SECTION-1

Q1.

Examine the various stages of policy cycle.

Policy can be defined as planned action of an entity whether individual, or a public or private
institution to achieve a specific objective within the context of an environment. Policy
formulation is pre-requisite for all types of management. It is a continuous process. Policy cycle
continues to be the basis for both the analysis of the policy process and of analysis for the policy
process. The policy cycle is discussed as given in the following figure.
The four important parameters which are
necessary for the policy cycle are:

Inputs, which represent needs and

demands.

Processes, which provide for long

term care services

Outputs, in terms of use of these

services

Outcomes, that identify the end

results

The various stages involved in policy cycle

are as follows:
1. Identifying the underlying problem
The first step is to identify whether there exists a problem at all. The problem should be
defined in more substantial terms. The objectives which will be accomplished are to be
ascertained, if the problem is solved.
2. Determining Alternatives for Policy Choice
The proper form of governmental intervention should be identified which suits the
condition most. Often it is seen as a mechanical exercise and adequate attention is not
paid to the proper alternatives.
3. Forecasting and Evaluating the Alternatives
Evaluate consequences of each of the alternatives, develop a decision tree and evaluate
the probability of each outcome.
4. Making a choice
The last step in policy analysis is to identify the preferred course of action after choosing
among the alternatives. It may be a simple or complex process depending upon the
feedback of forecasting techniques. So improving the forecasting techniques for

predicting the consequences of the various courses of action is a must to make the policy
analysis process more relevant and fast.
5. Policy Implementation
The success of government in achieving the developmental goals can be measured only
by the implementation of public policies. Implementation is the phase between policy
statement and operation. It seeks to determine whether an organization is able to carry out
and achieve the stated objectives of its policies.
6. Policy Monitoring
Monitoring is essentially a subset of the implementation process. It serves as an important
feedback for the management to take corrective action if things dont proceed the way
they were planned. Effective monitoring results in substantial cost reduction, time saving
and effective resource utilization.
7. Policy Outcomes
The concept of outcomes lays stress on what actually happens to the target groups
intended to be affected by the policy. If the intended changes on the target groups do not
occur, something is wrong.
8. Policy Evaluation
Policy evaluation is the final stage in policy process. Evaluation means to know what
happens when policy is put into action. It is the assessment of the overall effectiveness of
a programme in meeting its objectives, or assessment of the relative effectiveness of
programmes in meeting the expected objectives.
9. Policy Structuring
There is a need for structuring the overall process of policy making. This requires
adequate information, feedback, resources and political will.
The used of policy cycle can bring benefits to the analysis of public policy. Perhaps more
attention could be paid to implementation and policy evaluation.
Q2.

Define Inter-Governmental Relations and discuss its role in policy-making.

Federalism divides the sovereignty of the state between a central government and regional
governments. Inter-Governmental relations as a phrase describing the character of federalism
was first used by Snider. William Anderson explained Intergovernmental Relations (IGR) an
important body of activities or interactions occurring between governmental units of all types
and levels within the federal system.
Indeed, intergovernmental relations (IGR) is the workhorse of any federal system; it is the
privileged instrument by which the job - whatever the job - gets done. It is the complex network
of day-to-day interrelationships among the governments within a federal system. It is the
political, fiscal, programmatic, and administrative processes by which higher units of

government share revenues and other resources with lower units of government, generally
accompanied by special conditions that the lower units must satisfy as prerequisites to receiving
the assistance. Such relations reflect the basic constitutional framework that links the levels of
government, as well as dynamic contemporary factors including relative power, financial
strengths, ethnic divisions, geographical factors, and so on.
The Indian federation has a built in bias in favour of the Union with great vertical imbalances in
the resources and responsibilities at the state level and at the local government level. The centre
has the authority to initiate legislation in the Parliament on policy matters included in the
concurrent list to obtain all-India uniformity.
The 73rd/74th Constitutional Amendments have added part IX and Part IXA to the Indian
Constitution creating a third stratum of government with a three-tier system for the Panchayati
Raj Institutions. This virtually turned the Indian federation into a multi-level federal system with
a multi-level public finance increasing importance for multi-governance. Indeed, it was a major
effort towards fiscal decentralization creating democratic space for peoples participation and
working towards local democratic governance.
UNION-STATE relations in India have enlarged into an extended network of organisations and
agencies. A surrogate Inter-State Council was set up by the Nehru Government in 1952 in the
National Development Council (NDC) for Union-State clearance of Five Year Plans and to look
into related issues of economic development in the country.
In Inter-governmental relations, the office of the Governor is highly contentious and has
allegedly been repeatedly misused to facilitate central intervention in the affairs of states.
Another major area of conflict is the power of creating new All-India Services which has been
vested in the Rajya Sabha. Control over the All-India Services is another irritant. The centre
recruits and appoints members of the All-India Services, through the Union Public Service
Commission (UPSC).
India is a unique cooperative federalism. Local governments are now an integral part of India.
They have tremendous potential for bottom up planning. To make them viable, components
cannot be achieved except through deliberate policy choices and fostering supportive measures.
It is easy to get lost in the technicalities of these processes, and to concentrate analysis on the
structures and mechanisms by which intergovernmental competition is regulated or
intergovernmental cooperation is fostered. IGR is a central fact of modern political life - not just
in federations - and it is likely to become more so in the years ahead. Democratizing IGR is one
of the central challenges confronting governance at the end of the century.
Q5.

Write short notes on the following in 250 words:

a) Stratified and Cluster sampling

The National Development Council (NDC) was set up on 6 August, 1952 by an executive
order of the Government of India with the following three objectives:
i.

to strengthen and mobilise the effort and resources of the nation in support of the
national development plans;

ii.

to promote common economic policies in all vital spheres, and

iii.

to ensure the balanced and rapid development of all parts of the country.

COMPOSITION:
The NDC is composed of the following members:
i.

Prime Minister of India

ii.

All Union Cabinet ministers

iii.

Chief Ministers of all states

iv.

Chief Ministers/administrators of all union territories

v.

Members of the Planning Commission

The secretary of the Planning commission acts as the secretary to the NDC.
The functions of the NDC are:

To prescribe guidelines for the formulation of the National Plan, including the
assessment of resources for the plan;

to consider the National Plan as formulated by the Planning Commission;

To make an assessment of the resources that are required for implementing the Plan and
to suggest measures for augmenting them.

to consider important questions of social and economic policy affecting national

development;

to review the working of the Plan from item to time and

to recommend such measures as are necessary for achieving the aims and targets set out
in the National Plan, including measures to secure the active participation and cooperation of the people, improve the efficiency of the administrative services, ensure
the development of the less advanced regions and sections of the community and
through sacrifice borne equally by all citizens, build up resources for national
development.

b) Significance of Public Policy

Public policy is an important component of the democratic government, and its focus is on
the public and its problems. Public policies involve improving the democratic or political
capabilities of people and not simply the efficiency and effectiveness of the delivery of
services.
The significance of public policies can be gauged from the kind of role that the State adopts
for itself in a society. In the classical capitalist society, the State was assigned a limited role

and it was expected that the State would merely act as regulator of social and economic
activity, and not its promoter. However since the middle of the twentieth century the state has
come to be perceived as an active agent in promoting and shaping societies in its various
dimensions. Public policies expanded their scope.
In India, the Planning Commission, the National Development Council, and other
governmental agencies came into being. Wide-ranging policies were formulated in the area
of industrial and agricultural development, regulation and control of the private sector. Laws
also specified how the State agencies themselves were to provide goods and services like
electricity, transport, and so on. The government also undertook a maor responsibility in the
social sphere. The Dowry Prohibition Act (1961), the Equal Remuneration Act (1976), The
Child Marriage Restraint Act (1976) are some of the examples.
These days the policy analysis is acquiring a lot of importance in the realm of the study of
public administration. The highs and lows in the role of the state provide learning
experiences to the policy analyst. The policy analyst should also be open to new
conceptualisations and frameworks for analysis.
Q7.

Briefly analyse the different approaches to policy monitoring.

Monitoring does not mean control, it means a process of observing and to see that
implementation progresses with proper resource utilization. It serves as an important feedback
for the management as the management can take corrective action if things dont proceed the
way they were planned. Experience shows that effective monitoring results in substantial cost
reduction, time saving and effective resource utilization.
The various models/approaches employed in the monitoring of public policies are:
a) Managerial Approach
This Approach is the dominant operational paradigm in the realm of publc policies. This
has especially been the case after public sector has also adopted many of the techniques
employed in the private sector and a need for market friendly government is felt
widely. Some of these techniques are:

Activity Bar Chart

It is an important device for monitoring policy performance as it projects
expectations for policy result. The Activity Bar Chart plans each technical activity
by time and deliverable. It shows the dates by which those deliverables should be
completed.

Critical Path Method(CPM)

The CPM is a technique, which aims to identify those activities that are critical to
the successful implementation of a policy programme on time. A network is
drawn to show the starting period of the policy programme, and the estimated
time period involved in moving from one critical activity to another.

Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)

PERT is a technique which predicates that the duration of critical activities are
uncertain. It involves a graphic estimation of the time and resources necessary for
policy execution. The PERT analysis is often used in the implementation of largescale policy programmes where there is a high level of uncertainty surrounding
the completion of a policy programme.

Planning-Programming and Budgeting System (PPBS)

The PPBS approach seeks to set clear goals, outputs and values in the budgetary
process, and to create a system of analysis and review in which the costs and
benefits of policy programme could be calculated over several years. This
approach is based on the idea that an organisations activity can be viewed as the
production of defined products or outputs.

b) Systems Approach
While adopting this approach, the implementation gaps are analysed in the context of a
system. This system as a whole is responsible for the delivery of the programmes and
services. Systems Approach lays adequate stress on teamwork and emphasizes coordination and co-operation to achieve the objectives of public policies.
c) Formative Approach
Monitoring is formative evaluation of the implementation process of the programmes
according to this view. Its feedback is then given to the administration. Techniques such
as Management Information System (MIS) can be helpful in this evaluation of
implementation and creating channels for timely feedback. Computerization assisted by
MIS system helps a lot in proper functioning of this model.
d) Performance Measurement Approach
The performance indicators can be measured from time to time for various parameters to
know the deviation of the implementation progress from the desired levels. It helps in
knowing the efficiency and effectiveness of the policy delivery. The concept of
performance indicators can go a long way in improving the performance of governmental
institutions especially in social sector because profit is not a criterion of measuring its
efficiency as is done by the private sector.
Q10. Write short notes on the following in 250 words.
a) Stratified and Cluster Sampling
Stratified Sampling is the method in which a heterogeneous population is divided into
stratums. In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping
subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. The stratified
random sampling is in fact a simple random sampling of each stratum of the population. The
main advantage of stratified random sampling is that since the random sample is drawn from
each strum of the population, this method is more representative and thus represents more
accurately the characteristics of the population. The drawback of the stratified sampling is

that is more often difficult to prepare a list of population members for each stratum since the
list may not be readily available.
Cluster sampling divides the population into smaller groups called clusters and then select
samples randomly from one or more groups (clusters). The sample size must often be larger
than the simple random sample to ensure the same level of accuracy because cluster sampling
procedural potential for order bias and other sources of error is usually accentuated. Here we
assume each cluster of population will have all the characteristics of the population as a
whole. The cluster sampling is more appropriate in geographical studies. Selection of groups
or clusters of elements rather than individual elements is regarded as a more practical
approach to survey its samples. However, the accuracy of the survey may decline if the
clusters are not representative of the population characteristics. The cluster sampling is at
times also called a two-stage sampling.
b) Predictive/Prescriptive Analysis
Predictive policy analysis refers to the forecasting of future states resulting from the
implementation of particular policy alternatives. It utilizes a variety of statistical, modeling,
data mining, and machine learning techniques to study recent and historical data, thereby
allowing analysts to make predictions about the future. A very well-known application of
predictive analytics is credit scoring used by financial services to determine the likelihood of
customers making future credit payments on time. Determining such a risk profile requires a
vast amount of data, including pubic and social data. For predictive analytics, a properly
validated model in addition to the data is needed. The most important aspect of predictive
model is validation. Because anyone can build model, proper validation is the only way, with
certainty, if the models work.
Predictive analytics describes what will happen while prescriptive analytics describes what
should happen.
The prescriptive analysis recommends actions that result in particular outcome. Prescriptive
analytics is a type of predictive analytics. When the policy analysts are not sure about the
nature of solution to a problem or there is no programmed way of selecting a particular
solution among alternatives, then they may opt for prescriptive policy analysis. Prescriptive
analytics requires a predictive model with two additional components: actionable data and a
feedback system that tracks the outcome produced by the action taken. Here the policy
makers attitudes, preferences and beliefs may influence the selection of an option among
alternatives. Predictive analytics doesn't predict one possible future, but rather "multiple
futures" based on the decision-maker's actions.