm
3700E

3500E

2900E

3100E

3300E

wl

Cross section 4850m N

B
wb

oa

cc
wl

ce

Empir
e Fau
lt

400RSL

LITHOLOGY
Whakamoehau Andesite

wu

oa
wb

wm

wu
wmb
wm
wl

cm
dp

dp
cc
ce
cm

ter

es
W

Lithologic contact
Inferred lithologic
contact
Quartz vein
Calcite vein

upper member
middle member breccia
middle member
lower member

Golden Cross porphyry

Candle member
Empire member
Monroe member

Alteration zones
known and
questioned

ce

lt

au
yF

100RSL

ar
nd

ou
nB

cm

Fault

Waipupu Formation

wmb

Type A Chlorite
Type B Chlorite

SYMBOLS

Waiharakeke Dacite

300RSL

200RSL

Whakamoehau Andesite
Waitekauri beds

100m

wm

E475

wm

wl

3700E

3500E

3300E

2900E

3100E

wl

Cross section 4650m N

C
400RSL

oa
oa

wl
wl

ce

ou
nB

wm

ar
nd

yF

Drainage

au
lt

Type A Chlorite
Type B Chlorite
0

100m

?
3300E

3100E

wm

wm

?
2900E

Drive

?
3700E

dp

3500E

200RSL

100RSL

wm
dp

ter

cm

dp

es
W

300RSL

FIG. 8. A, B, and C. The distribution of type A and B chlorites determined by XRD in cross sections 5050, 4850, and
4650m N, respectively. Type B chlorite was not detected in samples from drill hole E475, which is projected 100 m north
into the 4850m N section.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00

783

784

SIMPSON ET AL.

chlorite is more widespread, generally occurring at shallower

levels and distal to the main veins.
Heating chlorite to 550C results in dehydroxylation of the
hydroxide sheet with the amount of collapse related to the
amount of magnesium present (Bailey, 1991). However, in
our samples, XRD profiles of chlorite are characterized by
weak odd-order peak reflection (14.2 and 4.74 ) and
stronger even-order peaks (7.10 and 3.55 ), suggesting an
iron-rich composition with minor magnesium (Moore and
Reynolds, 1997). The temperature of dehydroxylation is also
affected by crystallinity and grain size. We speculate that type
A chlorite may be poorly crystalline, whereas type B chlorite,
which is unaffected by heating, may be more highly crystalline.
Pyrite and marcasite
Pyrite is the most abundant sulfide at Golden Cross, occurring in veins, breccias, and altered country rocks up to hundreds of meters away from the Empire vein system. It typically occurs as disseminated euhedral to anhedral <0.05- to
1-mm grains in the groundmass and in veins, though it locally
forms clots or layers within veins. Pyrite forms rare anhedral
inclusions in plagioclase and pyroxene phenocrysts. It also
forms rims to kaolinite veinlets formerly exposed in the open
pit (typically above 385 m r.s.l.) and as clusters of crystals
within late kaolinite veinlets at deeper levels. Mauk et al.
(1998b) document a change in morphology from cubes to octahedra to pyritohedra to dendritic growth that generally corresponds with the change from barren to mineralized rocks.
Pyritohedra and anhedral pyrite are dominant in samples with
high Au grades, whereas low-grade samples mostly contain
cubic pyrite.
Marcasite, the second most abundant sulfide at Golden
Cross, has a similar occurrence as pyrite. However, unlike
pyrite, marcasite mostly occurs within tens of meters of the
Empire vein system. Apart from its typical occurrence as disseminated euhedral to anhedral grains and localized clots or
layers within quartz veins, marcasite also occurs as monomineralic veinlets that crosscut stockwork quartz veins. Marcasite
crystal morphology changes from tabular to bladed aggregates to diverse euhedral morphologies from barren to mineralized rocks. Samples with high gold grades contain marcasite with diverse euhedral morphologies, whereas low-grade
samples mostly contain tabular grains (Mauk et al., 1998b).
Titanite and leucoxene
Titanite and leucoxene are present in almost every sample
although they comprise less than 1 percent of the rocks. Both
occur as disseminated anhedral grains in the groundmass and
have presumably replaced titanomagnetite and ilmenite. Titanite also appears as rare inclusions in altered mafic phenocrysts.
Illite
Illite is widespread at depth and occurs below the illitesmectite zone in the Empire zone (Fig. 9). It extends east of
the Empire vein system along drill hole E510 and shows a
patchy distribution along E475. Illite replaces phenocrystic
and groundmass plagioclase, augite, and hypersthene phenocrysts, and hydrothermal adularia. It also floods interstitial
sites in the groundmass and fills open spaces in cavities, vesicles, and veinlets.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00

XRD analyses reveal that the illite from both the 4650 and
5050m N sections commonly contains a minor component
(<10%) of smectite, whereas illite from the central 4850m N
section lacks smectite and is characterized by sharper basal
reflections.
Interstratified illite-smectite
The distribution of illite-smectite (Fig. 9) shows three main
patterns: (1) illite-smectite forms a 50-m-thick discontinuous
carapace over the Empire vein system and shallow stockwork,
(2) illite-smectite grades laterally into the illite zone that encloses the Empire vein system grades, particularly in the
central and southern portions of the deposit, and (3) illitesmectite occurs irregularly at depth, in rocks with low permeabilities, such as the middle member breccia of the Waiharakeke Dacite in section 4850 m N.
Interstratified illite-smectite is an alteration product of plagioclase, mafic phenocrysts, and adularia that has replaced
plagioclase phenocrysts. It also fills interstitial sites in the
groundmass and is a significant constituent in the matrix cement and clasts of volcanic and hydrothermal breccias.
Interstratified illite-smectite commonly contains 40 to
greater than 80 percent illite (Table 3), although some samples from the drainage drive and E475 contain only 10 to 20
percent illite (Moore and Reynolds, 1997). Reichweite (R)
structural ordering (Fig. 10), indicates that illite-smectite
with less than 50 percent illite is randomly interstratified
(Table 3), whereas illite-smectite with more than 50 percent
illite is ordered (R = 1, R = 2, and R = 3 correspond to increasingly ordered interstratifications).
The amount of illite in illite-smectite samples from the
4650 and 4850m N cross sections gradually increases with
depth and grades into the underlying illite zone. In contrast,
the illite content of illite-smectite in the 5050m N cross section above 350 m r.s.l. is more uniform and the contact between the illite-smectite and illite zones is sharp. Along the
drainage drive the proportion of smectite in illite-smectite
varies greatly, although it generally increases away from the
Empire vein system. However, along drill hole E475, illitesmectite with 10 to 40 percent illite overprints a number of
samples containing illite.
Smectite
Minor amounts of smectite were identified in the glycolated diffractograms of several samples from the Empire
zone. It locally coexists with illite or illite-smectite, although
these occurrences are sporadic. Smectite replaces plagioclase
phenocrysts and the groundmass and rarely fills veinlets. The
air-dried diffractogram profiles of smectite have a strong
d(001) reflection at 14.5 to 15.0, which expands to 17.6 to
18.5 on glycolation, indicating that it is calcium rich
(Steiner, 1968), as confirmed by EDS analyses (Tillick et al.,
1999).
Calcite
Calcite occurs most prominently as late, massive, and barren
veins but is also a common replacement mineral. Abundant
replacement calcite occurs at depth and between the Western
Boundary and the Pillar faults in sections 4650 and 4850mN
(Fig. 11). In contrast, it is rare in the 5050m N section where

784

785

GOLDEN CROSS EPITHERMAL Au-Ag DEPOSIT, NEW ZEALAND

Cross section 5050m N

A
oa
oa
400RSL

cc
wb
cc
cm
s
We

ce

t er
ary
nd
ou
nB

300RSL

Empir
e Fau
lt

ce

wm

Fa

dp

ult

200RSL

wmb

E510

I-S
Illite

ce

wm

dp
wm

100m

wm

?
wl

3500E

3300E

2900E

3100E

cm

3700E

100RSL

Cross section 4850m N

B
wb

oa

LITHOLOGY
Whakamoehau Andesite

cc
wl

wu

oa
wb

Emp

ce

ire F
a

ult

400RSL

wm

wu
wmb
wm
wl

dp

dp
cc
ce
cm

ter
nB
ou

I-S
Illite

Lithologic contact
Inferred lithologic
contact
Quartz vein
Calcite vein

upper member
middle member breccia
middle member
lower member

Waipupu Formation

wmb

es
W

200RSL

Fault

WaiharakekeDacite

300RSL

cm

SYMBOLS

Whakamoehau Andesite
Waitekauri beds

Golden Cross porphyry

Candle member
Empire member
Monroe member

Alteration zones
known and
questioned

nd

ce

ar
yF
au

cm

lt

wm

100m
wl

3300E

3100E

2900E

E475

wm

wl

3700E

3500E

100RSL

Cross section 4650m N

C
400RSL

oa
oa

wl
wl

ce

dp

300RSL

wm

dp
dp

cm

wm
es
W
ter

Drainage

nB
ou
yF

au
lt

?
100m

3100E

2900E

3700E

3300E

wm

ar

100RSL

dp

nd

I-S
Illite

Drive

wm

3500E

200RSL

FIG. 9. A, B, and C. The distribution of replacement illite-smectite (I-S) and illite in cross sections 5050, 4850, and 4650m
N. Along drill hole E475, which is projected 100 m north onto the 4850m N section, the distribution of illite and illitesmectite is patchy and, although not shown, a number of samples containing illite also contain illite-smectite. No smectite
zone is shown because of the sporadic and rare occurrence of this mineral (cf. de Ronde and Blattner, 1988).
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00

785

786

SIMPSON ET AL.
TABLE 3. XRD Results for Interstratified Illite-Smectite and Illite from Golden Cross

Sample no.

Section

Drill hole

46534
46537
46537
46551
46551
46557
46561
46571
46584
46587
46588
46590
46592
46605
46605
46605
46609
46611
46616
46617
46621
46624
46625
46634
46635
46650
48568
48773
48574
48578
48579
48579
48581
48582
48582
48583
48585
48586
48587
48592
48598
48600
48601
48602
48613
48614
48616
48618
48619
48620
48625
48628
48631
48632
48634
48642

4650m N
4650m N
4650m N
4650m N
4650m N
4650m N
4650m N
4650m N
4850m N
4850m N
4850m N
4850m N
4850m N
4850m N
4850m N
4850m N
4850m N
4850m N
5050m N
5050m N
5050m N
5050m N
5050m N
5050m N
5050m N
5050m N
5100m N
5100m N
5100m N
4750m N
4750m N
4750m N
4750m N
4750m N
4750m N
4750m N
4750m N
4750m N
4750m N
4750m N
4750m N
4680m N
4671m N
4660m N
4588m N
4586m N
4556m N
4350m N
4350m N
4350m N
4350m N
4350m N
4350m N
4350m N
4350m N
4350m N

DDH21
DDH21
DDH31
DDH52
DDH52
DDH73
DDH242
G465WD31
DDH33
DDH34
DDH34
DDH35
DDH38
D485WD50a
D485WD50a
D485WD50b
WHOOS
G485WI06
DDH23
DDH26
DDH26
DDH54
DDH54
DDH60
DDH60
G505WD37
E510
E510
E510
E475
E475
E475
E475
E475
E475
E475
E475
E475
E475
E475
E475
Drainage drive
Drainage drive
Drainage drive
Drainage drive
Drainage drive
Drainage drive
D435
D435
D435
D435
D435
D435
D435
D435
D435

Depth (m)
59.8
119.8
49.2
322.0
322.0
142.0
81.1
58.6
226.2
195.9
318.6
211.6
267.6
48.2
48.2
48.2
80.1
6.3
140.4
96.5
280.2
182.0
214.0
332.0
368.0
108.1
111.0
200.0
214.0
34.0
36.0
36.0
70.0
97.0
97.0
109.0
155.0
169.0
171.0
253.0
321.0
101
102
103
113
114
122
5.0
23.0
49.0
143.0
211.0
269.0
291.0
313.0
468.0

Size (m)
<15
<2
<2
<2
<2
<15
<15
<2
<15
<2
<15
<2
<15
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<15
<2
<15
<15
<15
<2
<15
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2

2(1)

2(2)

Order (R)

1.22
5.23
3.10
0.00
0.76
5.02
0.00
2.34
0.00
4.79
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.20
5.22
1.38
1.06
1.58
1.60
4.82
0.52
2.57
2.53
1.10
0.00
0.67
4.90
1.56
1.24
5.16
2.38
2.52
2.26
5.04
5.08
2.24
2.22
5.14
2.20
4.98
5.20
2.48
4.16
5.12
5.11
2.76
5.22
2.97
2.85
2.75
4.97
3.28
1.04
4.95
5.01
0.00

8.38
5.24
6.84
8.62
8.20
5.14
9.11
7.60
8.94
5.82
9.04
8.78
8.74
7.98
5.44
8.02
8.36
8.08
7.94
6.50
8.40
7.45
7.49
8.47
8.64
8.42
6.35
8.12
8.28
5.54
7.78
7.94
7.64
5.62
5.46
7.72
7.92
5.44
7.76
5.72
5.32
7.62
6.54
5.50
5.40
7.40
5.36
7.58
6.84
8.00
6.55
6.52
8.36
6.40
6.10
8.89

2
0
1
3
2
0
3
1
3
0
3
3
3
2
0
2
2
2
2
0
2
1
1
2
3
2
0
2
2
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
2
0
0
3

Percentage
illite
90
0
60
100
90
0
100
80
100
40
100
100
100
80
0
80
90
90
80
50
90
75
75
90
100
90
50
90
90
10
80
80
75
15
5
75
80
10
75
20
10
80
50
20
20
70
10
70
80
80
50
65
90
50
50
100

2(1) = L1-L2 and 2(2) = L3-L2 for glycolated diffractogram traces of interstratified illite-smectite and illite (Inoue and Utada, 1983); L1 represents
the peak occurring between 5.1 to 7.6 degrees two theta, L2 the peak between 8.9 and 10.2 degrees two theta, and L3 the peak between 16.1 and 17.2 degrees two theta (see insert Fig. 10); note: illite does not have a peak at L1 and therefore, 2(1) = 0

it appears near faults and at depth in drill hole E510. Calcite

partly to fully replaces phenocrysts of plagioclase, pyroxene,
and amphibole. It is also disseminated in, and locally floods,
the groundmass.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00

Late-stage calcite forms numerous massive and barren veins

and veinlets in the 4650 and 4850m N sections. These veins,
which are up to 5 m wide, cut colloform-banded quartz veins
of the Empire vein system and quartz veins of the shallow

786

GOLDEN CROSS EPITHERMAL Au-Ag DEPOSIT, NEW ZEALAND

(below 385 m r.s.l.) kaolinite veinlets lack pyrite selvages, although most contain clusters of anhedral to cubic pyrite. At
greater depths, kaolinite veinlets are rare and contain rare
grains of pyrite. Kaolinite also replaces the groundmass and
less commonly fills cavities in plagioclase phenocrysts, where
it overgrows calcite (Simpson et al., 1998; Tillick et al., 1999).
Earlier generations of kaolinite were deposited as thin (<<1mm-wide) concordant bands in colloform-banded quartz
veins of the Empire vein system (Simpson, C. et al, 1995).
XRD profiles of random powder mounts indicate that kaolinite in the wall rock and veinlets is well crystallized, with crystallinity indices (Hinckley, 1963) ranging from 0.8 to 1.4. This
is supported by SEM examination that shows kaolinite as 1- to
2-m-wide, blocky to platy crystals with hexagonal outlines.
In general, the crystallinity of kaolinite increases with depth.

R 3

9.0

n = 56

R=2
R=1
8.0
20%

22

20%

21

7.0

40%

R=0

Glycolated XRD trace

22

6.0

60%

60%
80%

5.0
0.0

22
12
Degrees two theta

1.0

2.0

32

3.0

100%

4.0

5.0

6.0

21
FIG. 10. Plot of 21 vs. 22, showing (degree of) Reichweite ordering
and the proportion of smectite for illite-smectite (Watanabe, 1981; Inoue and
Utada, 1983). Values for 21 and 22 were measured directly from the
differences in the angles of three basal reflections as shown on the glycolated
XRD trace (see insert). The three curves represent constant Reichweite value
(R); where R = 0 corresponding to random interstratification and R = 1 (MI),
R = 2 (MII), and R 3 (IMII) corresponding to increasingly ordered interstratifications (Reynolds, 1980). Percentages beside curves indicate the amount
of smectite in illite-smectite. Several samples with 21 = 0 are pure illite.

stockwork. The calcite is coarsely crystalline with distinct

rhombohedral cleavage and contains rare inclusions of
quartz, minor pyrite, and marcasite. In a few places, cavities
in these veins are coated by a later generation of small (<1 cm
in width) flattened trigonal bipyramids of calcite. Barren calcite veins once exposed in the open pit (below ~350 m r.s.l.)
are commonly rimmed by platy calcite with interlocking calcite blades up to 40 mm long that are encrusted by finegrained quartz.
Quartz pseudomorphs of platy calcite are abundant in
quartz veins of the stockwork but are rare in veins of the Empire vein system. In the former, the quartz pseudomorphs
typically comprises 10 percent of the veins and the blades
were on average 5 to 20 mm in length.
Siderite
Siderite, although uncommon, locally forms up to 5 vol percent of the rock. It is most prominent in drill core from the
5050m N section and is extremely rare in samples from the
4650 and 4850m N sections. Siderite from the 5050m N section mainly occurs close to major faults but is also present in
numerous samples from drill hole E510. It replaces plagioclase and pyroxene phenocrysts but more commonly forms
irregular rims around calcite that fills open spaces within plagioclase and pyroxene phenocrysts. Siderite also forms latestage monomineralic veinlets (<2 mm wide) and, less commonly, selvages to late calcite veinlets.
Kaolinite
Kaolinite is a widespread and often late-stage hydrothermal
mineral that mainly fills veinlets and fractures to depths of
400 m below the current surface in all three sections. It is
most abundant at shallow levels (above 385 m r.s.l.) as veinlets that are commonly rimmed by pyrite. At deeper levels
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00

787

Alunite
Alunite was detected at one location at a shallow level in
the open pit associated with well-crystallized kaolinite, pyrite,
and quartz (Hoskin et al., 1994). This alunite has a 34S value
of 5.5 per mil, similar to values of pyrite from elsewhere in
the deposit (34S = 1.04.8; Hoskin et al., 1994), indicating formation in a supergene or steam-heated environment
(Rye et al., 1992).
Paragenetic sequence
Figure 12 shows the paragenetic sequence of hydrothermal
minerals in the Empire zone, as determined from successive
replacement by hydrothermal minerals and crosscutting vein
relationships. Quartz and pyrite were the earliest minerals deposited in the Empire zone, forming veins that filled cooling
joints. The main phase of hydrothermal alteration involved
the coeval formation of precious metal-bearing quartz veins
and wall-rock alteration to quartz, adularia, chlorite, calcite,
pyrite, marcasite, titanite, and leucoxene, together with some
illite or illite-smectite on the margins. This was then followed
by the partial alteration of adularia to illite or illite-smectite.
Precious metal-bearing quartz veins were later cut by massive
and barren calcite veins, with the wall rock overprinted by
calcite, siderite, illite-smectite, and smectite. Lastly, latestage kaolinite, minor pyrite, marcasite, and rare alunite overprinted the above minerals.
Fluid Inclusions
Several fluid inclusion homogenization (Th) and final icemelting (Tm) studies have been conducted on quartz and
calcite veins from the Golden Cross deposit (de Ronde and
Blattner, 1988; Simpson, C., 1996; Simpson, M., 1996; Begbie, 1997; Simmons et al., 2000). In the present study, we
measured fluid inclusions from main-stage quartz veins and
late calcite veins (Table 4).
We observed only two types of fluid inclusions at room temperature: (1) two-phase (liquid and vapor) liquid-rich inclusions that contain approximately 85 vol percent liquid, and (2)
two-phase vapor-rich inclusions that contain greater than 98
percent vapor. Previous work identified two additional extremely rare inclusion types: (3) two-phase vapor-rich inclusions containing 30 to 50 vol percent vapor, and (3) threephase inclusions composed of water, vapor, and a suspected
organic liquid (de Ronde and Blattner, 1988). Types (3) and

787

788

SIMPSON ET AL.

Cross section 5050m N

A
oa
oa
400RSL

cc
wb
cc
cm
rn
ste
We

Empir
e Fau

ce
300RSL

ult
Fa
ry
da
un
Bo

200RSL

lt

ce

wm

dp
wmb

E510

Replacement
Calcite

ce

wm

dp
100RSL

wm

100m

wm

3700E

3300E

2900E

3100E

wl

3500E

cm

Cross section 4850m N

B
wb

oa

400RSL

LITHOLOGY
Whakamoehau Andesite

wl

ce

Empir
e Fau

lt

cc

wu

oa
wb

cm

wu
wmb
wm
wl

dp

dp
cc
ce
cm

es
W
ter
ou
nB

Replacement
Calcite

au

Alteration zones
known and
questioned

wm

lt

yF

100RSL

Golden Cross porphyry

Candle member
Empire member
Monroe member

ce

ar
nd

cm

Lithologic contact
Inferred lithologic
contact
Quartz vein
Calcite vein

upper member
middle member breccia
middle member
lower member

WaipupuFormation

wmb
200RSL

Fault

Waiharakeke Dacite
wm

300RSL

SYMBOLS

Whakamoehau Andesite
Waitekauri beds

100m

E475

wm

wl

3700E

3500E

3300E

2900E

3100E

wl

Cross section 4650m N

C
400RSL

oa
oa

wl
wl

ce

cm

wm

dp

wm

Drainage Drive

Replacement
Calcite
?
100RSL

dp

ult
Fa
ry
da
un
Bo

200RSL

dp

rn
ste
We

300RSL

dp

wm

wm

100m

3700E

3500E

3300E

3100E

2900E

FIG. 11. A, B, and C. The distribution of replacement calcite in cross sections 5050, 4850, and 4650m N, respectively. Late
barren calcite veins are present in the 4850 and 4650m N sections and crosscut the underground Empire vein system. Replacement and vein siderite (not shown) mainly occurs in the 5050m N section and has a distribution similar to calcite.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00

788

GOLDEN CROSS EPITHERMAL Au-Ag DEPOSIT, NEW ZEALAND

Stage
Mineral

Empire vein system

(Simpson, C., 1996). Those in surrounding quartz veinlets

and in comb quartz coating platy calcite at shallower depths
have a narrow Th range of 171 to 216C and near-identical
average of 189C. Although the relative ages of quartz from
the Empire vein system and peripheral veinlets are unclear,
the average Th for inclusions in quartz is relatively constant
over the entire ~220-m vertical interval sampled. Fluid inclusions in platy calcite have a Th range of 163 to 240C (most
between 171 and 192C) and an average of 181C.
Primary and secondary inclusions in late barren calcite
show the widest Th range from 94 to 260C, with major temperature peaks at 197 and 212C, and minor peaks at 109
and 244C. The 212 and 244C peaks relate to secondary inclusions in two deep calcite samples (47630 and 47631). The
109C peak corresponds to primary inclusions in flat trigonal
bipyramids of calcite (47634) that coat late-stage barren calcite; these inclusions homogenized between 94 and 122C
(Begbie, 1997). In general, the homogenization temperatures
of late barren calcite veins gradually increase by 30C, with
increasing depth over a 160-m vertical interval.

Late

Early
Open pit stockwork

789

Overprint

Quartz
Pyrite
Adularia
Chlorite
Titanite
Leucoxene
Au-Ag mineralization
Illite
Interstratified I-S
Smectite
Marcasite
Siderite
Calcite
Kaolinite
Alunite

FIG. 12. Paragenetic sequence of alteration and vein minerals in the

Empire zone of the Golden Cross deposit.

(4) inclusions homogenized by disappearance of the liquid

phase, but neither inclusion type was present in samples that
we examined.
Fluid inclusions were further classified according to the relative time of their entrapment within the host mineral as primary and secondary, using the criteria of Roedder (1984). Both
primary and secondary inclusions were recognized, with most
primary inclusions occurring in well-defined growth zones.
Two-phase liquid-rich fluid inclusions comprise over 99
percent of the total inclusion population and range in size
from less than 5 to 50 m. Rare isolated vapor-rich inclusions
were only seen in platy calcite, which also contains abundant
liquid-rich inclusions. These occurrences along with the platy
habit strongly suggest that at times calcite precipitated under
boiling conditions (Browne, 1978; Bodnar et al., 1985; Simmons and Christenson, 1994).
Microthermometric measurements in this study were made
only on liquid-rich inclusions that homogenized by disappearance of the vapor bubble. No vapor-rich inclusions were
measured because of the difficulty in observing the homogenization of small amounts of liquid (cf. Sterner, 1992). Homogenization temperatures were determined for 371 inclusions with the temperature of final ice melting measured for
163 of these inclusions (Table 4).
Temperatures of homogenization
The Th of primary and secondary inclusions in quartz, platy
calcite, and late barren calcite range from 94 to 260C (Fig.
13). Although this range is wide, 80 percent of the fluid inclusions in individual crystals have a narrow Th range of less
than 30C, with most inclusion populations displaying nearconstant liquid to vapor ratios. Fluid inclusions in late
medium-grained quartz of the Empire vein system homogenize between 159 and 240C and average about 190C
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00

Temperatures of final ice melting

The temperatures of final ice melting (Tm) for all inclusions
range from 0.0 to 4.7C, with more than 95 percent of the
measurements between 0.0 and 1.4C (Figs. 14 and 15).
For most individual fluid inclusion populations (85% of samples), Tm values are within 0.2C of the average. The final icemelting temperatures for primary and secondary inclusions in
quartz of the Empire vein system and surrounding peripheral
veinlets range from 0.2 to 1.4C and average about
0.8C. An exception is a single quartz veinlet (46659) that
has two inclusions with Tm values of 3.4 and 4.7C. Fluid
inclusions in platy calcite have a Tm range of 0.1 to 0.6C
and an average of 0.2C. Final ice-melting temperatures for
inclusions in late-stage barren calcite mostly fall between 0.0
and 1.4C; one sample (46518) has lower values that range
from 2.0 to 2.4C. The average final ice-melting temperatures for inclusions in quartz, platy calcite, and late barren
calcite are 0.8, 0.2, and 0.5C, respectively.
Crushing experiments
Crushing studies were undertaken to evaluate the presence
or absence of noncondensable gases (Roedder, 1984; Sasada
et al., 1986). During crushing the vapor bubble in some inclusions expanded slightly, while others expanded to completely fill the inclusion cavity, indicating the presence of a
noncondensable gas, most likely CO2. Inclusions in which the
vapor expanded to fill the inclusion contain 0.35 wt percent
CO2 (Sasada et al., 1986).
Discussion
The mineralogic observations and fluid inclusion data can
be used to interpret the chemical and physical conditions prevailing during hydrothermal alteration and vein deposition.
In the following discussion we draw strongly upon knowledge
of geothermal systems where the relationship between the
distribution of fluid types and alteration patterns is known
(e.g., Henley and Ellis, 1983; Hedenquist, 1990; Reyes, 1990;
Simmons and Browne, 2000). The data presented here are integrated in the following section to develop a model for the

789

790

SIMPSON ET AL.
TABLE 4. Fluid Inclusion Data for Quartz, Platy Calcite, and Late Massive Calcite from the Empire Zone of the Golden Cross Deposit

Sample no.

Mineral

Type

Th range (C)

Avg

Tm range (C)

Avg

Wt %
NaCl equiv1

Drill core
46655a
46655a
46656
46657
46658
46659
46661
46662a
46662a
46663
46664
46665

Calcite
Quartz
Calcite
Calcite
Calcite
Quartz
Quartz
Calcite
Calcite
Calcite
Calcite
Calcite

S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
P?
P?S
S

193211
171181
171185
199203
190195
178200
175216
191198
155174
164197
185198
163166

(10)
(4)
(17)
(9)
(7)
(5)
(7)
(5)
(6)
(8)
(13)
(7)

199
178
182
200
193
186
198
197
160
193
195
165

0.5 to 1.1
0.6
0.4 to 0.5
0.6 to 0.8
0.8 to 1.0
0.5 to 4.7
0.7 to 0.8
0.3 to 0.4
0.4 to 0.5
0.4 to 0.6
0.3 to 0.5
0.8 to 1.0

(5)
(2)
(7)
(5)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(2)
(4)
(5)
(4)
(5)

0.9
0.6
0.5
0.7
0.8
2.3
0.8
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.9
0.9

0.9 to 1.9
1.1
0.70.9
1.11.4
1.41.7
0.97.5
1.21.4
0.50.7
0.70.9
0.7 to 1.1
0.5 to 0.9
1.4 to 1.6

Open pit
46666
46667a
46667a
46667b
46667b
46668
46669a
46669b
46670

Platy calcite
Platy calcite
Platy calcite
Quartz
Quartz
Platy calcite
Calcite
Platy calcite
Quartz

P?S
P
S
S
S
P?S
P
P
S

175202
180189
165177
191204
137170
163190
191195
191192
171188

(4)
(22)
(4)
(11)
(16)
(6)
(17)
(3)
(6)

185
181
171
193
156
179
192
192
179

0.3 to 0.4
0.0 to 0.3
ND
0.0 to 0.2
ND
0.2 to 0.3
0.5 to 0.7
0.1 to 0.2
0.2 to 0.6

(3)
(12)

0.3
0.2

0.50.7
0.00.5

(4)

0.1

0.00.7

(4)
(3)
(2)
(2)

0.2
0.6
0.1
0.4

0.40.5
0.91.1
0.20.4
0.41.1

Underground
464942
465002
465012
465022
465052
465152
465182
465212
46671
46672
476303
476323
476343

Quartz (EVS)
Quartz (EVS)
Quartz (EVS)
Quartz (EVS)
Quartz (EVS)
Quartz (EVS)
Calcite
Quartz (EVS)
Calcite
Platy calcite
Calcite
Calcite
Flatten calcite

S
P/S
P/S
P/S
S
P
P
P
S
P?
S
P
P

171188
176200
175230
166204
159180
168202
191202
185240
186198
185240
190260
186215
94122

(6)
(20)
(13)
(18)
(5)
(12)
(11)
(7)
(10)
(7)
(30)
(36)
(9)

180
190
200
183
172
186
197
217
192
217
230
210
109

0.7 to 0.8
0.2 to 0.8
1.2 to 1.4
0.3 to 0.8
1.0 to 1.2
0.7 to 1.0
2.0 to 2.4
0.9 to 1.0
0.2 to 0.4
0.5 to 0.6
0.0 to 0.2
0.2 to 0.6
0.0 to 0.1

(2)
(8)
(5)
(8)
(3)
(9)
(5)
(2)
(4)
(2)
(17)
(10)
(7)

0.7
0.5
1.3
0.6
1.1
0.8
2.2
0.9
0.3
0.5
0.1
0.4
0.0

1.21.4
0.41.4
2.12.4
0.51.4
1.72.1
1.21.7
3.44.0
1.61.7
0.40.7
0.91.1
0.00.4
0.41.1
0.00.2

Comments

Tm = 0.5, 0.5, 3.4, 4.7

S inclusions along 2
different healed fractures

Coexisting L>V and V >L

Inclusions measured for
2 different quartz crystals
Coexisting L>V and V>L
Inclusions in growth zone

Notes: Th = homogenization temperature, Tm = ice-melting temperature, P = primary fluid inclusions, S = secondary fluid inclusions, EVS = Empire vein
system, L = liquid, V = vapor, L > V = liquid-rich inclusions, V > L = vapor-rich inclusions, ND = not determined
1
Wt percent NaCl equiv calculated from Bodnar (1993)
2
Data from Simpson, C. (1996)
3
Data from Begbie (1997)

hydrothermal system and its evolution. Here, we extend the

earlier work of de Ronde and Blattner (1988) by interpreting
the presence and effect of steam-heated CO2-rich waters on
the distribution and timing of hydrothermal mineral deposition at Golden Cross.
Composition of inclusion fluids
The liquid trapped in fluid inclusions provides the only direct
samples of waters from which the quartz and calcite veins were
deposited. The composition of the trapped liquid can be estimated from the temperature of final ice melting. However,
these estimates are complicated by the possibility that the final
ice-melting temperature could be affected by the presence of
dissolved gases (dominantly CO2), dissolved salts (expressed
as wt % NaCl equiv), or a combination of the two (Hedenquist
and Henley, 1985). Assuming that the trapped liquid consists only of water and dissolved NaCl, the final ice-melting
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00

temperature range (0.0 to 4.7C) corresponds to salinities

of up to 7.4 wt percent NaCl equiv (Bodnar, 1993). However,
over 95 percent of the inclusions have apparent salinities of
less than 2.4 wt percent NaCl equiv (Fig 15).
Hedenquist and Henley (1985) show that the principal
solute contributing to the freezing point depression of inclusion fluids from several New Zealand geothermal systems is
aqueous CO2. As gas hydrates were not seen in these samples,
the maximum possible concentration of aqueous CO2 is 3.5
wt percent, which corresponds to a Tm of 1.5C (Hedenquist
and Henley, 1985). Crushing studies of calcite and platy calcite indicate the presence of 0.35 wt percent CO2, which
would depress the Tm by at least 0.15C. The Tm values of
0.2 to 1.4C suggest that up to 3.3 wt percent CO2 could
be present in a very low salinity liquid (Fig 15).
A few of the quartz-hosted fluid inclusions from this study and
that of de Ronde and Blattner (1988) have apparent salinities

790

791

GOLDEN CROSS EPITHERMAL Au-Ag DEPOSIT, NEW ZEALAND

Platy Calcite (n = 46)

Quartz (n = 130)
Calcite (n = 195)

30

20

10

50

100

150

200

250

300

Temperature of homogenization (C)

Composition of hydrothermal waters from

alteration mineral assemblages
The hydrothermal alteration mineral assemblage of quartz,
adularia, chlorite, illite, calcite, and pyrite in the Empire zone
reflects formation from a near-neutral to weakly alkaline pH
chloride water (Table 5). This water is the dominant fluid type
in many active hydrothermal systems. It originates from
deeply circulating meteoric water that is heated and then ascends from several kilometers depth (Henley and Ellis,
1983). The abundance of calcite and the absence of calcium
zeolites (e.g., laumontite and wairakite) further indicate that
these chloride waters contained appreciable concentrations
of dissolved CO2 (Browne and Ellis, 1970), up to 3.5 wt percent as evidenced from fluid inclusion studies. Gas loss

Number of inclusions

14

Platy Calcite (n = 23)

Quartz (n = 53)
Calcite (n = 87)

-4.0

-3.2

-2.4

-1.6

-0.8

0.0

Temperature of final ice melting (C)

FIG. 14. Fluid inclusion histogram plot of final ice-melting temperature

vs. number of inclusions for quartz, platy calcite, and late barren calcite from
the Empire zone.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00

Quartz (n = 53)

-3.0

5.0
4.0

-2.0
3.0
2.0

-1.0

1.0
0.0

0.0

100

150

200

250

300

Temperature of homogenization (C)

of 5.6 to 14.2 wt percent NaCl equiv. Although these unusually saline inclusion fluids could have derived from a magma
(Simmons, 1995), their rare occurrence suggests that they
more likely formed by local open-system boiling to near dryness (Simmons and Browne, 1997; Scott and Watanabe, 1998).

-4.8

6.0

Platy Calcite (n = 23)

50

FIG. 13. Fluid inclusion histogram plot of homogenization temperature

vs. number of inclusions for quartz, platy calcite, and late barren calcite from
the Empire zone.

10

7.0

Calcite (n = 87)

-4.0

Wt.% NaCl equivalent

Number of inclusions

40

Temperature of final ice melting (C)

-5.0

FIG. 15. Fluid inclusion plot of Th vs. Tm for individual inclusions in

quartz, platy calcite, and late barren calcite from the Empire zone, Golden
Cross deposit. The shaded area represents Tm values that can be accounted
for by up to 3.5 wt percent CO2 (the max concentration of CO2 before
clathrate forms).

(mainly CO2 and H2S) and cooling due to boiling led to the
direct deposition of platy calcite and adularia in veins and the
formation of replacement adularia (Browne and Ellis, 1970;
Simmons and Browne, 2000). These minerals all indicate
high permeability (Browne and Ellis, 1970; Browne, 1978;
Simmons and Browne, 2000).
The mineral assemblage of replacement calcite, siderite,
smectite, illite-smectite, and kaolinite formed from CO2-rich
steam-heated water (Table 5) similar to that at the Broadlands-Ohaaki geothermal system (Hedenquist, 1990; Simmons and Browne, 2000; Simmons et al., 2000). At Broadlands-Ohaaki, peripheral CO2-rich steam-heated water
originates through deep boiling of chloride waters from which
CO2 gas partitions into steam. Condensation of this steam,
and absorption of the CO2 into cool ground waters at shallow
depths and on the margins of the system, generates a CO2rich steam-heated water (Hedenquist and Stewart, 1985),
with CO2 concentrations up to 2.2 wt percent (Hedenquist,
1990). These waters then react with the rocks to generate the
assemblage of low-temperature clays and carbonates (Hedenquist, 1990; Simmons and Browne, 2000). Furthermore, if
the CO2-rich waters are close to calcite saturation, slight heating will result in the precipitation of calcite due to its retrograde solubility (Simmons and Christenson, 1994).
A third water type, steam-heated acid-sulfate water (Table
5), commonly occurs above the boiling upflow zone and
forms in the vadose zone by oxidation of H2S gas (Schoen et
al., 1974; Rye et al., 1992). This steam-heated acid-sulfate
water reacts with host rocks to produce kaolinite, with cristobalite, alunite, pyrite, and native sulfur (Schoen et al., 1974).
At Golden Cross, abundant kaolinite, together with pyrite,
was exposed throughout the open pit. Alunite and native sulfur, however, were observed at only one location, perhaps
caused by a very local and shallow, steam-heated acid-sulfate
water. Most of this shallow alteration style may have been
eroded from the top of the system prior to eruption of the
Whakamoehau Andesite.

791

792

SIMPSON ET AL.
TABLE 5. Comparison of Hydrothermal Water Types and Hydrothermal Alteration
Alkali chloride waters

Steam-heated CO2-rich waters

Steam-heated acid-sulfate waters

Alteration minerals1,2,3

Adularia, quartz, chlorite, platy calcite,

replacement calcite, illite, interstratified
I-S, titanite, pyrite, marcasite

Calcite, replacement calcite, siderite,

smectite, interstratified I-S, kaolinite

Kaolinite, alunite, native sulfur,

opal, pyrite

Source1,2,3

Deep circulating meteoric ground water

Condensation of steam and gas into

marginal and shallow ground water

Oxidation of H2S in the vadose

zone

Chloride (ppm)1

4001,800

low <100

Nil

Metals

Au, Ag, As, Sb, Hg, Zn, Pb, Se, Tl

Barren of metals

Barren of metals

Temperature (C) 1,2

180300+

<100200

100130+

pHt1

Near neutral
6.07.5

Weakly acidic
5.06.0

Highly acidic
<2.03.0

Occurrence1,2,3

Upflow zone and outflows from

upflow zone

Periphery of system, marginal to

upflow zone

Near water table above the

upflow zone

Discharge1

Boiling springs, geysers, (silica sinter)

Warm hot springs (travertine)

Boiling mud pools (dissolution

craters)

1Henley

and Hedenquist (1986)

Hedenquist (1990)
3
Simmons and Browne (2000)
2

Most fluid inclusions in quartz and calcite veins at Golden

Cross homogenize between 160 to 240C. The hotter values
most likely represent the temperatures during main-stage ore
deposition, with the Empire vein system forming at temperatures between 190 and 240C (Simpson, C., 1996). Late calcite veins formed between 160 and 220C (Simpson, M.,
1996; Simmons et al., 2000).
There is a well-developed zonation of clay minerals, with illite at depth and close to the veins, that grades outward and
upward into illite-smectite, with smectite occurring ~600 m
east of the Empire vein system. This scale of zonation is similar to that in geothermal systems where clay mineralogy correlates with temperature; illite forms at temperatures above
220C, illite-smectite between 150 and 220C, and smectite
below 150C (e.g., Steiner, 1968; Reyes, 1990). Thus, the
overall clay zonation at Golden Cross reflects temperature
gradients (~150 to >220C) that extend over ~600 m, from
the periphery to the center of the Empire vein system.
However, variations in clay mineralogy occur in drill core
and underground workings over the scale of meters to tens of
meters, with more crystalline clay minerals associated with
fractures. Heterogeneities also occur in the hand-sample,
thin-section, and even TEM scales, with pore-filling clay minerals typically more crystalline or in the case of illite-smectite,
have greater amounts of illite than the matrix-replacing clay
minerals (Tillick et al., 1999, 2001).
To help evaluate the relative importance of temperature in
controlling clay occurrences, we modeled the time required
for rocks with an initial temperature of 140C to conductively
heat up around a fracture filled with 230C fluid (Turcotte
and Schubert, 1982). This is a conservative case, as conductive
heating is slower than convective heating. Most geothermal
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systems have a time span of 10,000 to 100,000 yr or longer

(e.g., Browne, 1978), but this time period would result in
heating of the rocks to 220C or more over most of the area
around the Empire vein system (Fig. 16). This strongly suggests that temperature differences alone cannot account for
the variations in clay mineralogy that are observed over the
tens of meters to hand-sample to thin-section scales.
Studies elsewhere show that clay mineral transitions clearly
reflect changes in chemistry (e.g., Turner and Fishman, 1991)
or intensity of water-rock interactions (e.g., Essene and Peacor, 1995; Li et al., 1997) and do not depend on temperature.
At Golden Cross, we believe the illite-smectite in the middle
member breccia and in localized hard bars, volcanic breccias,
and pyroclastic rocks at depth are examples of such effects. In
250

Temperature ( C)

Temperatures of vein formation and alteration

200

150
1 year
10 years
100 years
1,000 years
10,000 years
100,000 years

100
1

10

100

1000

Distance from fracture (m)

FIG. 16. Temperature vs. log distance from a vein, showing the time that
it would take for rocks to heat solely by conduction.

792

GOLDEN CROSS EPITHERMAL Au-Ag DEPOSIT, NEW ZEALAND

these instances, the primary control on clay mineral transitions is best interpreted in terms of permeability and therefore clay minerals here may not accurately reflect paleotemperatures (Simpson et al., 1998; Tillick et al., 1999).
Depth of mineralization and position of the paleowater table
The depth of the deposit has been estimated using alteration mineralogy and fluid inclusion data. Low-temperature
alteration minerals at Golden Cross are similar to those
formed in the shallow parts (<400-m depth) of geothermal
systems (Browne, 1978; Henley and Ellis, 1983; Simmons and
Browne; 2000). The formation depth of veins below the paleowater table was assessed from the trapping temperature of
fluid inclusions in two platy calcite samples (46667a and
46669b; Fig. 17). Coexisting liquid- and vapor-rich fluid inclusions and the platy habit of the calcite are evidence of boiling. Consequently, the Th data represent the temperature of
trapping and obviate the need for pressure corrections. Based
on an average Th of 181 and 194C, and nearly zero salinities, samples 46667a and 46669b formed at approximately 10
and 14 bars, respectively (Haas, 1971). Under hydrostatic
conditions these pressures indicate that the paleowater table
occurred at a minimum of 55 to 85 m above the preWhakamoehau Andesite erosional unconformity (Fig. 17).
However, from Henrys law (PCO2 = XCO2KH, where XCO2 is
mole fraction), the presence of 0.35 wt percent CO2 (the minimum concentration for inclusions whose bubble completely
500

485 m RSL

440 m RSL

400

100

300
200

200

200

Present elevation (m.r.s.l.)

46669b

46667a

300
Empire
vein
system

300

400

Frequency

Depth below the paleowater table (m)

100

20

Inclusion
histogram
0

100

Inclusions hosted in:

Calcite
Quartz

100

140

180

220

260

Temperature ( C)

FIG. 17. Fluid inclusion histograms of Th for primary and secondary inclusions plotted as a function of sample depth (m r.s.l.). The hydrostatic boiling point for depth curves for pure water (Haas, 1971) are positioned to intersect two platy calcite samples that show evidence of boiling.
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793

fills the inclusion when crushed) contributes about 9 bars to

the above pressure values, indicating that the paleowater
table could have been 180 to 220 m above the preWhakamoehau Andesite erosional unconformity. There is
some uncertainly about these depth estimates because the gas
concentrations of the inclusion fluids are poorly constrained.
Nevertheless, the minor amount of erosion inferred from
these paleodepths (50 to a max of 200 m) is largely attributed
to the postmineralization deposition of the Whakamoehau
Andesite cover, which prevented erosion of the deposit.
Evolution of the Golden Cross hydrothermal system
The earliest hydrothermal activity produced barren quartz
and pyrite veinlets in joints of competent lava flows. Ore mineralization occurred in two stages during which the Empire
vein system and stockwork formed. Temporal relationships
(Caddey et al., 1995) suggest that the Empire vein system
formed before the stockwork ore was deposited (Fig. 18A).
Hydrothermal alteration adjacent to the veins in the central
upflow zone is intense, with primary igneous minerals completely replaced by hydrothermal minerals, indicating that
the rocks were very permeable and subject to a large throughput of fluid. The alteration assemblage of quartz, adularia,
chlorite, illite, calcite, and pyrite that envelops the Empire
vein system and the shallow stockwork formed from upwelling, near-neutral pH to weakly alkaline chloride waters
that initially contained appreciable amounts of dissolved
gases, mainly CO2 and H2S. Dilation of the Empire fault and
subsequent fractures in the stockwork created conduits that
channeled chloride water, which deposited colloform-banded
quartz veins of the Empire vein system and crustiformbanded veins of the shallow stockwork (Fig. 18A). The gases
exsolved during boiling ascended with steam to shallow
depths where they condensed into peripheral ground water to
form CO2-rich and locally acid-sulfate steam-heated waters,
the latter forming in the vadose zone (Fig. 18A). These
steam-heated waters remained peripheral to the upflowing
chloride water due to the buoyancy of the thermal plume and
reacted with the wall rock at sub-boiling temperatures to
form a discontinuous carapace of illite-smectite and kaolinite.
Replacement of adularia by illite, particularly at the southern
extent of the Empire vein system, is interpreted to reflect incursion of steam-heated CO2-rich water. Cooling of the chloride water by mixing with steam-heated CO2-rich water potentially suppressed boiling, decreased the pH, and caused
the fluid composition to shift from adularia to illite stability,
similar to that noted in geothermal systems (Hedenquist and
Browne, 1989; Simmons and Browne, 2000).
Decline and collapse of the hydrothermal system permitted
peripheral steam-heated CO2-rich waters to descend and invade the former zone of upflow (Fig. 18B). Conductive heating caused these waters to deposit calcite in late barren veins.
The local occurrence of platy calcite on the selvages of some
veins suggests that the descending fluid may have initially
boiled (Simmons et al., 2000). The steam-heated water also
reacted with the wall rock to produce the overprint assemblage of calcite, with or without siderite, illite-smectite, smectite, and kaolinite. Based on the distribution of late barren
calcite veins, replacement calcite, and low-temperature clays,
steam-heated CO2-rich waters appear to have been dominant

793

794

SIMPSON ET AL.

5050m N

A
100m

220

100m

220

4850m N

50m

II
220

I
4650m N
Paleowater table
~440 m r.s.l.
Erosion surface

Au-Ag mineralization

220

220

Zone of boiling

II

Openpit
stockwork

II

Empire vein system

5050m N

4850m N

4650m N

Paleowater table
~440 m r.s.l.
Erosion surface

LEGEND
Alkali chloride waters
Steam-heated CO2 waters
Direction of fluid flow

FIG. 18. Schematic diagram depicting the evolution of hydrothermal activity at the Golden Cross deposit. A. Mineralization occurred in two stages during which time the Empire vein system (I) and open stockwork formed (II). Wall-rock alteration adjacent to the veins is intense and characterized by the assemblage of quartz, adularia, chlorite, illite, calcite, and
pyrite. Contemporaneously, on the margins, steam-heated CO2 rich produced a carapace of illite-smectite. The 220C
isotherm is based on the boundary between illite and illite-smectite. B. Cooling resulted in the collapse of the convecting hydrothermal system and permitted peripheral steam-heated CO2-rich waters to invade the former zone of fluid upflow. Steamheated CO2-rich waters that descended fractures heated to produce late barren calcite veins. These waters also reacted with
the wall rock to generate the late-stage clay-carbonate overprint. Local steam-heated acid-sulfate waters (not shown) produced kaolinite, pyrite, and alunite at shallow levels.
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794

GOLDEN CROSS EPITHERMAL Au-Ag DEPOSIT, NEW ZEALAND

in the south and less dominant in the north. Although late

kaolinite plus pyrite veinlets may have formed from the
steam-heated CO2-rich waters, it is most likely that these
veinlets formed from descending steam-heated acid-sulfate
waters (de Ronde and Blattner, 1988), as supported by the
presence of local alunite and native sulfur at shallow levels.
Postmineralization emplacement of the Whakamoehau Andesite has effectively prevented erosion, thereby preserving
most of the Golden Cross deposit.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge Coeur Gold New
Zealand Ltd. for providing unlimited access to the Golden
Cross mine and permission to publish this manuscript. We
thank Andrew Purvis, Alan McOnie, Peter White, Paul
Rutherford, Peter Keall, Steve Barbar, Valdimer David, Warren Cook, and Peter Mitchell for access to unpublished geological cross sections and discussions in the field. Chris Simpson and Mike Begbie provided some of the fluid inclusion
data. Bob Seal provided sulfur isotope analyses of alunite and
pyrite and Manfred Hochstein helped with heat flow calculation. We thank Chris Simpson, Mike Begbie, Paul Hoskin,
Wolfgang Irber, Rene Wagner, and David Tillick for helpful
discussions.
Financial support was provided by Coeur Gold New
Zealand Ltd., the Foundation of Research, Science and Technology (FRST), and the University of Auckland. Finally we
thank Patrick Browne, Jeff Hedenquist, Don Hudson, Noel
White, and an anonymous referee for constructive reviews
that have improved the paper.
August 5, 2000; February 12, 2001
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